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Xu L, Yang S, Wang L, Qiu J, Meng H, Zhang L, Sun W, He A. Association between pesticide exposure and thyroid function: analysis of Chinese and NHANES databases. Front Public Health 2024; 12:1378027. [PMID: 38939562 PMCID: PMC11210317 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1378027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Pesticides are widely used in agricultural activities. Although pesticide use is known to cause damage to the human body, its relationship with thyroid function remains unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the association between pesticide exposure and thyroid function. Methods The Chinese database used included 60 patients with pyrethroid poisoning and 60 participants who underwent health checkups between June 2022 and June 2023. The NHANES database included 1,315 adults enrolled from 2007 to 2012. The assessed pesticide and their metabolites included 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 4-fluoro-3-phenoxybenzoic acid (4F3PB), para-nitrophenol (PN), 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3P), and trans-dichlorovinyl-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid (TDDC). The evaluated indicators of thyroid function were measured by the blood from the included population. The relationship between pesticide exposure and thyroid function indexes was investigated using linear regression, Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR), restricted cubic spline (RCS), and weighted quantile sum (WQS) models. Results The Chinese data showed that pesticide exposure was negatively correlated with the thyroid function indicators FT4, TT4, TgAb, and TPOAb (all p < 0.05). The BKMR model analysis of the NHANES data showed that the metabolic mixture of multiple pesticides was negatively associated with FT4, TSH, and Tg, similar to the Chinese database findings. Additionally, linear regression analysis demonstrated positive correlations between 2,4-D and FT3 (p = 0.041) and 4F3PB and FT4 (p = 0.003), whereas negative associations were observed between 4F3PB and Tg (p = 0.001), 4F3PB and TgAb (p = 0.006), 3P and TgAB (p = 0.006), 3P and TPOAb (p = 0.03), PN and TSH (p = 0.003), PN and TT4 (p = 0.031), and TDDC and TPOAb (p < 0.001). RCS curves highlighted that most pesticide metabolites were negatively correlated with thyroid function indicators. Finally, WQS model analysis revealed significant differences in the weights of different pesticide metabolites on the thyroid function indexes. Conclusion There is a significant negative correlation between pesticide metabolites and thyroid function indicators, and the influence weights of different pesticide metabolites on thyroid function indicators are significantly different. More research is needed to further validate the association between different pesticide metabolites and thyroid disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leiming Xu
- Binhai County People's Hospital Affiliated to Kangda College of Nanjing Medical University, Yancheng, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shengkai Yang
- Binhai County People's Hospital Affiliated to Kangda College of Nanjing Medical University, Yancheng, Jiangsu, China
| | - Longqing Wang
- Binhai County People's Hospital Affiliated to Kangda College of Nanjing Medical University, Yancheng, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jinxin Qiu
- Binhai County People's Hospital Affiliated to Kangda College of Nanjing Medical University, Yancheng, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hai Meng
- Binhai County People's Hospital Affiliated to Kangda College of Nanjing Medical University, Yancheng, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lulu Zhang
- Binhai County People's Hospital Affiliated to Kangda College of Nanjing Medical University, Yancheng, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wenwen Sun
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, Changzhou Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Changzhou Medical Center, Nanjing Medical University, Changzhou, China
| | - Aifeng He
- Binhai County People's Hospital Affiliated to Kangda College of Nanjing Medical University, Yancheng, Jiangsu, China
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Wang X, Hao W. Reproductive and developmental toxicity of plant growth regulators in humans and animals. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 196:105640. [PMID: 37945238 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2023.105640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are currently one of the widely used pesticides, as being considered to have relatively low toxicity compared with other pesticides. However, widespread use may lead to overexposure from multiple sources. Exposure to PGRs is associated with different toxicity that affects many organs in our body, such as the toxicity to testis, ovaries, liver, kidneys and brain. In addition, some PGRs are considered potential endocrine disrupting chemicals. Evidence exists for development and reproductive toxicity associated with prenatal and postnatal exposure in both animals and humans. PGRs can affect the synthesis and secretion of sex hormones, destroy the structure and function of the reproductive system, and harm the growth and development of offspring, which may be related to germ cell cycle disorders, apoptosis and oxidative stress. This review summaries the reproductive and developmental toxicity data available about PGRs in mammals. In the future, conducting comprehensive epidemiological studies will be crucial for assessing the reproductive and developmental toxicity resulting from a mixture of various PGRs, with a particular emphasis on understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxia Wang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Weidong Hao
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing Key Laboratory of Toxicological Research and Risk Assessment for Food Safety, Beijing 100191, China.
