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Lorey MB, Öörni K, Kovanen PT. Modified Lipoproteins Induce Arterial Wall Inflammation During Atherogenesis. Front Cardiovasc Med 2022; 9:841545. [PMID: 35310965 PMCID: PMC8927694 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2022.841545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Circulating apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins, notably the low-density lipoproteins, enter the inner layer of the arterial wall, the intima, where a fraction of them is retained and modified by proteases, lipases, and oxidizing agents and enzymes. The modified lipoproteins and various modification products, such as fatty acids, ceramides, lysophospholipids, and oxidized lipids induce inflammatory reactions in the macrophages and the covering endothelial cells, initiating an increased leukocyte diapedesis. Lipolysis of the lipoproteins also induces the formation of cholesterol crystals with strong proinflammatory properties. Modified and aggregated lipoproteins, cholesterol crystals, and lipoproteins isolated from human atherosclerotic lesions, all can activate macrophages and thereby induce the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and enzymes. The extent of lipoprotein retention, modification, and aggregation have been shown to depend largely on differences in the composition of the circulating lipoprotein particles. These properties can be modified by pharmacological means, and thereby provide opportunities for clinical interventions regarding the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic vascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina B. Lorey
- Atherosclerosis Research Laboratory, Wihuri Research Institute, Helsinki, Finland
- Molecular and Integrative Biosciences, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Katariina Öörni
- Atherosclerosis Research Laboratory, Wihuri Research Institute, Helsinki, Finland
- Molecular and Integrative Biosciences, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- *Correspondence: Katariina Öörni
| | - Petri T. Kovanen
- Atherosclerosis Research Laboratory, Wihuri Research Institute, Helsinki, Finland
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2
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Lipid Droplets, Phospholipase A 2, Arachidonic Acid, and Atherosclerosis. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9121891. [PMID: 34944707 PMCID: PMC8699036 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9121891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipid droplets, classically regarded as static storage organelles, are currently considered as dynamic structures involved in key processes of lipid metabolism, cellular homeostasis and signaling. Studies on the inflammatory state of atherosclerotic plaques suggest that circulating monocytes interact with products released by endothelial cells and may acquire a foamy phenotype before crossing the endothelial barrier and differentiating into macrophages. One such compound released in significant amounts into the bloodstream is arachidonic acid, the common precursor of eicosanoids, and a potent inducer of neutral lipid synthesis and lipid droplet formation in circulating monocytes. Members of the family of phospholipase A2, which hydrolyze the fatty acid present at the sn-2 position of phospholipids, have recently emerged as key controllers of lipid droplet homeostasis, regulating their formation and the availability of fatty acids for lipid mediator production. In this paper we discuss recent findings related to lipid droplet dynamics in immune cells and the ways these organelles are involved in regulating arachidonic acid availability and metabolism in the context of atherosclerosis.
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3
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Dacheux M, Chaouch S, Joy A, Labat A, Payré C, Petit-Paitel A, Bihl F, Lagrange I, Grellier P, Touqui L, Lambeau G, Deregnaucourt C. Role of human group IIA secreted phospholipase A2 in malaria pathophysiology: Insights from a transgenic mouse model. Biochimie 2021; 189:120-136. [PMID: 34175441 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2021.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
We previously showed that injection of recombinant human group IIA secreted phospholipase A2 (hGIIA sPLA2) to Plasmodium chabaudi-infected mice lowers parasitaemia by 20%. Here, we show that transgenic (TG) mice overexpressing hGIIA sPLA2 have a peak of parasitaemia about 30% lower than WT littermates. During infection, levels of circulating sPLA2, enzymatic activity and plasma lipid peroxidation were maximal at day-14, the peak of parasitaemia. Levels of hGIIA mRNA increased in liver but not in spleen and blood cells, suggesting that liver may contribute as a source of circulating hGIIA sPLA2. Before infection, baseline levels of leukocytes and pro-inflammatory cytokines were higher in TG mice than WT littermates. Upon infection, the number of neutrophils, lymphocytes and monocytes increased and were maximal at the peak of parasitaemia in both WT and TG mice, but were higher in TG mice. Similarly, levels of the Th1 cytokines IFN-γ and IL-2 increased in WT and TG mice, but were 7.7- and 1.7-fold higher in TG mice. The characteristic shift towards Th2 cytokines was observed during infection in both WT and TG mice, with increased levels of IL-10 and IL-4 at day-14. The current data are in accordance with our previous in vitro findings showing that hGIIA kills parasites by releasing toxic lipids from oxidized lipoproteins. They further show that hGIIA sPLA2 is induced during mouse experimental malaria and has a protective in vivo role, lowering parasitaemia by likely releasing toxic lipids from oxidized lipoproteins but also indirectly by promoting a more sustained innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Dacheux
