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Darche M, Verschueren A, Belle M, Boucherit L, Fouquet S, Sahel JA, Chédotal A, Cascone I, Paques M. Three-dimensional characterization of developing and adult ocular vasculature in mice using in toto clearing. Commun Biol 2022; 5:1135. [PMID: 36302949 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-04104-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The ocular vasculature is critically involved in many blinding diseases and is also a popular research model for the exploration of developmental and pathological angiogenesis. The development of ocular vessels is a complex, finely orchestrated sequence of events, involving spatial and temporal coordination of hyaloid, choroidal and retinal networks. Comprehensive studies of the tridimensional dynamics of microvascular remodeling are limited by the fact that preserving the spatial disposition of ocular vascular networks is cumbersome using classical histological procedures. Here, we demonstrate that light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LFSM) of cleared mouse eyes followed by extensive virtual dissection offers a solution to this problem. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first 3D quantification of the evolution of the hyaloid vasculature and of post-occlusive venous remodeling together with the characterization of spatial distribution of various cell populations in ocular compartments, including the vitreous. These techniques will prove interesting to obtain other insights in scientific questions addressing organ-wide cell interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Darche
- Clinical Investigation Center 1423, Quinze-Vingts hospital, INSERM-DHOS, 28 rue de Charenton, Paris, F-75012, France.,Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, 17 rue Moreau, F-75012, Paris, France
| | - Anna Verschueren
- Clinical Investigation Center 1423, Quinze-Vingts hospital, INSERM-DHOS, 28 rue de Charenton, Paris, F-75012, France.,Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, 17 rue Moreau, F-75012, Paris, France
| | - Morgane Belle
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, 17 rue Moreau, F-75012, Paris, France
| | - Leyna Boucherit
- Clinical Investigation Center 1423, Quinze-Vingts hospital, INSERM-DHOS, 28 rue de Charenton, Paris, F-75012, France.,Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, 17 rue Moreau, F-75012, Paris, France
| | - Stéphane Fouquet
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, 17 rue Moreau, F-75012, Paris, France
| | - José Alain Sahel
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, 17 rue Moreau, F-75012, Paris, France.,Department of Ophthalmology, Fondation Ophtalmologique Adolphe De Rothschild, F-75019, Paris, France.,Department of Ophthalmology, The University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Alain Chédotal
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, 17 rue Moreau, F-75012, Paris, France
| | - Ilaria Cascone
- Univ Paris Est Créteil, INSERM, IMRB, F-94010, Créteil, France.,AP-HP, Groupe hospitalo-universitaire Chenevier Mondor, Centre d'investigation clinique Biothérapie, F-94010, Créteil, France
| | - Michel Paques
- Clinical Investigation Center 1423, Quinze-Vingts hospital, INSERM-DHOS, 28 rue de Charenton, Paris, F-75012, France. .,Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, 17 rue Moreau, F-75012, Paris, France.
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2
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Paisley CE, Kay JN. Seeing stars: Development and function of retinal astrocytes. Dev Biol 2021; 478:144-154. [PMID: 34260962 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2021.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Throughout the central nervous system, astrocytes adopt precisely ordered spatial arrangements of their somata and arbors, which facilitate their many important functions. Astrocyte pattern formation is particularly important in the retina, where astrocytes serve as a template that dictates the pattern of developing retinal vasculature. Thus, if astrocyte patterning is disturbed, there are severe consequences for retinal angiogenesis and ultimately for vision - as seen in diseases such as retinopathy of prematurity. Here we discuss key steps in development of the retinal astrocyte population. We describe how fundamental developmental forces - their birth, migration, proliferation, and death - sculpt astrocytes into a template that guides angiogenesis. We further address the radical changes in the cellular and molecular composition of the astrocyte network that occur upon completion of angiogenesis, paving the way for their adult functions in support of retinal ganglion cell axons. Understanding development of retinal astrocytes may elucidate pattern formation mechanisms that are deployed broadly by other axon-associated astrocyte populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin E Paisley
- Departments of Neurobiology, Ophthalmology, and Cell Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, 27710, USA
| | - Jeremy N Kay
- Departments of Neurobiology, Ophthalmology, and Cell Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, 27710, USA.
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3
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Fligor CM, Lavekar SS, Harkin J, Shields PK, VanderWall KB, Huang KC, Gomes C, Meyer JS. Extension of retinofugal projections in an assembled model of human pluripotent stem cell-derived organoids. Stem Cell Reports 2021; 16:2228-2241. [PMID: 34115986 PMCID: PMC8452489 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2021.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of the visual system involves the coordination of spatial and temporal events to specify the organization of varied cell types, including the elongation of axons from retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) to post-synaptic targets in the brain. Retinal organoids recapitulate many features of retinal development, yet have lacked downstream targets into which RGC axons extend, limiting the ability to model projections of the human visual system. To address these issues, retinal organoids were generated and organized into an in vitro assembloid model of the visual system with cortical and thalamic organoids. RGCs responded to environmental cues and extended axons deep into assembloids, modeling the projections of the visual system. In addition, RGC survival was enhanced in long-term assembloids, overcoming prior limitations of retinal organoids in which RGCs are lost. Overall, these approaches will facilitate studies of human visual system development, as well as diseases or injuries to this critical pathway. Human stem cell-derived RGC axons respond to target-derived cues Assembloids were generated between retinal, thalamic, and cortical organoids Retinofugal projections robustly extend toward thalamic targets
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarisse M Fligor
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis IN, USA
| | - Sailee S Lavekar
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis IN, USA
| | - Jade Harkin
- Interdisciplinary Biomedical Research Gateway Program, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis IN, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis IN, USA
| | - Priya K Shields
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis IN, USA
| | - Kirstin B VanderWall
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis IN, USA
| | - Kang-Chieh Huang
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis IN, USA
| | - Cátia Gomes
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis IN, USA; Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis IN, USA
| | - Jason S Meyer
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis IN, USA; Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis IN, USA; Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis IN, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis IN, USA.
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4
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Fossataro F, D'Andrea L, Cennamo G. Structural and vascular features in cavitary congenital optic disc anomaly associated with metaphyseal acroscyphodysplasia. Eur J Ophthalmol 2021; 32:NP34-NP37. [PMID: 33583233 DOI: 10.1177/1120672121995745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the radial peripapillary vascular plexus of a cavitary congenital optic disc anomaly in a young patient with recessive autosomal metaphyseal acroscyphodysplasia using optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA). METHODS Observational case report. RESULTS A 17-year-old man, with diagnosis of metaphyseal acroscyphodysplasia was referred to Eye Clinic for fundus examination and multimodal imaging for retinal epithelium hypertrophy in the right eye. Clinical examination showed cup-shaped metaphyses, short stature, hyperthelorism, and telecanthus. An optic disc coloboma was detected in the right eye on fundus examination. Wide field en-face Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) showed a hyporeflective area corresponding to the right optic disc coloboma. At OCTA examination, the whole papillary region revealed a rarefaction of the vascular network, while the ganglion cell complex's and retinal fiber layers' parameters were normal in both eyes. CONCLUSION The presence of coloboma disc congenital defect linked to embryological abnormalities during the development process could pave the way for a wider understanding of the pathogenesis of metaphyseal acroscyphodysplasia by increasingly framing it as a systemic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Fossataro
- Department of Neurosciences, Reproductive Sciences and Dentistry, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Campania, Italy
| | - Luca D'Andrea
- Department of Neurosciences, Reproductive Sciences and Dentistry, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Campania, Italy
| | - Gilda Cennamo
- Eye Clinic, Public Health Department, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Campania, Italy
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5
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Markitantova Y, Simirskii V. Inherited Eye Diseases with Retinal Manifestations through the Eyes of Homeobox Genes. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E1602. [PMID: 32111086 PMCID: PMC7084737 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal development is under the coordinated control of overlapping networks of signaling pathways and transcription factors. The paper was conceived as a review of the data and ideas that have been formed to date on homeobox genes mutations that lead to the disruption of eye organogenesis and result in inherited eye/retinal diseases. Many of these diseases are part of the same clinical spectrum and have high genetic heterogeneity with already identified associated genes. We summarize the known key regulators of eye development, with a focus on the homeobox genes associated with monogenic eye diseases showing retinal manifestations. Recent advances in the field of genetics and high-throughput next-generation sequencing technologies, including single-cell transcriptome analysis have allowed for deepening of knowledge of the genetic basis of inherited retinal diseases (IRDs), as well as improve their diagnostics. We highlight some promising avenues of research involving molecular-genetic and cell-technology approaches that can be effective for IRDs therapy. The most promising neuroprotective strategies are aimed at mobilizing the endogenous cellular reserve of the retina.