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Demirel HH, Zemheri-Navruz F, Kucukkurt İ, Arslan-Acaroz D, Tureyen A, Ince S. Synergistic toxicity of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and arsenic alters biomarkers in rats. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2023; 12:574-583. [PMID: 37663805 PMCID: PMC10470338 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfad047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and arsenic cause severe and extensive biological toxicity in organisms. However, their interactions and toxic mechanisms in co-exposure remain to be fully elucidated. In this study, 28 four-week-old female rats were divided into four groups and exposed to 100 mg/L arsenic or/and 600 mg/L 2,4-D through drinking water for a period of 28 days. As a result, it was revealed that biochemical indicators (ALT, AST, ALP, blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine) were increased and decreased hormonal parameters (FSH, LH, PG, and E2) in arsenic and 2,4-D and arsenic combination-treated groups. Moreover, increased lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde level) and decreased antioxidant status (superoxide dismutase and catalase activities) were found in the co-exposure groups compared with the individual-exposure groups. Meanwhile, severe DNA damage was observed in co-exposure groups. Additionally, the levels of apoptotic (Bax, Caspase-3, Caspase-8, Caspase-9, p53, and PARP) and inflammation (NFκB, Cox-2, TNF-α, and TGFβI) indexes in the co-exposure groups were markedly increased, whereas the levels of anti-apoptosis index (Bcl-2) were decreased. It was also observed that co-exposure with 2,4-D and arsenic caused more histopathological changes in tissues. Generally, these results show that co-exposure to 2,4-D and arsenic can seriously cause oxidative stress, DNA damage, apoptosis and inflammation while having toxicological risk for organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fahriye Zemheri-Navruz
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Bartın University, Faculty of Science, Bartın 74110, Turkey
| | - İsmail Kucukkurt
- Department of Biochemistry, Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Afyonkarahisar 03200, Turkey
| | - Damla Arslan-Acaroz
- Department of Biochemistry, Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Afyonkarahisar 03200, Turkey
| | - Ali Tureyen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Ministry of Health Eskisehir City Hospital, Eskisehir 26080, Turkey
| | - Sinan Ince
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Afyonkarahisar 03200, Turkey
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Minami K, Suto H, Sato A, Ogata K, Kosaka T, Hojo H, Takahashi N, Tomiyama N, Fukuda T, Iwashita K, Aoyama H, Yamada T. Feasibility study for a downsized comparative thyroid assay with measurement of brain thyroid hormones and histopathology in rats: Case study with 6-propylthiouracil and sodium phenobarbital at high dose. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2022; 137:105283. [PMID: 36372265 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2022.105283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Concern has been raised that thyroid hormone disruptors (THDs) may potentially interfere with the developing brain, but effects of mild suppression of maternal THs by environmental contaminants on neonatal brain development are not fully understood. The comparative thyroid assay (CTA) is a screening test for offspring THDs, but it requires several animals and is criticized that reliance on serum THs alone as predictive markers of brain malfunction is inadequate. To verify feasibility of the downsized CTA but additional examination of brain THs levels and histopathology, we commenced internal-validation studies. This paper presents the data of the study where 6-propylthiouracil (6-PTU, 10 ppm) and sodium phenobarbital (NaPB, 1000 ppm) were dosed by feeding from gestational days (GD)6-20, and from GD6 to lactation day 21. The modified CTA detected 6-PTU-induced severe (>70%) suppression of serum THs in dams, with >50% suppressed serum/brain TH levels in offspring and brain heterotopia in postnatal day 21 pups. The modified CTA also detected NaPB-induced mild (<35%) suppression of serum THs in dams, with mild (<35%) reduction of serum/brain TH levels in fetuses but not in pups. These findings suggest that the modified CTA may have a potential as a screening test for offspring THDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenta Minami
- Environmental Health Science Laboratory, Sumitomo Chemical Company, Ltd., 3-1-98, Kasugade-naka 3-chome, Konohana-ku, Osaka, 554-8558, Japan
| | - Hidenori Suto
- Environmental Health Science Laboratory, Sumitomo Chemical Company, Ltd., 3-1-98, Kasugade-naka 3-chome, Konohana-ku, Osaka, 554-8558, Japan
| | - Akira Sato
- Institute of Environmental Toxicology, 4321, Uchimoriya-machi, Joso-shi, Ibaraki, 303-0043, Japan
| | - Keiko Ogata
- Environmental Health Science Laboratory, Sumitomo Chemical Company, Ltd., 3-1-98, Kasugade-naka 3-chome, Konohana-ku, Osaka, 554-8558, Japan
| | - Tadashi Kosaka
- Institute of Environmental Toxicology, 4321, Uchimoriya-machi, Joso-shi, Ibaraki, 303-0043, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Hojo
- Institute of Environmental Toxicology, 4321, Uchimoriya-machi, Joso-shi, Ibaraki, 303-0043, Japan
| | - Naofumi Takahashi
- Institute of Environmental Toxicology, 4321, Uchimoriya-machi, Joso-shi, Ibaraki, 303-0043, Japan
| | - Naruto Tomiyama
- Institute of Environmental Toxicology, 4321, Uchimoriya-machi, Joso-shi, Ibaraki, 303-0043, Japan
| | - Takako Fukuda
- Bioscience Research Laboratory, Sumitomo Chemical Company, Ltd., 3-1-98 Kasugade-naka, Konohana-ku, Osaka, 554-8558, Japan
| | - Katsumasa Iwashita
- Environmental Health Science Laboratory, Sumitomo Chemical Company, Ltd., 3-1-98, Kasugade-naka 3-chome, Konohana-ku, Osaka, 554-8558, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Aoyama
- Institute of Environmental Toxicology, 4321, Uchimoriya-machi, Joso-shi, Ibaraki, 303-0043, Japan
| | - Tomoya Yamada
- Environmental Health Science Laboratory, Sumitomo Chemical Company, Ltd., 3-1-98, Kasugade-naka 3-chome, Konohana-ku, Osaka, 554-8558, Japan.