- UMR 7245 Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, CP52, 61 rue Buffon, Paris Cedex 05 75231, France
| | - Soraya Chaouch
- UMR 7245 Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, CP52, 61 rue Buffon, Paris Cedex 05 75231, France
| | - Alonso Joy
- UMR 7245 Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, CP52, 61 rue Buffon, Paris Cedex 05 75231, France
| | - Amandine Labat
- UMR 7245 Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, CP52, 61 rue Buffon, Paris Cedex 05 75231, France
| | - Christine Payré
- Université Côte d'Azur (UCA), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IPMC), UMR7275, Valbonne Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Agnès Petit-Paitel
- Université Côte d'Azur (UCA), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IPMC), UMR7275, Valbonne Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Franck Bihl
- Université Côte d'Azur (UCA), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IPMC), UMR7275, Valbonne Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Isabelle Lagrange
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, BioPôle, Laboratoire d'hématologie, 94704 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Philippe Grellier
- UMR 7245 Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, CP52, 61 rue Buffon, Paris Cedex 05 75231, France
| | - Lhousseine Touqui
- Cystic fibrosis and Bronchial diseases team - INSERM U938, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France; Sorbonne Université, INSERM UMRS938, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine (CRSA), 75012 Paris, France
| | - Gérard Lambeau
- Université Côte d'Azur (UCA), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IPMC), UMR7275, Valbonne Sophia Antipolis, France.
| | - Christiane Deregnaucourt
- UMR 7245 Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, CP52, 61 rue Buffon, Paris Cedex 05 75231, France.
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4
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Morris G, Berk M, Walder K, O'Neil A, Maes M, Puri BK. The lipid paradox in neuroprogressive disorders: Causes and consequences. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 128:35-57. [PMID: 34118292 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chronic systemic inflammation is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease in an environment of low low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and low total cholesterol and with the pathophysiology of neuroprogressive disorders. The causes and consequences of this lipid paradox are explored. Circulating activated neutrophils can release inflammatory molecules such as myeloperoxidase and the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha. Since activated neutrophils are associated with atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease and with major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, it seems reasonable to hypothesise that the inflammatory molecules released by them may act as mediators of the link between systemic inflammation and the development of atherosclerosis in neuroprogressive disorders. This hypothesis is tested by considering the association at a molecular level of systemic inflammation with increased LDL oxidation; increased small dense LDL levels; increased lipoprotein (a) concentration; secretory phospholipase A2 activation; cytosolic phospholipase A2 activation; increased platelet activation; decreased apolipoprotein A1 levels and function; decreased paroxonase-1 activity; hyperhomocysteinaemia; and metabolic endotoxaemia. These molecular mechanisms suggest potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerwyn Morris
- Deakin University, IMPACT - the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
| | - Michael Berk
- Deakin University, IMPACT - the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia; Deakin University, CMMR Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Geelong, Victoria, Australia; Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, the Department of Psychiatry and the Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ken Walder
- Deakin University, IMPACT - the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
| | - Adrienne O'Neil
- Deakin University, IMPACT - the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
| | - Michael Maes
- Deakin University, IMPACT - the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia; Department of Psychiatry, King Chulalongkorn University Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand
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5