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6
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Ai LQY, Yuan RD, Chen X, Liu YJ, Liu WY, Zhu JY, Zhang Z, Yan J, Chen CL, Lin S, Ye J. Retinal blood vessel-origin yes-associated protein (YAP) governs astrocytic maturation via leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF). Cell Prolif 2020; 53:e12757. [PMID: 31916327 PMCID: PMC7046482 DOI: 10.1111/cpr.12757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives To testify that endothelial cells (ECs) induce astrocyte maturation by leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF) secretion. Materials and Methods In vivo experiments, mice bearing floxed alleles of YAP were crossed with mice expressing a Cre recombinase driven by the endothelial Tek promoter (Tek‐Cre) to finally obtain the following three genotypes: YAPf/f, Tek‐Cre; YAPf/w, Tek‐Cre; and YAPf/f. Retinal vascularization and astrocyte network were evaluated by whole‐mount fluorescence and Western blotting. In vitro, experiments were performed in an astrocyte and human microvascular endothelial cell (HMEC‐1) coculture model to analyse the mechanisms underlying the effect of endothelial YAP on astrocytes. Results In vivo, YAPf/f;Tek‐Cre mice showed delayed angiogenesis, sparse vessels and decreased glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)+ astrocytes but aberrant growth of endothelial networks and immature astrocytes (platelet‐derived growth factor A, PDGFRA+ astrocytes) overgrowth. In vitro, Yap deletion attenuated the LIF release that delayed the maturation of retinal astrocyte which was consistent with the results of HMEC‐1—astrocyte coculture. The effect of YAP overexpression on LIF‐LIFR axis in HMEC‐1 interferes the GFAP expression of astrocyte. In contrast, LIF protein rescues the astrocytic GFAP expression when EC YAP was inhibited by siRNAs. Conclusions We show that EC yes‐associated protein (YAP) is not only a critical coactivator of Hippo signalling in retinal vessel development but also plays an essential role in retinal astrocyte maturation by regulating LIF production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Qian-Yu Ai
- Department of Ophthalmology, Research Institute of Surgery & Daping Hospital, Army Medical Center of PLA, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Rong-Di Yuan
- Department of Ophthalmology, XinQiao Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Research Institute of Surgery & Daping Hospital, Army Medical Center of PLA, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yun-Jia Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Research Institute of Surgery & Daping Hospital, Army Medical Center of PLA, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Wen-Yi Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Research Institute of Surgery & Daping Hospital, Army Medical Center of PLA, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jing-Yi Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Research Institute of Surgery & Daping Hospital, Army Medical Center of PLA, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhou Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Research Institute of Surgery & Daping Hospital, Army Medical Center of PLA, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jun Yan
- Research Institute of Surgery & Daping Hospital, Army Medical Center of PLA, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chun-Lin Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Research Institute of Surgery & Daping Hospital, Army Medical Center of PLA, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Sen Lin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Research Institute of Surgery & Daping Hospital, Army Medical Center of PLA, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jian Ye
- Department of Ophthalmology, Research Institute of Surgery & Daping Hospital, Army Medical Center of PLA, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
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7
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Gritsenko PG, Atlasy N, Dieteren CEJ, Navis AC, Venhuizen JH, Veelken C, Schubert D, Acker-Palmer A, Westerman BA, Wurdinger T, Leenders W, Wesseling P, Stunnenberg HG, Friedl P. p120-catenin-dependent collective brain infiltration by glioma cell networks. Nat Cell Biol 2020; 22:97-107. [PMID: 31907411 PMCID: PMC6952556 DOI: 10.1038/s41556-019-0443-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Diffuse brain infiltration by glioma cells causes detrimental disease progression, but its multicellular coordination is poorly understood. We show here that glioma cells infiltrate the brain collectively as multicellular networks. Contacts between moving glioma cells are adaptive epithelial-like or filamentous junctions stabilized by N-cadherin, β-catenin and p120-catenin, which undergo kinetic turnover, transmit intercellular calcium transients and mediate directional persistence. Downregulation of p120-catenin compromises cell-cell interaction and communication, disrupts collective networks, and both the cadherin and RhoA binding domains of p120-catenin are required for network formation and migration. Deregulating p120-catenin further prevents diffuse glioma cell infiltration of the mouse brain with marginalized microlesions as the outcome. Transcriptomics analysis has identified p120-catenin as an upstream regulator of neurogenesis and cell cycle pathways and a predictor of poor clinical outcome in glioma patients. Collective glioma networks infiltrating the brain thus depend on adherens junctions dynamics, the targeting of which may offer an unanticipated strategy to halt glioma progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavlo G Gritsenko
- Department of Cell Biology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Nader Atlasy
- Department of Molecular Biology, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Center for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Cindy E J Dieteren
- Department of Cell Biology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Protinhi Therapeutics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Anna C Navis
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jan-Hendrik Venhuizen
- Department of Cell Biology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Cornelia Veelken
- Department of Cell Biology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Dirk Schubert
- Cognitive Neuroscience Department, Donders Institute, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Amparo Acker-Palmer
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neuroscience and BMLS, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Bart A Westerman
- Department of Neurosurgery, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Wurdinger
- Department of Neurosurgery, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - William Leenders
- Department of Biochemistry, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Pieter Wesseling
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers/VUmc and Brain Tumor Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hendrik G Stunnenberg
- Department of Molecular Biology, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Friedl
- Department of Cell Biology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA.
- Cancer Genomics Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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8
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Bertacchi M, Gruart A, Kaimakis P, Allet C, Serra L, Giacobini P, Delgado-García JM, Bovolenta P, Studer M. Mouse Nr2f1 haploinsufficiency unveils new pathological mechanisms of a human optic atrophy syndrome. EMBO Mol Med 2019; 11:e10291. [PMID: 31318166 PMCID: PMC6685104 DOI: 10.15252/emmm.201910291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Optic nerve atrophy represents the most common form of hereditary optic neuropathies leading to vision impairment. The recently described Bosch‐Boonstra‐Schaaf optic atrophy (BBSOA) syndrome denotes an autosomal dominant genetic form of neuropathy caused by mutations or deletions in the NR2F1 gene. Herein, we describe a mouse model recapitulating key features of BBSOA patients—optic nerve atrophy, optic disc anomalies, and visual deficits—thus representing the only available mouse model for this syndrome. Notably, Nr2f1‐deficient optic nerves develop an imbalance between oligodendrocytes and astrocytes leading to postnatal hypomyelination and astrogliosis. Adult heterozygous mice display a slower optic axonal conduction velocity from the retina to high‐order visual centers together with associative visual learning deficits. Importantly, some of these clinical features, such the optic nerve hypomyelination, could be rescued by chemical drug treatment in early postnatal life. Overall, our data shed new insights into the cellular mechanisms of optic nerve atrophy in BBSOA patients and open a promising avenue for future therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Bertacchi
- CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Université Côte d'Azur, Nice, France.,Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Agnès Gruart
- Division of Neurosciences, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, Spain
| | - Polynikis Kaimakis
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain.,CIBER de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), Campus de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cécile Allet
- Jean-Pierre Aubert Research Center (JPArc), Laboratory of Development and Plasticity of the Neuroendocrine Brain, UMR-S 1172, Inserm, Lille, France.,University of Lille, FHU 1,000 Days for Health, Lille, France
| | - Linda Serra
- CNRS, Inserm, iBV, Université Côte d'Azur, Nice, France.,Department of Biotechnology and Biological Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Paolo Giacobini
- Jean-Pierre Aubert Research Center (JPArc), Laboratory of Development and Plasticity of the Neuroendocrine Brain, UMR-S 1172, Inserm, Lille, France.,University of Lille, FHU 1,000 Days for Health, Lille, France
| | | | - Paola Bovolenta
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain.,CIBER de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), Campus de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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9
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Abstract
Recent breakthroughs in our understanding of the molecular pathophysiology of retinal vascular disease have allowed us to specifically target pathological angiogenesis while minimizing damage to the neurosensory retina. This is perhaps best exemplified by the development of therapies targeting the potent angiogenic growth factor and vascular permeability mediator, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Anti-VEGF therapies, initially introduced for the treatment of choroidal neovascularization in patients with age-related macular degeneration, have also had a dramatic impact on the management of retinal vascular disease and are currently an indispensable component for the treatment of macular edema in patients with diabetic eye disease and retinal vein occlusions. Emerging evidence supports expanding the use of therapies targeting VEGF for the treatment of retinal neovascularization in patients with diabetic retinopathy and retinopathy of prematurity. However, VEGF is among a growing list of angiogenic and vascular hyperpermeability factors that promote retinal vascular disease. Many of these mediators are expressed in response to stabilization of a single family of transcription factors, the hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), that regulate the expression of these angiogenic stimulators. Here we review the basic principles driving pathological angiogenesis and discuss the current state of retinal anti-angiogenic pharmacotherapy as well as future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannis M Paulus
- Kellogg Eye Center, University of Michigan School of Medicine, 1000 Wall Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48105, USA
| | - Akrit Sodhi
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 400 N. Broadway St., Smith Building, 4039, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA.