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Zaher AR, AL-Rekabi FM, Akram Hatif S. Some Teratogenic Outcomes in Rats Exposed to Zinc Chloride Pre and Post Pregnancy. THE IRAQI JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 2022. [DOI: 10.30539/ijvm.v45i2.1261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of present study was to evaluate the possibility of teratogenicity in rats when exposed to zinc chloride (ZnCl2) pre and post pregnancy. To achieve this goal, a total of 40 mature Albino Wistar female rats were divided equally into four groups as follows: T1, dosed 0.7 mg/day ZnCl2 for two months before mating and till to the day 5th of pregnancy, the females of this group were mated with males dosed 0.7 mg/day ZnCl2 for two weeks before mating; T2, dosed 0.7 mg/day ZnCl2 for two months before mating and till to the day 16th of pregnancy and then were mated with control males (not exposed to any level of ZnCl2); T3, dosed 0.7mg/day ZnCl2 for two months before mating and till the end of pregnancy and were mated with control males; Control, dosed with water free from ZnCl2 along the period of experiment and were mated with control males. At the end of each pregnancy phase, results revealed that alpha fetoprotein serum levels were significantly (P<0.05) higher in all treatment groups compared to the control group, and the most prominent increase was observed in the T3 group. All treatment groups showed a significant (P<0.05) decrease in gestation, viability, and lactation indices when compared to the control group, with the T3 group showing the most significant decrease. Additionally, on days 1, 4, 7, 14, and 21 of lactation period, there was a significant (P<0.05) decrease in mean pup body weights in treated groups compared to the control group, with T3 group having the most prominent body weight decrease. The findings of this study revealed that ZnCl2 at a daily dose of 0.7 mg may cause teratogenic defects in rats at various stages of pregnancy, particularly at the third stage. As high-risk groups, pregnant women and children should use Zn supplementation carefully, whether as a food additive or for self-medication. Simultaneously, evaluating effect of low-dose Zn supplementation over a longer duration is required.
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Integrating toxicokinetics into toxicology studies and the human health risk assessment process for chemicals: Reduced uncertainty, better health protection. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2021; 128:105092. [PMID: 34863906 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2021.105092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The database of practical examples where toxicokinetic (TK) data has benefitted all stages of the human health risk assessment process are increasingly being published and accepted. This review aimed to highlight and summarise notable examples and to describe the "state of the art" in this field. The overall recommendation is that for any in vivo animal study conducted, measurements of TK should be very carefully considered for inclusion as the numerous benefits this brings continues to grow, particularly during the current march towards animal free toxicology testing and ambitions to eventually conduct human health risk assessments entirely based upon non-animal methods.