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Fras Z, Tršan J, Banach M. On the present and future role of Lp-PLA 2 in atherosclerosis-related cardiovascular risk prediction and management. Arch Med Sci 2021; 17:954-964. [PMID: 34336025 PMCID: PMC8314407 DOI: 10.5114/aoms.2020.98195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Circulating concentration and activity of secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) and lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) have been proven as biomarkers of increased risk of atherosclerosis-related cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Lp-PLA2 might be part of the atherosclerotic process and may contribute to plaque destabilisation through inflammatory activity within atherosclerotic lesions. However, all attempts to translate the inhibition of phospholipase into clinically beneficial ASCVD risk reduction, including in randomised studies, by either non-specific inhibition of sPLA2 (by varespladib) or specific Lp-PLA2 inhibition by darapladib, unexpectedly failed. This gives us a strong imperative to continue research aimed at a better understanding of how Lp-PLA2 and sPLA2 regulate vascular inflammation and atherosclerotic plaque development. From the clinical viewpoint there is a need to establish and validate the existing and emerging novel anti-inflammatory therapeutic strategies to fight against ASCVD development, by using potentially better animal models and differently designed clinical trials in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zlatko Fras
- Centre for Preventive Cardiology, Department of Vascular Medicine, Division of Medicine, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Chair of Internal Medicine, Medical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jure Tršan
- Centre for Preventive Cardiology, Department of Vascular Medicine, Division of Medicine, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Medical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Maciej Banach
- Department of Hypertension, Medical University of Lodz, Poland
- Polish Mother’s Memorial Hospital Research Institute, Lodz, Poland
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6
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Specific inhibition of SHP2 suppressed abdominal aortic aneurysm formation in mice by augmenting the immunosuppressive function of MDSCs. Life Sci 2020; 265:118751. [PMID: 33189823 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To address the roles of SHP2 in regulating angiotensin II (Ang II) induced abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) and the potential molecular mechanisms. MAIN METHODS AAA model was established in apolipoprotein E-deficient (apoE-/-) mice infused with Ang II. Suprarenal aortic luminal diameters were ultrasonically measured to determine the presentation of AAA in mice. The inflammatory and immunosuppressive factors in serum were detected by ELISA. AAA lesion size, positive macrophages and elastic laminae degradation were examined by histological analysis. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) were measured by flow cytometry after magnetic bead sorting. Bioinformatics analysis was applied to screen the crucial genes related the progression of AAA. KEY FINDINGS Treatment with PHPS1 (SHP2 inhibitor) significantly decreased the vascular diameter of AAA. Histological analysis showed that PHPS1 obviously reduced the Masson positive area, macrophages positive area, as well as the damage rate of elastic laminae. Moreover, PHPS1 suppressed the expression of INF-γ, TNF-α and MMPs, as well as elevated IL-10 and arginase-1 expression. Additionally, PHPS1 enhanced the expression of granulocytic MDSCs (G-MDSCs). By consulting with bioinformatics, STAT3 was selected. In G-MDSCs, PHPS1 stimulation obviously increased the phosphorylation level of STAT3, as well as elevated the protein expression of C/EBPβ and arginase-1. However, the above phenomena can be blocked after Stattic (STAT3 inhibitor) treatment. SIGNIFICANCE SHP2 may affect the AAA progression by interfering with expansion and function of MDSCs to regulate the body immunity, which might afford a novel direction for the treatment of patients with AAA.
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7
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Antimalarial Activity of Human Group IIA Secreted Phospholipase A 2 in Relation to Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Oxidized Lipoproteins. Infect Immun 2019; 87:IAI.00556-19. [PMID: 31405958 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00556-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The level of human group IIA secreted phospholipase A2 (hGIIA sPLA2) is increased in the plasma of malaria patients, but its role is unknown. In parasite culture with normal plasma, hGIIA is inactive against Plasmodium falciparum, contrasting with hGIIF, hGV, and hGX sPLA2s, which readily hydrolyze plasma lipoproteins, release nonesterified fatty acids (NEFAs), and inhibit parasite growth. Here, we revisited the anti-Plasmodium activity of hGIIA under conditions closer to those of malaria physiopathology where lipoproteins are oxidized. In parasite culture containing oxidized lipoproteins, hGIIA sPLA2 was inhibitory, with a 50% inhibitory concentration value of 150.0 ± 40.8 nM, in accordance with its capacity to release NEFAs from oxidized particles. With oxidized lipoproteins, hGIIF, hGV, and hGX sPLA2s were also more potent, by 4.6-, 2.1-, and 1.9-fold, respectively. Using specific immunoassays, we found that hGIIA sPLA2 is increased in plasma from 41 patients with malaria over levels for healthy donors (median [interquartile range], 1.6 [0.7 to 3.4] nM versus 0.0 [0.0 to 0.1] nM, respectively; P < 0.0001). Other sPLA2s were not detected. Malaria plasma, but not normal plasma, contains oxidized lipoproteins and was inhibitory to P. falciparum when spiked with hGIIA sPLA2 Injection of recombinant hGIIA into mice infected with P. chabaudi reduced the peak of parasitemia, and this was effective only when the level of plasma peroxidation was increased during infection. In conclusion, we propose that malaria-induced oxidation of lipoproteins converts these into a preferential substrate for hGIIA sPLA2, promoting its parasite-killing effect. This mechanism may contribute to host defense against P. falciparum in malaria where high levels of hGIIA are observed.