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10
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Mellough CB, Bauer R, Collin J, Dorgau B, Zerti D, Dolan DWP, Jones CM, Izuogu OG, Yu M, Hallam D, Steyn JS, White K, Steel DH, Santibanez-Koref M, Elliott DJ, Jackson MS, Lindsay S, Grellscheid S, Lako M. An integrated transcriptional analysis of the developing human retina. Development 2019; 146:146/2/dev169474. [PMID: 30696714 PMCID: PMC6361134 DOI: 10.1242/dev.169474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The scarcity of embryonic/foetal material as a resource for direct study means that there is still limited understanding of human retina development. Here, we present an integrated transcriptome analysis combined with immunohistochemistry in human eye and retinal samples from 4 to 19 post-conception weeks. This analysis reveals three developmental windows with specific gene expression patterns that informed the sequential emergence of retinal cell types and enabled identification of stage-specific cellular and biological processes, and transcriptional regulators. Each stage is characterised by a specific set of alternatively spliced transcripts that code for proteins involved in the formation of the photoreceptor connecting cilium, pre-mRNA splicing and epigenetic modifiers. Importantly, our data show that the transition from foetal to adult retina is characterised by a large increase in the percentage of mutually exclusive exons that code for proteins involved in photoreceptor maintenance. The circular RNA population is also defined and shown to increase during retinal development. Collectively, these data increase our understanding of human retinal development and the pre-mRNA splicing process, and help to identify new candidate disease genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla B. Mellough
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK,Lions Eye Institute, 2 Verdun Street, Nedlands, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Roman Bauer
- School of Computing, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE4 5TG, UK
| | - Joseph Collin
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Birthe Dorgau
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Darin Zerti
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - David W. P. Dolan
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Carl M. Jones
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Osagie G. Izuogu
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK,European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI), Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK
| | - Min Yu
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Dean Hallam
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Jannetta S. Steyn
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Kathryn White
- EM Research Services, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE2 4HH, UK
| | - David H. Steel
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
| | | | - David J. Elliott
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Michael S. Jackson
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Susan Lindsay
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Sushma Grellscheid
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Majlinda Lako
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE1 3BZ, UK
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11
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Wang Z, Liu CH, Huang S, Chen J. Wnt Signaling in vascular eye diseases. Prog Retin Eye Res 2018; 70:110-133. [PMID: 30513356 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2018.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The Wnt signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in vascular morphogenesis in various organs including the eye. Wnt ligands and receptors are key regulators of ocular angiogenesis both during the eye development and in vascular eye diseases. Wnt signaling participates in regulating multiple vascular beds in the eye including regression of the hyaloid vessels, and development of structured layers of vasculature in the retina. Loss-of-function mutations in Wnt signaling components cause rare genetic eye diseases in humans such as Norrie disease, and familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (FEVR) with defective ocular vasculature. On the other hand, experimental studies in more prevalent vascular eye diseases, such as wet age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), and corneal neovascularization, suggest that aberrantly increased Wnt signaling is one of the causations for pathological ocular neovascularization, indicating the potential of modulating Wnt signaling to ameliorate pathological angiogenesis in eye diseases. This review recapitulates the key roles of the Wnt signaling pathway during ocular vascular development and in vascular eye diseases, and pharmaceutical approaches targeting the Wnt signaling as potential treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongxiao Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, United States
| | - Chi-Hsiu Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, United States
| | - Shuo Huang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, United States
| | - Jing Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, United States.
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Lutty GA, McLeod DS. Development of the hyaloid, choroidal and retinal vasculatures in the fetal human eye. Prog Retin Eye Res 2018; 62:58-76. [PMID: 29081352 PMCID: PMC5776052 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Revised: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The development of the ocular vasculatures is perfectly synchronized to provide the nutritional and oxygen requirements of the forming human eye. The fetal vasculature of vitreous, which includes the hyaloid vasculature, vasa hyaloidea propria, and tunica vasculosa lentis, initially develops around 4-6 weeks gestation (WG) by hemo-vasculogenesis (development of blood and blood vessels from a common progenitor, the hemangioblast). This transient fetal vasculature expands around 12 WG by angiogenesis (budding from primordial vessels) and remains until a retinal vasculature begins to form. The fetal vasculature then regresses by apoptosis with the assistance of macrophages/hyalocytes. The human choroidal vasculature also forms by a similar process and will supply nutrients and oxygen to outer retina. This lobular vasculature develops in a dense collagenous tissue juxtaposed with a cell constitutively producing vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), the retinal pigment epithelium. This epithelial/endothelial relationship is critical in maintaining the function of this vasculature throughout life and maintaining it's fenestrated state. The lobular capillary system (choriocapillaris) develops first by hemo-vasculogenesis and then the intermediate choroidal blood vessels form by angiogenesis, budding from the choriocapillaris. The human retinal vasculature is the last to develop. It develops by vasculogenesis, assembly of CXCR4+/CD39+ angioblasts or vascular progenitors perhaps using Muller cell Notch1 or axonal neuropilinin-1 for guidance of semaphorin 3A-expressing angioblasts. The fovea never develops a retinal vasculature, which is probably due to the foveal avascular zone area of retina expressing high levels of antiangiogenic factors. From these studies, it is apparent that development of the mouse ocular vasculatures is not representative of the development of the human fetal, choroidal and retinal vasculatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard A Lutty
- Wilmer Ophthalmological Institute, Baltimore, MD 21287, United States.
| | - D Scott McLeod
- Wilmer Ophthalmological Institute, Baltimore, MD 21287, United States
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13
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Kautzman AG, Keeley PW, Nahmou MM, Luna G, Fisher SK, Reese BE. Sox2 regulates astrocytic and vascular development in the retina. Glia 2017; 66:623-636. [PMID: 29178409 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Sox2 is a transcriptional regulator that is highly expressed in retinal astrocytes, yet its function in these cells has not previously been examined. To understand its role, we conditionally deleted Sox2 from the population of astrocytes and examined the consequences on retinal development. We found that Sox2 deletion does not alter the migration of astrocytes, but it impairs their maturation, evidenced by the delayed upregulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) across the retina. The centro-peripheral gradient of angiogenesis is also delayed in Sox2-CKO retinas. In the mature retina, we observed lasting abnormalities in the astrocytic population evidenced by the sporadic loss of GFAP immunoreactivity in the peripheral retina as well as by the aberrant extension of processes into the inner retina. Blood vessels in the adult retina are also under-developed and show a decrease in the frequency of branch points and in total vessel length. The developmental relationship between maturing astrocytes and angiogenesis suggests a causal relationship between the astrocytic loss of Sox2 and the vascular architecture in maturity. We suggest that the delay in astrocytic maturation and vascular invasion may render the retina hypoxic, thereby causing the abnormalities we observe in adulthood. These studies uncover a novel role for Sox2 in the development of retinal astrocytes and indicate that its removal can lead to lasting changes to retinal homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda G Kautzman
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-5060.,Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-5060
| | - Patrick W Keeley
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-5060
| | - Michael M Nahmou
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-5060.,Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-5060
| | - Gabriel Luna
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-5060
| | - Steven K Fisher
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-5060
| | - Benjamin E Reese
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-5060.,Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-5060
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14
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Tao C, Zhang X. Retinal Proteoglycans Act as Cellular Receptors for Basement Membrane Assembly to Control Astrocyte Migration and Angiogenesis. Cell Rep 2017; 17:1832-1844. [PMID: 27829154 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The basement membrane is crucial for cell polarity, adhesion, and motility, but how it is assembled on the cell surface remains unclear. Here, we find that ablation of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) side chains of proteoglycans in the neuroretina disrupts the retinal basement membrane, leading to arrested astrocyte migration and reduced angiogenesis. Using genetic deletion and time-lapse imaging, we show that retinal astrocytes require neuronal-derived PDGF as a chemoattractive cue and the retinal basement membrane as a migratory substrate. Genetic ablation of heparan sulfates does not produce the same defects as GAG null mutants. In contrast, enzymatic removal of heparan sulfates and chondroitin sulfates together inhibits de novo laminin network assembly. These results indicate that both heparan and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans participate in retinal basement membrane assembly, thus promoting astrocyte migration and angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenqi Tao
- Departments of Ophthalmology, Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Xin Zhang
- Departments of Ophthalmology, Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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15