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7
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Cohen SM, Zhongyu Y, Bus JS. Relevance of mouse lung tumors to human risk assessment. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2020; 23:214-241. [PMID: 32452303 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2020.1763879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Mouse lung is a common site for chemical tumorigenicity, but the relevance to human risk remains debated. Long-term bioassays need to be assessed for appropriateness of the dose, neither exceeding Maximum Tolerated Dose (MTD) nor Kinetically based Maximum Dose (KMD). An example of the KMD issue is 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D), which only produced an increased incidence of lung tumors at a dose exceeding the KMD. In addition, since mouse lung tumors are common (>1% incidence), the appropriate statistical significance is p < .01. Numerous differences exist for mouse lung and tumors compared to humans, including anatomy, respiratory rate, metabolism, tumor histogenesis, and metastatic frequency. The recent demonstration of the critical role of mouse lung specific Cyp2 F2 metabolism in mouse lung carcinogenicity including styrene or fluensulfone indicates that this tumor response is not qualitatively or quantitatively relevant to humans. For non-DNA reactive and non-mutagenic carcinogens, the mode of action involves direct mitogenicity such as for isoniazid, styrene, fluensulfone, permethrin or cytotoxicity with regeneration such as for naphthalene. However, the possibility of mixed mitogenic and cytotoxic modes of action cannot always be excluded. The numerous differences between mouse and human, combined with epidemiologic evidence of no increased cancer risk for several of these chemicals make the relevance of mouse lung tumors for human cancer risk dubious.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel M Cohen
- Havlik-Wall Professor of Oncology, University of Nebraska Medical Center , Omaha, NE, USA
- University of Nebraska Medical Center , Omaha, NE, USA
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Saghir SA, Ansari RA, Dorato MA. Rethinking toxicity testing: Influence of aging on the outcome of long-term toxicity testing and possible remediation. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 141:111327. [PMID: 32380075 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Traditionally, toxicity testing is conducted at fixed dose rates (i.e., mg/kg/day) without considering life-changing events, e.g., stress, sickness, aging- and/or pregnancy-related changes in physical, physiological and biochemical parameters. In humans, life-changing events may cause systemic dose non-proportionality requiring modulation of drug dosage; similar changes occur in animals altering systemic dose during chronic/carcinogenic testing leading to "late-occurring" effects in some studies. For example, propylene monomethyl ether, an industrial chemical, initially induced sedation in rats and mice with recovery upon induction of hepatic CYPs after ~1 week. Sedation reappeared in rats but not in mice after ~12 months of exposure due to decreased CYP activity in rats, elderly mice were able to maintain slightly higher CYP activity avoiding recurrence of sedation. The systemic dose of two pharmaceuticals (doxazosin and brimonidine tartrate) increased up to 6-fold in ≥12-month old rats with no toxicity. In a rat reproductive toxicity study, systemic dose of 2,4-D, an herbicide, rapidly increased due to increased consumption of 2,4-D-fortified diet during pregnancy, lactation and neonatal growth, requiring adjustment to maintain the targeted systemic dose. Ideally, toxicological studies should be based on systemic dose with the option of modulating external dose rates to maintain the targeted systemic dose. Systemic dose can easily be monitored in selected core study animals at desired intervals considering recent developments in sampling and analysis at a fraction of the overall cost of a study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakil Ahmed Saghir
- Scotts Miracle-Gro, 14111 Scottslawn Road, Marysville, OH, 43041, USA; Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan; ToxInternational, Inc., 5057 Stonecroft Ct., Hilliard, OH 43026, USA.
| | - Rais Ahmad Ansari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Health Professions Division, Nova Southeastern University, 3200 S University Drive, Fort Lauderdale, FL, 33328, USA.
| | - Michael A Dorato
- Inotiv, 13 Firstfield Road, Suite 110, Gaithersburg, MD, 20878, USA.
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Loccisano AE, Bus J, Gollapudi B, Riffle B, Frericks M, Fegert I, Fabian E. Use of toxicokinetic data for afidopyropen to determine the dose levels in developmental toxicity studies. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 113:104644. [PMID: 32194133 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2020.104644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 02/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Afidopyropen is an insecticide that acts as a TRPV channel modulator in chordotonal organs of target insects and has been assessed for a wide range of toxicity endpoints including developmental toxicity in rats and rabbits. The GLP developmental toxicity study in rabbits did not produce evidence of maternal or fetal toxicity at the highest dose tested (32 mg/kg/day) but pharmacokinetics (PK) in pregnant rabbits in this study exhibited onset of PK nonlinearity from 5 mg/kg/day on, as measured by plasma Cmax and AUC. The NOAEL (32 mg/kg/day) is 9000X higher than maximum expected human dietary exposures to afidopyropen; the dose range where nonlinear PK were observed (5-15 mg/kg/day) is 1400-4200X higher. As nonlinearity occurred between 5 and 15 mg/kg/day, 32 mg/kg/day is concluded to be a sufficiently high dose (kinetically derived maximum dose) for a prenatal developmental toxicity study. As recognized by regulatory dose-selection guidance, onset of saturated PK is evidence of excessive biological stress to test animals rendering any effects at such doses of questionable relevance for human risk assessment. These data demonstrate that consideration of PK is critical for improving the dose-selection in developmental toxicity studies to enhance human relevance of animal toxicity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - James Bus
- Exponent Inc, Alexandria, VA, 22314, USA
| | | | - Brandy Riffle
- BASF Corporation, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Markus Frericks
- BASF SE Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Ivana Fegert
- BASF SE Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Eric Fabian
- BASF SE Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, Ludwigshafen, Germany.
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Zuanazzi NR, Ghisi NDC, Oliveira EC. Analysis of global trends and gaps for studies about 2,4-D herbicide toxicity: A scientometric review. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 241:125016. [PMID: 31683446 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is a herbicide that is used worldwide in agricultural and urban activities to control pests, reaching natural environments directly or indirectly. The research on 2,4-D toxicology and mutagenicity has advanced rapidly, and for this reason, this review summarizes the available data in Web of Science (WoS) to provide insights into the specific characteristics of 2,4-D toxicity and mutagenicity. Contrary to traditional reviews, this study uses a new method to quantitatively visualize and summarize information about the development of this field. Among all countries, the USA was the most active contributor with the largest publication and centrality, followed by Canada and China. The WoS categories 'Toxicology' and 'Biochemical and Molecular Biology' were the areas of greatest influence. 2,4-D research was strongly related to the keywords glyphosate, atrazine, water and gene expression. The studies trended to be focused on occupational risk, neurotoxicity, resistance or tolerance to herbicides, and to non-target species (especially aquatic ones) and molecular imprinting. In general, the authors have worked collaboratively, with concentrated efforts, allowing important advances in this field. Future research on 2,4-D toxicology and mutagenicity should probably focus on molecular biology, especially gene expression, assessment of exposure in human or other vertebrate bioindicators, and pesticide degradation studies. In summary, this scientometric analysis allowed us to make inferences about global trends in 2,4-D toxicology and mutagenicity, in order to identify tendencies and gaps and thus contribute to future research efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natana Raquel Zuanazzi
- Federal University of Technology - Paraná, Campus Dois Vizinhos (UTFPR-DV), Estrada para Boa Esperança, km 4, 85660-000, Dois Vizinhos, Brazil.
| | - Nédia de Castilhos Ghisi
- Federal University of Technology - Paraná - Paraná, Campus Dois Vizinhos (UTFPR-DV), Estrada para (Road to) Boa Esperança, km 4, 85660-000, Dois Vizinhos, Brazil.
| | - Elton Celton Oliveira
- Federal University of Technology - Paraná, Campus Dois Vizinhos (UTFPR-DV), Estrada para Boa Esperança, km 4, 85660-000, Dois Vizinhos, Brazil.
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Marty MS, Borgert C, Coady K, Green R, Levine SL, Mihaich E, Ortego L, Wheeler JR, Yi KD, Zorrilla LM. Distinguishing between endocrine disruption and non-specific effects on endocrine systems. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 99:142-158. [PMID: 30217484 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The endocrine system is responsible for growth, development, maintaining homeostasis and for the control of many physiological processes. Due to the integral nature of its signaling pathways, it can be difficult to distinguish endocrine-mediated adverse effects from transient fluctuations, adaptive/compensatory responses, or adverse effects on the endocrine system that are caused by mechanisms outside the endocrine system. This is particularly true in toxicological studies that require generation of effects through the use of Maximum Tolerated Doses (or Concentrations). Endocrine-mediated adverse effects are those that occur as a consequence of the interaction of a chemical with a specific molecular component of the endocrine system, for example, a hormone receptor. Non-endocrine-mediated adverse effects on the endocrine system are those that occur by other mechanisms. For example, systemic toxicity, which perturbs homeostasis and affects the general well-being of an organism, can affect endocrine signaling. Some organs/tissues can be affected by both endocrine and non-endocrine signals, which must be distinguished. This paper examines in vitro and in vivo endocrine endpoints that can be altered by non-endocrine processes. It recommends an evaluation of these issues in the assessment of effects for the determination of endocrine disrupting properties of chemicals. This underscores the importance of using a formal weight of evidence (WoE) process to evaluate potential endocrine activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sue Marty
- The Dow Chemical Company, Toxicology & Environmental Research and Consulting, 1803 Building, Midland, MI, 48674, USA.
| | - Chris Borgert
- Applied Pharmacology and Toxicology, Inc., C.E.H.T. Dept. Physiological Sciences, University of FL College of Veterinary Medicine, 2250 NW 24th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32605, USA.
| | - Katie Coady
- The Dow Chemical Company, Toxicology & Environmental Research and Consulting, 1803 Building, Midland, MI, 48674, USA.
| | - Richard Green
- Dow AgroSciences, 3b Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, OX14 4RN, United Kingdom.
| | - Steven L Levine
- Monsanto Company, Global Regulatory Science, 700 Chesterfield Parkway W, Chesterfield, MO, 63017, USA.
| | - Ellen Mihaich
- Environmental and Regulatory Resources, LLC, 6807 Lipscomb Drive, Durham, NC, 27712, USA.
| | - Lisa Ortego
- Bayer CropScience, 2 TW Alexander Dr, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.
| | - James R Wheeler
- Dow AgroSciences, 3b Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, OX14 4RN, United Kingdom.
| | - Kun Don Yi
- Syngenta Crop Protection, LLC, 410 S Wing Rd, Greensboro, NC, 27409, USA.
| | - Leah M Zorrilla
- Bayer CropScience, 2 TW Alexander Dr, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.