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O’Sullivan ML, Puñal VM, Kerstein PC, Brzezinski JA, Glaser T, Wright KM, Kay JN. Astrocytes follow ganglion cell axons to establish an angiogenic template during retinal development. Glia 2017; 65:1697-1716. [PMID: 28722174 PMCID: PMC5561467 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Immature astrocytes and blood vessels enter the developing mammalian retina at the optic nerve head and migrate peripherally to colonize the entire retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL). Retinal vascularization is arrested in retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), a major cause of bilateral blindness in children. Despite their importance in normal development and ROP, the factors that control vascularization of the retina remain poorly understood. Because astrocytes form a reticular network that appears to provide a substrate for migrating endothelial cells, they have long been proposed to guide angiogenesis. However, whether astrocytes do in fact impose a spatial pattern on developing vessels remains unclear, and how astrocytes themselves are guided is unknown. Here we explore the cellular mechanisms that ensure complete retinal coverage by astrocytes and blood vessels in mouse. We find that migrating astrocytes associate closely with the axons of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), their neighbors in the RNFL. Analysis of Robo1; Robo2 mutants, in which RGC axon guidance is disrupted, and Math5 (Atoh7) mutants, which lack RGCs, reveals that RGCs provide directional information to migrating astrocytes that sets them on a centrifugal trajectory. Without this guidance, astrocytes exhibit polarization defects, fail to colonize the peripheral retina, and display abnormal fine-scale spatial patterning. Furthermore, using cell type-specific chemical-genetic tools to selectively ablate astrocytes, we show that the astrocyte template is required for angiogenesis and vessel patterning. Our results are consistent with a model whereby RGC axons guide formation of an astrocytic network that subsequently directs vessel development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L. O’Sullivan
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Vanessa M. Puñal
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Patrick C. Kerstein
- Vollum Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239 USA
| | - Joseph A. Brzezinski
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO, 80045 USA
| | - Tom Glaser
- Department of Cell Biology & Human Anatomy, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Kevin M. Wright
- Vollum Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239 USA
| | - Jeremy N. Kay
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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Chan-Ling T, Gole GA, Quinn GE, Adamson SJ, Darlow BA. Pathophysiology, screening and treatment of ROP: A multi-disciplinary perspective. Prog Retin Eye Res 2017; 62:77-119. [PMID: 28958885 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Revised: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The population of infants at risk for retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) varies by world region; in countries with well developed neonatal intensive care services, the highest risk infants are those born at less than 28 weeks gestational age (GA) and less than 1 kg at birth, while, in regions where many aspects of neonatal intensive and ophthalmological care are not routinely available, more mature infants up to 2000 g at birth and 37 weeks GA are also at risk for severe ROP. Treatment options for both groups of patients include standard retinal laser photocoagulation or, more recently, intravitreal anti-VEGF drugs. In addition to detection and treatment of ROP, this review highlights new opportunities created by telemedicine, where screening and diagnosis of ROP in remote locations can be undertaken by non-ophthalmologists using digital fundus cameras. The ophthalmological care of the ROP infant is undertaken in the wider context of neonatal care and general wellbeing of the infant. Because of this context, this review takes a multi-disciplinary perspective with contributions from retinal vascular biologists, pediatric ophthalmologists, an epidemiologist and a neonatologist. This review highlights the latest insights regarding cellular and molecular mechanisms in the formation of the retinal vasculature in the human infant, pathogenesis of ROP, detection and treatment of severe ROP, the risks and benefits of anti-VEGF therapy, the identification of new therapies over the horizon, and the optimal neonatal care regimen for best ROP outcomes, and the benefits and pitfalls of telemedicine in the remote screening and diagnosis of ROP, all of which have the potential to improve ROP outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tailoi Chan-Ling
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | - Glen A Gole
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Queensland, Qld Children's Hospital, Sth Brisbane, Qld 4101, Australia.
| | - Graham E Quinn
- Division of Ophthalmology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia and Department of Ophthalmology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Samuel J Adamson
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences and Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Brian A Darlow
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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Lateral thinking - Interocular symmetry and asymmetry in neurovascular patterning, in health and disease. Prog Retin Eye Res 2017; 59:131-157. [PMID: 28457789 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
No biological system or structure is likely to be perfectly symmetrical, or have identical right and left forms. This review explores the evidence for eye and visual pathway asymmetry, in health and in disease, and attempts to provide guidance for those studying the structure and function of the visual system, where recognition of symmetry or asymmetry may be essential. The principal question with regards to asymmetry is not 'are the eyes the same?', for some degree of asymmetry is pervasive, but 'when are they importantly different?'. Knowing if right and left eyes are 'importantly different' could have significant consequences for deciding whether right or left eyes are included in an analysis or for examining the association between a phenotype and ocular parameter. The presence of significant asymmetry would also have important implications for the design of normative databases of retinal and optic nerve metrics. In this review, we highlight not only the universal presence of asymmetry, but provide evidence that some elements of the visual system are inherently more asymmetric than others, pointing to the need for improved normative data to explain sources of asymmetry and their impact on determining associations with genetic, environmental or health-related factors and ultimately in clinical practice.
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18
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Leduc C, Etienne-Manneville S. Regulation of microtubule-associated motors drives intermediate filament network polarization. J Cell Biol 2017; 216:1689-1703. [PMID: 28432079 PMCID: PMC5461013 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201607045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Intermediate filaments (IFs) are key players in the control of cell morphology and structure as well as in active processes such as cell polarization, migration, and mechanoresponses. However, the regulatory mechanisms controlling IF dynamics and organization in motile cells are still poorly understood. In this study, we investigate the mechanisms leading to the polarized rearrangement of the IF network along the polarity axis. Using photobleaching and photoconversion experiments in glial cells expressing vimentin, glial fibrillary acidic protein, and nestin, we show that the distribution of cytoplasmic IFs results from a continuous turnover based on the cooperation of an actin-dependent retrograde flow and anterograde and retrograde microtubule-dependent transports. During wound-induced astrocyte polarization, IF transport becomes directionally biased from the cell center toward the cell front. Such asymmetry in the transport is mainly caused by a Cdc42- and atypical PKC-dependent inhibition of dynein-dependent retrograde transport. Our results show how polarity signaling can affect the dynamic turnover of the IF network to promote the polarization of the network itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Leduc
- Institut Pasteur Paris, Cell Polarity, Migration and Cancer Unit, UMR 3691, Equipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer, Centre National de la Recherché Scientifique, 75724 Paris, France
| | - Sandrine Etienne-Manneville
- Institut Pasteur Paris, Cell Polarity, Migration and Cancer Unit, UMR 3691, Equipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer, Centre National de la Recherché Scientifique, 75724 Paris, France.
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Cennamo G, Rossi C, Ruggiero P, de Crecchio G, Cennamo G. Study of the Radial Peripapillary Capillary Network in Congenital Optic Disc Anomalies With Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography. Am J Ophthalmol 2017; 176:1-8. [PMID: 28040527 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajo.2016.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the radial peripapillary capillary network with optical coherence tomography angiography (angio-OCT) in morning glory syndrome (MGS), optic disc colobomas, and optic disc pits, and to explore possible correlations between the neural vascular structure and the pathogenesis of congenital optic disc anomalies. DESIGN Prospective observational comparative case series. METHODS Fifteen eyes of 15 patients with congenital optic disc anomalies were enrolled in this study. All patients underwent angio-OCT. The scans were centered on optic discs. RESULTS The mean age at presentation was 33 years (range: 19-50 years). Congenital optic disc anomalies were identified in all 15 eyes. Three eyes had the characteristic funduscopic signs of MGS, and angio-OCT scans of the peripapillary retina revealed a dense microvascular network. Optic disc colobomas were found in 5 eyes, and the characteristic funduscopic signs of optic pits were found in 7 eyes. Angio-OCT showed the absence of a radial peripapillary microvascular network in these 12 eyes. CONCLUSION The finding that angio-OCT scans confirmed the presence of a peripapillary microvascular network only in MGS cases supports the hypothesis that a primary neuroectodermal abnormality and a secondary mesenchymal abnormality leads to MGS. Angio-OCT is a safe, rapid imaging technique that could shed light on the pathogenesis of rare diseases of the optic disc.
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20
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A biofidelic 3D culture model to study the development of brain cellular systems. Sci Rep 2016; 6:24953. [PMID: 27112667 PMCID: PMC4844952 DOI: 10.1038/srep24953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about how cells assemble as systems during corticogenesis to generate collective functions. We built a neurobiology platform that consists of fetal rat cerebral cortical cells grown within 3D silk scaffolds (SF). Ivermectin (Ivm), a glycine receptor (GLR) agonist, was used to modulate cell resting membrane potential (Vmem) according to methods described in a previous work that implicated Ivm in the arrangement and connectivity of cortical cell assemblies. The cells developed into distinct populations of neuroglial stem/progenitor cells, mature neurons or epithelial-mesenchymal cells. Importantly, the synchronized electrical activity in the newly developed cortical assemblies could be recorded as local field potential (LFP) measurements. This study therefore describes the first example of the development of a biologically relevant cortical plate assembly outside of the body. This model provides i) a preclinical basis for engineering cerebral cortex tissue autografts and ii) a biofidelic 3D culture model for investigating biologically relevant processes during the functional development of cerebral cortical cellular systems.