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Associations of maternal exposure to organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides and the herbicide 2,4-D with birth outcomes and anogenital distance at 3 months in the Odense Child Cohort. Reprod Toxicol 2018; 76:53-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2017.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Zhang D, Wu Y, Yuan Y, Liu W, Kuang H, Yang J, Yang B, Wu L, Zou W, Xu C. Exposure to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid induces oxidative stress and apoptosis in mouse testis. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 141:18-22. [PMID: 28911736 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2016.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2016] [Revised: 10/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is used worldwide. It has been associated with a variety of toxicities in rodents. In this study, male mice were orally administered 2,4-D at 50, 100 or 200mg/kg/day to investigate testicular toxicity and the possible mechanisms of action. Exposure to 2,4-D at high concentrations (100 and 200mg/kg/day) for 14 consecutive days caused spermatogenic disruption and seminiferous epithelial destruction. Furthermore, 2,4-D administration (100 and 200mg/kg/day) increased the formation of the lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde and decreased activities of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase in the testis. Moreover, 2,4-D exposure up-regulated the expression of p53 and Bax protein and down-regulated the expression of Bcl-2 protein in the testis. These results demonstrate that oxidative stress and apoptosis may be involved in testicular toxicity induced by high concentrations of 2,4-D in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalei Zhang
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China
| | - Yaling Wu
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China
| | - Yangyang Yuan
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China
| | - Wenwen Liu
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China
| | - Haibin Kuang
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China
| | - Jianhua Yang
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China
| | - Bei Yang
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China
| | - Lei Wu
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China
| | - Weiying Zou
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China
| | - Changshui Xu
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, PR China.
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Beekhuijzen M. The era of 3Rs implementation in developmental and reproductive toxicity (DART) testing: Current overview and future perspectives. Reprod Toxicol 2017; 72:86-96. [PMID: 28552675 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2017.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2017] [Revised: 05/07/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Since adoption of the first globally implemented guidelines for developmental and reproductive toxicity (DART) testing for pharmaceuticals, industrial chemicals and agrochemicals, many years passed without major updates. However in recent years, significant changes in these guidelines have been made or are being implemented. These changes have been guided by the ethical drive to reduce, refine and replace (3R) animal testing, as well as the addition of endocrine disruptor relevant endpoints. Recent applied improvements have focused on reduction and refinement. Ongoing scientific and technical innovations will provide the means for replacement of animal testing in the future and will improve predictivity in humans. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of ongoing global DART endeavors in respect to the 3Rs, with an outlook towards future advances in DART testing aspiring to reduce animal testing to a minimum and the supreme ambition towards animal-free hazard and risk assessment.
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Neal BH, Bus J, Marty MS, Coady K, Williams A, Staveley J, Lamb JC. Weight-of-the-evidence evaluation of 2,4-D potential for interactions with the estrogen, androgen and thyroid pathways and steroidogenesis. Crit Rev Toxicol 2017; 47:345-401. [PMID: 28303741 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2016.1272094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive weight-of-the-evidence evaluation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) was conducted for potential interactions with the estrogen, androgen and thyroid pathways and with steroidogenesis. This assessment was based on an extensive database of high quality in vitro, in vivo ecotoxicological and in vivo mammalian toxicological studies. Epidemiological studies were also considered. Toxicokinetic data provided the basis for determining rational cutoffs above which exposures were considered irrelevant to humans based on exceeding thresholds for saturation of renal clearance (TSRC); extensive human exposure and biomonitoring data support that these boundaries far exceed human exposures and provide ample margins of exposure. 2,4-D showed no evidence of interacting with the estrogen or androgen pathways. 2,4-D interacts with the thyroid axis in rats through displacement of thyroxine from plasma binding sites only at high doses exceeding the TSRC in mammals. 2,4-D effects on steroidogenesis parameters are likely related to high-dose specific systemic toxicity at doses exceeding the TSRC and are not likely to be endocrine mediated. No studies, including high quality studies in the published literature, predict significant endocrine-related toxicity or functional decrements in any species at environmentally relevant concentrations, or, in mammals, at doses below the TSRC that are relevant for human hazard and risk assessment. Overall, there is no basis for concern regarding potential interactions of 2,4-D with endocrine pathways or axes (estrogen, androgen, steroidogenesis or thyroid), and thus 2,4-D is unlikely to pose a threat from endocrine disruption to wildlife or humans under conditions of real-world exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- B H Neal