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21
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Pushchina EV, Shukla S, Varaksin AA, Obukhov DK. Cell proliferation and apoptosis in optic nerve and brain integration centers of adult trout Oncorhynchus mykiss after optic nerve injury. Neural Regen Res 2016; 11:578-90. [PMID: 27212918 PMCID: PMC4870914 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.180742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Fishes have remarkable ability to effectively rebuild the structure of nerve cells and nerve fibers after central nervous system injury. However, the underlying mechanism is poorly understood. In order to address this issue, we investigated the proliferation and apoptosis of cells in contralateral and ipsilateral optic nerves, after stab wound injury to the eye of an adult trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Heterogenous population of proliferating cells was investigated at 1 week after injury. TUNEL labeling gave a qualitative and quantitative assessment of apoptosis in the cells of optic nerve of trout 2 days after injury. After optic nerve injury, apoptotic response was investigated, and mass patterns of cell migration were found. The maximal concentration of apoptotic bodies was detected in the areas of mass clumps of cells. It is probably indicative of massive cell death in the area of high phagocytic activity of macrophages/microglia. At 1 week after optic nerve injury, we observed nerve cell proliferation in the trout brain integration centers: the cerebellum and the optic tectum. In the optic tectum, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)-immunopositive radial glia-like cells were identified. Proliferative activity of nerve cells was detected in the dorsal proliferative (matrix) area of the cerebellum and in parenchymal cells of the molecular and granular layers whereas local clusters of undifferentiated cells which formed neurogenic niches were observed in both the optic tectum and cerebellum after optic nerve injury. In vitro analysis of brain cells of trout showed that suspension cells compared with monolayer cells retain higher proliferative activity, as evidenced by PCNA immunolabeling. Phase contrast observation showed mitosis in individual cells and the formation of neurospheres which gradually increased during 1-4 days of culture. The present findings suggest that trout can be used as a novel model for studying neuronal regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeniya V. Pushchina
- Laboratory of Cytophysiology, A.V. Zhirmunsky Institute of Marine Biology Far Eastern Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Sachin Shukla
- Prof. Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, L.V. Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| | - Anatoly A. Varaksin
- Laboratory of Cytophysiology, A.V. Zhirmunsky Institute of Marine Biology Far Eastern Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Dmitry K. Obukhov
- St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya nab. 7/9, St. Petersburg, Russia
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23
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Tao C, Zhang X. Development of astrocytes in the vertebrate eye. Dev Dyn 2014; 243:1501-10. [PMID: 25236977 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes represent the earliest glial population in the embryonic optic nerve, contributing critically to retinal angiogenesis and formation of brain-retinal-barrier. Despite of many developmental and clinical implications of astrocytes, answers to some of the most fundamental questions of this unique type of glial cells remain elusive. This review provides an overview of the current knowledge about the origination, proliferation, and differentiation of astrocytes, their journey from the optic nerve toward the neuroretina, and their involvement in physiological and pathological development of the visual system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenqi Tao
- Stark Neuroscience Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana; Departments of Ophthalmology, Pathology, and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York
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Tiwari S, Dharmarajan S, Shivanna M, Otteson DC, Belecky-Adams TL. Histone deacetylase expression patterns in developing murine optic nerve. BMC DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2014; 14:30. [PMID: 25011550 PMCID: PMC4099093 DOI: 10.1186/1471-213x-14-30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background Histone deacetylases (HDACs) play important roles in glial cell development and in disease states within multiple regions of the central nervous system. However, little is known about HDAC expression or function within the optic nerve. As a first step in understanding the role of HDACs in optic nerve, this study examines the spatio-temporal expression patterns of methylated histone 3 (K9), acetylated histone 3 (K18), and HDACs 1–6 and 8–11 in the developing murine optic nerve head. Results Using RT-qPCR, western blot and immunofluorescence, three stages were analyzed: embryonic day 16 (E16), when astrocyte precursors are found in the optic stalk, postnatal day 5 (P5), when immature astrocytes and oligodendrocytes are found throughout the optic nerve, and P30, when optic nerve astrocytes and oligodendrocytes are mature. Acetylated and methylated histone H3 immunoreactivity was co-localized in the nuclei of most SOX2 positive glia within the optic nerve head and adjacent optic nerve at all developmental stages. HDACs 1–11 were expressed in the optic nerve glial cells at all three stages of optic nerve development in the mouse, but showed temporal differences in overall levels and subcellular localization. HDACs 1 and 2 were predominantly nuclear throughout optic nerve development and glial cell maturation. HDACs 3, 5, 6, 8, and 11 were predominantly cytoplasmic, but showed nuclear localization in at least one stage of optic nerve development. HDACs 4, 9 and10 were predominantly cytoplasmic, with little to no nuclear expression at any time during the developmental stages examined. Conclusions Our results showing that HDACs 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, and 11 were each localized to the nuclei of SOX2 positive glia at some stages of optic nerve development and maturation and extend previous reports of HDAC expression in the aging optic nerve. These HDACs are candidates for further research to understand how chromatin remodeling through acetylation, deacetylation and methylation contributes to glial development as well as their injury response.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Teri L Belecky-Adams
- Department of Biology, Center for Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 723 W Michigan St, Indianapolis IN-46202, India.
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Adherens junction treadmilling during collective migration. Nat Cell Biol 2014; 16:639-51. [PMID: 24929360 DOI: 10.1038/ncb2985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Collective cell migration is essential for both physiological and pathological processes. Adherens junctions (AJs) maintain the integrity of the migrating cell group and promote cell coordination while allowing cellular rearrangements. Here, we show that AJs undergo a continuous treadmilling along the lateral sides of adjacent leading cells. The treadmilling is driven by an actin-dependent rearward movement of AJs and is supported by the polarized recycling of N-cadherin. N-cadherin is mainly internalized at the cell rear and then recycled to the leading edge where it accumulates before being incorporated into forming AJs at the front of lateral cell-cell contacts. The polarized dynamics of AJs is controlled by a front-to-rear gradient of p120-catenin phosphorylation, which regulates polarized trafficking of N-cadherin. Perturbation of the GSK3-dependent phosphorylation of p120-catenin impacts on the stability of AJs, and the polarity and speed of leading cells during collective migration.
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Duan LJ, Takeda K, Fong GH. Hypoxia inducible factor-2α regulates the development of retinal astrocytic network by maintaining adequate supply of astrocyte progenitors. PLoS One 2014; 9:e84736. [PMID: 24475033 PMCID: PMC3903483 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we investigate the role of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-2α in coordinating the development of retinal astrocytic and vascular networks. Three Cre mouse lines were used to disrupt floxed Hif-2α, including Rosa26CreERT2, Tie2Cre, and GFAPCre. Global Hif-2α disruption by Rosa26CreERT2 led to reduced astrocytic and vascular development in neonatal retinas, whereas endothelial disruption by Tie2Cre had no apparent effects. Hif-2α deletion in astrocyte progenitors by GFAPCre significantly interfered with the development of astrocytic networks, which failed to reach the retinal periphery and were incapable of supporting vascular development. Perplexingly, the abundance of strongly GFAP+ mature astrocytes transiently increased at P0 before they began to lag behind the normal controls by P3. Pax2+ and PDGFRα+ astrocytic progenitors and immature astrocytes were dramatically diminished at all stages examined. Despite decreased number of astrocyte progenitors, their proliferation index or apoptosis was not altered. The above data can be reconciled by proposing that HIF-2α is required for maintaining the supply of astrocyte progenitors by slowing down their differentiation into non-proliferative mature astrocytes. HIF-2α deficiency in astrocyte progenitors may accelerate their differentiation into astrocytes, a change which greatly interferes with the replenishment of astrocyte progenitors due to insufficient time for proliferation. Rapidly declining progenitor supply may lead to premature cessation of astrocyte development. Given that HIF-2α protein undergoes oxygen dependent degradation, an interesting possibility is that retinal blood vessels may regulate astrocyte differentiation through their oxygen delivery function. While our findings support the consensus that retinal astrocytic template guides vascular development, they also raise the possibility that astrocytic and vascular networks may mutually regulate each other's development, mediated at least in part by HIF-2α.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Juan Duan
- The Center for Vascular Biology, Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Kotaro Takeda
- The Center for Vascular Biology, Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Guo-Hua Fong
- The Center for Vascular Biology, Department of Cell Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Schimmenti LA. Genetic and developmental basis of renal coloboma (papillorenal) syndrome. EXPERT REVIEW OF OPHTHALMOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1586/eop.09.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Hård AL, Smith LE, Hellström A. Nutrition, insulin-like growth factor-1 and retinopathy of prematurity. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2013; 18:136-142. [PMID: 23428885 PMCID: PMC3809333 DOI: 10.1016/j.siny.2013.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Retinopathy of prematurity is a potentially blinding disease starting with impaired retinal vessel growth in the neonatal period. Weeks to months later, peripheral retinal hypoxia induces pathologic neovascularization that may lead to retinal detachment and blindness. Current treatment strategies target late stage disease and it would be advantageous if retinopathy of prematurity could be prevented. Poor general growth after very preterm birth is a universal problem associated with increased risk of retinopathy. Loss of the maternal-fetal interaction results not only in loss of nutrients but also of other factors provided in utero. The importance of nutrition and factors such as insulin-like growth factor-1 and ω-3 long chain fatty acids for proper retinal vascularization has been defined in animal studies. Increasing evidence of the applicability of these findings to human infants is accumulating. This review focuses on factors essential for neonatal growth and possible strategies to improve growth and prevent retinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Lena Hård
- Section of Pediatric Ophthalmology, The Queen Silvia Children's Hospital, The Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, S-416 85 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Lois E Smith
- Department of Ophthalmology, Children's Hospital Boston, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Ann Hellström
- Section of Pediatric Ophthalmology, The Queen Silvia Children's Hospital, The Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, S-416 85 Göteborg, Sweden.
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Mutlu FM, Sarici SU. Treatment of retinopathy of prematurity: a review of conventional and promising new therapeutic options. Int J Ophthalmol 2013; 6:228-36. [PMID: 23641347 DOI: 10.3980/j.issn.2222-3959.2013.02.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), a retinal vascular disease of premature infants, continues to be a major cause of preventable childhood blindness all over the world. The incidence of ROP varies among countries, being influenced by the quality of the level of neonatal intensive care. Here, we discuss the potential treatments that are now available or will soon or probably be available for ROP. Although ablation of the avascular retina with laser photocoagulation remains the current gold standard and well established therapy for ROP, some new therapeutic options including angiostatic therapies are being explored based on our knowledge of the pathophysiology of the ROP and complications and efficacy of laser treatment. However, prevention of the development of severe ROP and screening for ROP seem to be the best strategy in avoiding visual impairment caused by ROP in premature infants. New therapeutic interventions including vascular endothelial growth factor antibody administration, gene therapy and supplemental therapies should be supported with evidence-based data for the treatment of ROP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatih Mehmet Mutlu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Gülhane Military Medical Academy and Medical School, Ankara, Turkey
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Parrilla M, Lillo C, Herrero-Turrión M, Arévalo R, Aijón J, Lara J, Velasco A. Pax2+ astrocytes in the fish optic nerve head after optic nerve crush. Brain Res 2013; 1492:18-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2012] [Revised: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 11/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Abstract
The development of the human eye requires a coordinated interplay between cells from different origins. The optic cup which is neuroectodermal in origin and derives from the neural tube, gives rise to the neuronal retina, the retinal pigmented epithelium, the epithelial layers of ciliary body and iris, and the iris musculature. The lens which is displaced into the optic cup during development originates from the surface ectoderm. Cells of the neural crest provide the ocular mesenchyme while ocular blood vessels are of mesodermal origin. The basic morphogenetic processes of eye development are completed at the end of the second month of embryonic life. However, for correct functioning further maturation processes are required which are not completed before birth or several months after. Examples are aqueous humor circulation, maturation of cones in the foveola, myelination of optic nerve axons and completion of the retinal vasculature.
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Edqvist PHD, Niklasson M, Vidal-Sanz M, Hallböök F, Forsberg-Nilsson K. Platelet-derived growth factor over-expression in retinal progenitors results in abnormal retinal vessel formation. PLoS One 2012; 7:e42488. [PMID: 22880002 PMCID: PMC3411765 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) plays an important role in development of the central nervous system, including the retina. Excessive PDGF signaling is associated with proliferative retinal disorders. We reported previously that transgenic mice in which PDGF-B was over-expressed under control of the nestin enhancer, nes/tk-PdgfB-lacZ, exhibited enhanced apoptosis in the developing corpus striatum. These animals display enlarged lateral ventricles after birth as well as behavioral aberrations as adults. Here, we report that in contrast to the relatively mild central nervous system phenotype, development of the retina is severely disturbed in nes/tk-PdgfB-lacZ mice. In transgenic retinas all nuclear layers were disorganized and photoreceptor segments failed to develop properly. Since astrocyte precursor cells did not populate the retina, retinal vascular progenitors could not form a network of vessels. With time, randomly distributed vessels resembling capillaries formed, but there were no large trunk vessels and the intraocular pressure was reduced. In addition, we observed a delayed regression of the hyaloid vasculature. The prolonged presence of this structure may contribute to the other abnormalities observed in the retina, including the defective lamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per-Henrik D. Edqvist
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology and Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mia Niklasson
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology and Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Finn Hallböök
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Karin Forsberg-Nilsson
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology and Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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33
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Parrilla M, Lillo C, Herrero-Turrión MJ, Arévalo R, Aijón J, Lara JM, Velasco A. Characterization of Pax2 expression in the goldfish optic nerve head during retina regeneration. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32348. [PMID: 22384226 PMCID: PMC3288081 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The Pax2 transcription factor plays a crucial role in axon-guidance and astrocyte differentiation in the optic nerve head (ONH) during vertebrate visual system development. However, little is known about its function during regeneration. The fish visual system is in continuous growth and can regenerate. Müller cells and astrocytes of the retina and ONH play an important role in these processes. We demonstrate that pax2a in goldfish is highly conserved and at least two pax2a transcripts are expressed in the optic nerve. Moreover, we show two different astrocyte populations in goldfish: Pax2+ astrocytes located in the ONH and S100+ astrocytes distributed throughout the retina and the ONH. After peripheral growth zone (PGZ) cryolesion, both Pax2+ and S100+ astrocytes have different responses. At 7 days after injury the number of Pax2+ cells is reduced and coincides with the absence of young axons. In contrast, there is an increase of S100+ astrocytes in the retina surrounding the ONH and S100+ processes in the ONH. At 15 days post injury, the PGZ starts to regenerate and the number of S100+ astrocytes increases in this region. Moreover, the regenerating axons reach the ONH and the pax2a gene expression levels and the number of Pax2+ cells increase. At the same time, S100+/GFAP+/GS+ astrocytes located in the posterior ONH react strongly. In the course of the regeneration, Müller cell vitreal processes surrounding the ONH are primarily disorganized and later increase in number. During the whole regenerative process we detect a source of Pax2+/PCNA+ astrocytes surrounding the posterior ONH. We demonstrate that pax2a expression and the Pax2+ astrocyte population in the ONH are modified during the PGZ regeneration, suggesting that they could play an important role in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Almudena Velasco
- Institute of Neuroscience of Castilla y Leon, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
- * E-mail:
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Sakimoto S, Kidoya H, Naito H, Kamei M, Sakaguchi H, Goda N, Fukamizu A, Nishida K, Takakura N. A role for endothelial cells in promoting the maturation of astrocytes through the apelin/APJ system in mice. Development 2012; 139:1327-35. [PMID: 22357924 DOI: 10.1242/dev.072330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between astrocytes and endothelial cells (ECs) are crucial for retinal vascular formation. Astrocytes induce migration and proliferation of ECs via their production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and, conversely, ECs induce maturation of astrocytes possibly by the secretion of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). Together with the maturation of astrocytes, this finalizes angiogenesis. Thus far, the mechanisms triggering LIF production in ECs are unclear. Here we show that apelin, a ligand for the endothelial receptor APJ, induces maturation of astrocytes mediated by the production of LIF from ECs. APJ (Aplnr)- and Apln-deficient mice show delayed angiogenesis; however, aberrant overgrowth of endothelial networks with immature astrocyte overgrowth was induced. When ECs were stimulated with apelin, LIF expression was upregulated and intraocular injection of LIF into APJ-deficient mice suppressed EC and astrocyte overgrowth. These data suggest an involvement of apelin/APJ in the maturation process of retinal angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susumu Sakimoto
- Department of Signal Transduction, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamada-oka, Suita, Osaka, Japan
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Abstract
PAX genes have been shown to be critically required for the development of specific tissues and organs during embryogenesis. In addition, PAX genes are expressed in a handful of adult tissues where they are thought to play important roles, usually different from those in embryogenesis. A common theme in adult tissues is a requirement for PAX gene expression in adult stem cell maintenance or tissue regeneration. The connections between adult stem cell PAX gene expression and cancer are intriguing, and the literature is replete with examples of PAX gene expression in either situation. Here we systematically review the literature and present an overview of postnatal PAX gene expression in normal and cancerous tissue. We discuss the potential link between PAX gene expression in adult tissue and cancer. In addition, we discuss whether persistent PAX gene expression in cancer is favorable or unfavorable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caiyun G Li
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine Stanford, CA, USA
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36
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaina Al-Mohtaseb
- Baylor College of Medicine, 1977 Butler Boulevard, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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37
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Nakamura-Ishizu A, Kurihara T, Okuno Y, Ozawa Y, Kishi K, Goda N, Tsubota K, Okano H, Suda T, Kubota Y. The formation of an angiogenic astrocyte template is regulated by the neuroretina in a HIF-1-dependent manner. Dev Biol 2011; 363:106-14. [PMID: 22226979 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2011.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Revised: 12/14/2011] [Accepted: 12/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The vascular and nervous systems display a high degree of cross-talk and depend on each other functionally. In the vascularization of the central nervous system, astrocytes have been thought to sense tissue oxygen levels in hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs)-dependent manner and control the vascular growth into the hypoxic area by secreting VEGF. However, recent genetic evidences demonstrate that not only astrocyte HIFs but also astrocyte VEGF expression is dispensable for developmental angiogenesis of the retina. This study demonstrates that hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha subunit (HIF-1α), a key transcription factor involved in cellular responses to hypoxia, is most abundantly expressed in the neuroretina, especially retinal progenitor cells (RPCs). A neuroretina-specific knockout of HIF-1α (αCre(+)Hif1α(flox/flox)) showed impaired vascular development characterized by decreased tip cell filopodia and reduced vessel branching. The astrocyte network was hypoplastic in αCre(+)Hif1α(flox/flox) mice. Mechanistically, platelet-derived growth factor A (PDGF-A), a mitogen for astrocytes, was downregulated in the neuroretina of αCre(+)Hif1α(flox/flox) mice. Supplementing PDGF-A restored reduced astrocytic and vascular density in αCre(+)Hif1α(flox/flox) mice. Our data demonstrates that the neuroretina but not astrocytes acts as a primary oxygen sensor which ultimately controls the retinal vascular development by regulating an angiogenic astrocyte template.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayako Nakamura-Ishizu