- a Exponent® , Alexandria , VA , USA
| | - J Bus
- a Exponent® , Alexandria , VA , USA
| | - M S Marty
- b Toxicology & Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company , Midland , MI , USA
| | - K Coady
- b Toxicology & Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company , Midland , MI , USA
| | | | | | - J C Lamb
- a Exponent® , Alexandria , VA , USA
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16
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Cardoso AM, Alves MG, Mathur PP, Oliveira PF, Cavaco JE, Rato L. Obesogens and male fertility. Obes Rev 2017; 18:109-125. [PMID: 27776203 DOI: 10.1111/obr.12469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In the last decades, several studies evidenced a decrease in male fertility in developed countries. Although the aetiology of this trend in male reproductive health remains a matter of debate, environmental compounds that predispose to weight gain, namely obesogens, are appointed as contributors because of their action as endocrine disruptors. Obesogens favour adipogenesis by an imbalance of metabolic processes and can be found virtually everywhere. These compounds easily accumulate in tissues with high lipid content. Obesogens change the functioning of male reproductive axis, and, consequently, the testicular physiology and metabolism that are pivotal for spermatogenesis. The disruption of these tightly regulated metabolic pathways leads to adverse reproductive outcomes. Notably, adverse effects of obesogens may also promote disturbances in the metabolic performance of the following generations, through epigenetic modifications passed by male gametes. Thus, unveiling the molecular pathways by which obesogens induce toxicity that may end up in epigenetic modifications is imperative. Otherwise, a transgenerational susceptibility to metabolic diseases may be favoured. We present an up-to-date overview of the impact of obesogens on testicular physiology, with a particular focus on testicular metabolism. We also address the effects of obesogens on male reproductive parameters and the subsequent consequences for male fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Cardoso
- Health Sciences Research Centre (CICS-UBI), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - M G Alves
- Health Sciences Research Centre (CICS-UBI), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - P P Mathur
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India.,KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - P F Oliveira
- Department of Microscopy, Laboratory of Cell Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS) and Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine (UMIB), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,i3S- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - J E Cavaco
- Health Sciences Research Centre (CICS-UBI), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - L Rato
- Health Sciences Research Centre (CICS-UBI), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
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17
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Saghir SA, Dorato MA. Reproductive and developmental toxicity testing: Examination of the extended one-generation reproductive toxicity study guideline. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2016; 79:110-117. [PMID: 27074386 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2016.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Revised: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
An important aspect of safety assessment of chemicals (industrial and agricultural chemicals and pharmaceuticals) is determining their potential reproductive and developmental toxicity. A number of guidelines have outlined a series of separate reproductive and developmental toxicity studies from fertilization through adulthood and in some cases to second generation. The Extended One-Generation Reproductive Toxicity Study (EOGRTS) is the most recent and comprehensive guideline in this series. EOGRTS design makes toxicity testing progressive, comprehensive, and efficient by assessing key endpoints across multiple life-stages at relevant doses using a minimum number of animals, combining studies/evaluations and proposing tiered-testing approaches based on outcomes. EOGRTS determines toxicity during preconception, development of embryo/fetus and newborn, adolescence, and adults, with specific emphasis on the nervous, immunological, and endocrine systems, EOGRTS also assesses maternal and paternal toxicity. However, EOGRTS guideline is complex, criteria for selecting doses is unclear, and monitoring systemic dose during the course of the study for better interpretation and human relevance is not clear. This paper discusses potential simplification of EOGRTS, suggests procedures for relevant dose selection and monitors systemic dose at multiple life-stages for better interpretation of data and human relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakil A Saghir
- Smithers Avanza Toxicology Services, LLC, 11B Firstfield Road, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA.