- Department of Cell Differentiation, The Sakaguchi Laboratory, School of Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan
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38
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Moon Y, Kim HJ, Kim JY, Kim H, Kim WR, Sun W. Different expression of human GFAP promoter-derived GFP in different subsets of astrocytes in the mouse brain. Anim Cells Syst (Seoul) 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/19768354.2011.611254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
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39
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Stenzel D, Lundkvist A, Sauvaget D, Busse M, Graupera M, van der Flier A, Wijelath ES, Murray J, Sobel M, Costell M, Takahashi S, Fässler R, Yamaguchi Y, Gutmann DH, Hynes RO, Gerhardt H. Integrin-dependent and -independent functions of astrocytic fibronectin in retinal angiogenesis. Development 2011; 138:4451-63. [PMID: 21880786 DOI: 10.1242/dev.071381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Fibronectin (FN) is a major component of the extracellular matrix and functions in cell adhesion, cell spreading and cell migration. In the retina, FN is transiently expressed and assembled on astrocytes (ACs), which guide sprouting tip cells and deposit a provisional matrix for sprouting angiogenesis. The precise function of FN in retinal angiogenesis is largely unknown. Using genetic tools, we show that astrocytes are the major source of cellular FN during angiogenesis in the mouse retina. Deletion of astrocytic FN reduces radial endothelial migration during vascular plexus formation in a gene dose-dependent manner. This effect correlates with reduced VEGF receptor 2 and PI3K/AKT signalling, and can be mimicked by selectively inhibiting VEGF-A binding to FN through intraocular injection of blocking peptides. By contrast, AC-specific replacement of the integrin-binding RGD sequence with FN-RGE or endothelial deletion of itga5 shows little effect on migration and PI3K/AKT signalling, but impairs filopodial alignment along AC processes, suggesting that FN-integrin α5β1 interaction is involved in filopodial adhesion to the astrocytic matrix. AC FN shares its VEGF-binding function and cell-surface distribution with heparan-sulfate (HS), and genetic deletion of both FN and HS together greatly enhances the migration defect, indicating a synergistic function of FN and HS in VEGF binding. We propose that in vivo the VEGF-binding properties of FN and HS promote directional tip cell migration, whereas FN integrin-binding functions to support filopodia adhesion to the astrocytic migration template.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise Stenzel
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, London Research Institute - Cancer Research UK, London WC2A 3PX, UK
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40
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Spangler SA, Jaarsma D, De Graaff E, Wulf PS, Akhmanova A, Hoogenraad CC. Differential expression of liprin-α family proteins in the brain suggests functional diversification. J Comp Neurol 2011; 519:3040-60. [DOI: 10.1002/cne.22665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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41
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Development of astroglia heterogeneously expressing Pax2, vimentin and GFAP during the ontogeny of the optic pathway of the lizard (Gallotia galloti): an immunohistochemical and ultrastructural study. Cell Tissue Res 2011; 345:295-311. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-011-1211-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2011] [Accepted: 07/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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42
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Kim JY, Sohn HJ, Seo JH. Characterization of the antigenic phenotype of αB-crystallin-expressing peripapillary glial cells in the developing chick retina. Anat Cell Biol 2011; 44:35-40. [PMID: 21519547 PMCID: PMC3080006 DOI: 10.5115/acb.2011.44.1.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2011] [Revised: 03/08/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Radial glia are transdifferentiated into astrocytes within the developing brain and spinal cord. The neural retina contains Müller cells, which are retinal radial glia. Some of the cells that surround the optic nerve head among Müller cells in the chicken retina are called peripapillary glial cells (PPGCs). PPGCs express different molecules compared to typical Müller cells. However, an antigenic PPGC phenotype has not yet been clearly established. In this study, we classified the antigenic PPGC phenotypes and identified the differentiation stages of these cells. At embryonic day (E)8, αB-crystallin-positive PPGCs had a bipolar shape with long processes that traversed entire layers of the retina. Pax2 and vimentin were expressed in αB-crystallin-positive PPGCs. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunoreactivity was not observed in PPGCs. At E18, αB-crystallin immunoreactivity disappeared from the vitread processes of PPGCs. However, the PPGC cell bodies and ventricular processes contained αB-crystallin protein, and the PPGCs retained the same Pax2-positive/vimentin-positive/GFAP-negative profile as that seen at E8. At post-hatch day 120, αB-crystallin and Pax2 immunoreactivity was not observed, but vimentin and GFAP expression was clearly observed in the presumptive location of the PPGCs. Furthermore, these two proteins overlapped within that location. Considering that vimentin expression is prolonged until the post-hatching period in chicken brain, these findings suggest that Pax2-negative/vimentin-positive/GFAP-positive PPGCs are phenotypically identical to mature astrocytes in this avian species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Young Kim
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Korea
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43
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Ontogeny of the conus papillaris of the lizard Gallotia galloti and cellular response following transection of the optic nerve: an immunohistochemical and ultrastructural study. Cell Tissue Res 2011; 344:63-83. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-011-1128-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2010] [Accepted: 12/27/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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44
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Pierfelice TJ, Schreck KC, Dang L, Asnaghi L, Gaiano N, Eberhart CG. Notch3 activation promotes invasive glioma formation in a tissue site-specific manner. Cancer Res 2011; 71:1115-25. [PMID: 21245095 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-0690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Although Notch signaling has been widely implicated in neoplastic growth, direct evidence for in vivo initiation of neoplasia by the pathway in murine models has been limited to tumors of lymphoid, breast, and choroid plexus cells. To examine tumorigenic potential in the eye and brain, we injected retroviruses encoding activated forms of Notch1, Notch2, or Notch3 into embryonic mice. Interestingly, the majority of animals infected with active Notch3 developed proliferative lesions comprised of pigmented ocular choroid cells, retinal and optic nerve glia, and lens epithelium. Notch3-induced lesions in the choroid, retina, and optic nerve were capable of invading adjacent tissues, suggesting that they were malignant tumors. Although Notch3 activation induced choroidal tumors in up to 67% of eyes, Notch1 or Notch2 activation never resulted in such tumors. Active forms of Notch1 and Notch2 did generate a few small proliferative glial nodules in the retina and optic nerve, whereas Notch3 was 10-fold more efficient at generating growths, many of which were large invasive gliomas. Expression of active Notch1/Notch3 chimeric receptors implicated the RBPjk-association molecule and transactivation domains of Notch3 in generating choroidal and glial tumors, respectively. In contrast to our findings in the optic nerve and retina, introduction of active Notch receptors, including Notch3, into the brain never caused glial tumors. Our results highlight the differential ability of Notch receptor paralogs to initiate malignant tumor formation, and suggest that glial precursors of the optic nerve, but not the brain, are susceptible to transformation by Notch3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarran J Pierfelice
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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45
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Abstract
The optic disc represents the anterior end of the optic nerve, the most forward extension of the central nervous system (CNS). The optic disc gives a rare glimpse into the CNS. Hence, diseases of the CNS are often manifested on fundus examination. Abnormalities of the optic disc may reflect eye disease (such as glaucoma), problems in development (as in various syndromes), or CNS disease (such as increased intracranial pressure). Each optic nerve is composed of about 1.2 million axons deriving from the retinal ganglion cells of one eye. Optic atrophy is a morphological sequela reflecting the loss of many or all of these axons. Myriad diseases such as hereditary, metabolic, tumor, and increased intracranial pressure can lead to optic atrophy. Some diseases, such as optic disc drusen, intracranial masses, orbital tumors, ischemic optic neuropathies, inflammations, and infiltrations, can produce optic disc edema before leading to optic atrophy. A number of new imaging modalities, such as optical coherence tomography (OCT), quantitate the thickness of the peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer as an indirect measure of axonal loss or swelling. OCT can therefore be used to quantitate pathology or the response to therapy in various generalized CNS conditions, such as multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo A Sadun
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Neurosurgery, Doheny Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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46
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Gui H, Li ML, Tsai CC. A tale of tailless. Dev Neurosci 2010; 33:1-13. [PMID: 21124006 DOI: 10.1159/000321585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2010] [Accepted: 09/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Drosophila Tailless(Tll) and its vertebrate homologue Tlx are conserved orphan nuclear receptors specifically expressed in the eye and the forebrain. Tll and Tlx act primarily as transcriptional repressors through their interactions with transcriptional corepressors, Atrophin family proteins, and histone-tail/chromatin-modifying factors such as lysine-specific histone demethylase 1 and histone deacetylases. The functional importance of Tll and Tlx is made apparent by the recent discovery that they are expressed in neural stem cells (NSCs) and are required for self-renewal of these cells in both Drosophila and the mouse. This review provides a snapshot of current knowledge about Tll and Tlx and their transcriptional network, which maintains NSCs in developing and adult animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxing Gui
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, N.J., USA.