| | - Michael A Dorato
- Smithers Avanza Toxicology Services, LLC, 11B Firstfield Road, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA
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Beekhuijzen M, Barentsen H, Marsden E, Zmarowski A, Aujoulat M, Picut C, Sloter E. Implementing the extended one-generation reproductive toxicity study (EOGRTS): important points to consider. Crit Rev Toxicol 2016; 46:332-47. [DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2015.1137863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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19
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Tan Z, Zhou J, Chen H, Zou Q, Weng S, Luo T, Tang Y. Toxic effects of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid on human sperm function in vitro . J Toxicol Sci 2016; 41:543-9. [PMID: 27432240 DOI: 10.2131/jts.41.543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhengyu Tan
- Department of Urology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, The Central South University, China
| | - Jun Zhou
- Department of Urology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, The Central South University, China
| | - Houyang Chen
- Reproductive Medical Center, Jiangxi Provincial Maternal and Child Health Hospital, China
| | - Qianxing Zou
- Institute of Life Science, Nanchang University, China
| | - Shiqi Weng
- Institute of Life Science, Nanchang University, China
| | - Tao Luo
- Institute of Life Science, Nanchang University, China
| | - Yuxin Tang
- Department of Urology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, The Central South University, China
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20
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Saghir SA. Rethinking guideline toxicity testing. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2015; 72:423-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Revised: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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21
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Goodman JE, Loftus CT, Zu K. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, gastric cancer, and prostate cancer: meta-analyses of the published literature. Ann Epidemiol 2015; 25:626-636.e4. [PMID: 26066538 DOI: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2015.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2015] [Revised: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Despite evidence from experimental studies indicating that the herbicide, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), is not carcinogenic, several epidemiology studies have evaluated links between 2,4-D and cancer. Some suggest that 2,4-D is associated with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL), gastric cancer, and prostate cancer, but results have been inconsistent. We conducted meta-analyses to evaluate the weight of epidemiology evidence for these cancers. METHODS We identified articles from PubMed, Scopus, and TOXLINE databases and reference lists of review articles. We evaluated study quality and calculated summary risk estimates using random effects models. We conducted subgroup and sensitivity analyses when possible. RESULTS We identified nine NHL, three gastric cancer, and two prostate cancer studies for inclusion in our meta-analyses. We found that 2,4-D was not associated with NHL (relative risk [RR] = 0.97, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.77-1.22, I(2) = 28.8%, Pheterogeneity = .19), and this result was generally robust to subgroup and sensitivity analyses. 2,4-D was not associated with gastric (RR = 1.14, 95% CI = 0.62-2.10, I(2) = 54.9%, Pheterogeneity = .11) or prostate cancer (RR = 1.32, 95% CI = 0.37-4.69, I(2) 87.0%, Pheterogeneity = .01). CONCLUSIONS The epidemiology evidence does not support an association between 2,4-D and NHL, gastric cancer, or prostate cancer risk.
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22
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Settivari RS, Ball N, Murphy L, Rasoulpour R, Boverhof DR, Carney EW. Predicting the future: opportunities and challenges for the chemical industry to apply 21st-century toxicity testing. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2015; 54:214-223. [PMID: 25836969 PMCID: PMC4382627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Revised: 05/27/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Interest in applying 21st-century toxicity testing tools for safety assessment of industrial chemicals is growing. Whereas conventional toxicology uses mainly animal-based, descriptive methods, a paradigm shift is emerging in which computational approaches, systems biology, high-throughput in vitro toxicity assays, and high-throughput exposure assessments are beginning to be applied to mechanism-based risk assessments in a time- and resource-efficient fashion. Here we describe recent advances in predictive safety assessment, with a focus on their strategic application to meet the changing demands of the chemical industry and its stakeholders. The opportunities to apply these new approaches is extensive and include screening of new chemicals, informing the design of safer and more sustainable chemical alternatives, filling information gaps on data-poor chemicals already in commerce, strengthening read-across methodology for categories of chemicals sharing similar modes of action, and optimizing the design of reduced-risk product formulations. Finally, we discuss how these predictive approaches dovetail with in vivo integrated testing strategies within repeated-dose regulatory toxicity studies, which are in line with 3Rs principles to refine, reduce, and replace animal testing. Strategic application of these tools is the foundation for informed and efficient safety assessment testing strategies that can be applied at all stages of the product-development process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raja S Settivari
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, USA.
| | - Nicholas Ball
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, USA
| | - Lynea Murphy
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, USA
| | - Reza Rasoulpour
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, USA
| | - Darrell R Boverhof
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, USA
| | - Edward W Carney
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, USA
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Hessel EV, Tonk ECM, Bos PM, van Loveren H, Piersma AH. Developmental immunotoxicity of chemicals in rodents and its possible regulatory impact. Crit Rev Toxicol 2014; 45:68-82. [DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2014.959163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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25
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Evaluation of potential endocrine activity of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid using in vitro assays. Toxicol In Vitro 2014; 28:1018-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2014.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Revised: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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26
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Bus JS, Hammond L. Re: Knapp DW, Peer WA, Conteh A, Diggs AR, Cooper BR, Glickman NW, et al. detection of herbicides in the urine of pet dogs following home lawn application. Sci Total Env 2013; 456-457: 34-41. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2014; 487:576-577. [PMID: 24739893 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.03.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Larry Hammond
- 2,4-D Industry Task Force II Carmel, IN, United States
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Approaches and considerations for the assessment of immunotoxicity for environmental chemicals: A workshop summary. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2014; 68:96-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2013.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Revised: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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