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47
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Xu XL, Lee TC, Offor N, Cheng C, Liu A, Fang Y, Jhanwar SC, Abramson DH, Cobrinik D. Tumor-associated retinal astrocytes promote retinoblastoma cell proliferation through production of IGFBP-5. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2010; 177:424-35. [PMID: 20508032 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2010.090512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Retinoblastomas consist of cone-like neoplastic cells and diverse non-neoplastic cells whose roles in tumorigenesis have not been defined. Here, we investigated the glial cells that constitute 2% to 3% of the cells in retinoblastoma tumors, including their origin, their relationship to a potential retinoblastoma stem cell population, and their effects on tumor cell proliferation. Retinoblastoma glia consistently expressed the retinal astrocyte marker Pax2 but inconsistently expressed the Müller cell and occasional astrocyte marker CRALBP. Many of the glia expressed the stem cell-associated Sox2 but nevertheless were non-neoplastic as they coexpressed Rb and/or retained two RB1 alleles. Conversely, the glia were distinct from the non-neoplastic cells that strongly expressed the stem cell-associated ABCG2. Adherent Pax2(+),Sox2(+),Rb(+) glia readily grew from explanted retinoblastomas and produced soluble factors that enhanced the proliferation of cocultured retinoblastoma cells. This effect was emulated by normal retinal glia and appeared to be mediated by insulin-like growth factor binding protein-5 (IGFBP-5), as it was mimicked by recombinant IGFBP-5 and mitigated by neutralizing IGFBP-5 antibody. As glia-derived IGFBP-5 was earlier found to promote photoreceptor survival, our findings indicate that retinal astrocytes enhance the proliferation of cone-like retinoblastoma cells by deploying a factor that also provides trophic support to the tumor cells' non-neoplastic counterparts. These observations suggest that a tissue-specific microenvironmental feature cooperates with oncogenic mutations in a cancer cell of origin to promote retinoblastoma tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoliang L Xu
- Dyson Vision Research Institute, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
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48
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Uemura A. Pharmacological treatment of retinopathy of prematurity: antiangiogenic or proangiogenic? EXPERT REVIEW OF OPHTHALMOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.1586/eop.10.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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49
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Alur RP, Vijayasarathy C, Brown JD, Mehtani M, Onojafe IF, Sergeev YV, Boobalan E, Jones M, Tang K, Liu H, Xia CH, Gong X, Brooks BP. Papillorenal syndrome-causing missense mutations in PAX2/Pax2 result in hypomorphic alleles in mouse and human. PLoS Genet 2010; 6:e1000870. [PMID: 20221250 PMCID: PMC2832668 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2009] [Accepted: 02/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Papillorenal syndrome (PRS, also known as renal-coloboma syndrome) is an autosomal dominant disease characterized by potentially-blinding congenital optic nerve excavation and congenital kidney abnormalities. Many patients with PRS have mutations in the paired box transcription factor gene, PAX2. Although most mutations in PAX2 are predicted to result in complete loss of one allele's function, three missense mutations have been reported, raising the possibility that more subtle alterations in PAX2 function may be disease-causing. To date, the molecular behaviors of these mutations have not been explored. We describe a novel mouse model of PRS due to a missense mutation in a highly-conserved threonine residue in the paired domain of Pax2 (p.T74A) that recapitulates the ocular and kidney findings of patients. This mutation is in the Pax2 paired domain at the same location as two human missense mutations. We show that all three missense mutations disrupt potentially critical hydrogen bonds in atomic models and result in reduced Pax2 transactivation, but do not affect nuclear localization, steady state mRNA levels, or the ability of Pax2 to bind its DNA consensus sequence. Moreover, these mutations show reduced steady-state levels of Pax2 protein in vitro and (for p.T74A) in vivo, likely by reducing protein stability. These results suggest that hypomorphic alleles of PAX2/Pax2 can lead to significant disease in humans and mice. Congenital ocular malformations affecting the optic nerve are an important cause of childhood blindness. The papillorenal syndrome (PRS) is an autosomal dominant disorder that causes congenital optic nerve and kidney abnormalities, which may result in legal blindness and renal failure, respectively. Many cases of PRS are caused by mutations in the paired-box transcription factor PAX2. In this paper, we describe a novel mouse model of this human disease caused by a missense mutation in the Pax2 gene at the same position of one of the few disease-causing missense mutations in humans. We characterize the ocular and non-ocular phenotypes of this mouse and model the effect that murine and human Pax2/PAX2 mutations have on protein structure. We also experimentally test the effect these missense mutations have on protein localization, transactivation, and DNA binding, concluding that all three reduce steady-state levels of protein in vitro and (in p.T74A) in vivo by reducing protein stability. This work will help us better understand the pathophysiology of PRS and to dissect the molecular interactions important in normal PAX2 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramakrishna P. Alur
- Ophthalmic Genetics and Visual Function Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Camasamudram Vijayasarathy
- Section for Translational Research in Retinal and Macular Degeneration, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jacob D. Brown
- Ophthalmic Genetics and Visual Function Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular and Cellular Biology, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, D.C., United States of America
| | - Mohit Mehtani
- Ophthalmic Genetics and Visual Function Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ighovie F. Onojafe
- Ophthalmic Genetics and Visual Function Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Yuri V. Sergeev
- Ophthalmic Genetics and Visual Function Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Elangovan Boobalan
- Ophthalmic Genetics and Visual Function Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - MaryPat Jones
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ke Tang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Haiquan Liu
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Program, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Chun-hong Xia
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Program, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Xiaohua Gong
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Program, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Brian P. Brooks
- Section for Translational Research in Retinal and Macular Degeneration, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular and Cellular Biology, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, D.C., United States of America
- * E-mail:
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MHC class II expression by beta2 integrin (CD18)-positive microglia, macrophages and macrophage-like cells in rabbit retina. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 4:285-94. [PMID: 19575844 DOI: 10.1017/s1740925x0999007x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the developmental expression of major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) by microglia and macrophages and their relationship to blood vessels in the retina, a representative tissue of the central nervous system. Such information is crucial to understanding the role of these cells in immune surveillance. Wholemount preparations of retinas from late embryonic, postnatal and adult rabbits were subjected to three-colour fluorescence microscopy using beta2 integrin (CD18) and MHCII antibodies and biotinylated Griffonia simplicifolia B4 isolectin labelling of blood vessels. CD18+ cells consistently exhibited characteristics of macrophages or microglia in the vascularized and non-vascularized regions of the retina, respectively. At all ages, MHCII was expressed by a high proportion of cells in the vascularized region, which contained macrophage-like 'parenchymal cells' as well as typical perivascular macrophages. MHCII expression by ramified microglia, first detected on postnatal day 30, was lower in the peripheral retina and intermediate in the avascular region of the myelinated streak. The observed localization of MHCII+ cells in relation to blood vessels and location-dependent differences in MHCII expression point to the possibility that these cells may be distributed strategically within the retina to provide multiple lines of defence against immune challenge arriving via the retinal vasculature.
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