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8
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Knerr L, Giordanetto F, Nordberg P, Pettersen D, Selmi N, Beisel HG, de la Motte H, Olsson T, Perkins TDJ, Herslöf M, Månsson Å, Dahlström M, Starke I, Broddefalk J, Saarinen G, Klingegård F, Hurt-Camejo E, Rosengren B, Brengdahl J, Jansen F, Rohman M, Sandmark J, Hallberg K, Åkerud T, Roth RG, Ahlqvist M. Discovery of a Series of Indole-2 Carboxamides as Selective Secreted Phospholipase A 2 Type X (sPLA 2-X) Inhibitors. ACS Med Chem Lett 2018; 9:594-599. [PMID: 30034585 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.7b00505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to assess the potential of sPLA2-X as a therapeutic target for atherosclerosis, novel sPLA2 inhibitors with improved type X selectivity are required. To achieve the objective of identifying such compounds, we embarked on a lead generation effort that resulted in the identification of a novel series of indole-2-carboxamides as selective sPLA2-X inhibitors with excellent potential for further optimization.
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9
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Abstract
The importance of inflammation and inflammatory pathways in atherosclerotic disease and acute coronary syndromes (ACS) is well established. The success of statin therapy rests not only on potently reducing levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, but also on the many beneficial, pleiotropic effects statin therapy has on various inflammatory mechanisms in atherosclerotic disease, from reducing endothelial dysfunction to attenuating levels of serum C-reactive protein. Due to the growing awareness of the importance of inflammation in ACS, investigators have attempted to develop novel therapies against known markers of inflammation for several decades. Targeted pathways have ranged from inhibiting C5 cleavage with a high-affinity monoclonal antibody against C5 to inhibiting the activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling cascades. In each of these instances, despite promising early preclinical and mechanistic studies and phase 2 trials suggesting a potential benefit in reducing post-MI complications or restenosis, these novel therapies have failed to show benefits during large, phase 3 clinical outcomes trials. This review discusses several examples of novel anti-inflammatory therapies that failed to show significant improvement on clinical outcomes when tested in large, randomized trials and highlights potential explanations for why targeted therapies against known markers of inflammation in ACS have failed to launch.
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Key Words
- ACS, acute coronary syndromes
- CABG, coronary artery bypass graft
- CAD, coronary artery disease
- HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol
- IL, interleukin
- LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
- Lp-PLA2, lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2
- MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- MI, myocardial infarction
- NSTEMI, non–ST-segment myocardial infarction
- PCI, percutaneous coronary intervention
- PSGL, P-selectin glycoprotein ligand
- STEMI, ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction
- SVG, saphenous vein grafts
- TBR, tissue-to-background ratio
- acute coronary syndrome
- anti-inflammatory
- drug targets
- hsCRP, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein
- sPLA2, secretory phospholipase A2
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10
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Thomas MR, Lip GYH. Novel Risk Markers and Risk Assessments for Cardiovascular Disease. Circ Res 2017; 120:133-149. [PMID: 28057790 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.116.309955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2016] [Revised: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The use of risk markers has transformed cardiovascular medicine, exemplified by the routine assessment of troponin, for both diagnosis and assessment of prognosis in patients with chest pain. Clinical risk factors form the basis for risk assessment of cardiovascular disease and the addition of biochemical, cellular, and imaging parameters offers further refinement. Identifying novel risk factors may allow greater risk stratification and a steady, but gradual progression toward precision medicine. Indeed, the generation of data in this area of research is explosive and when combined with new technologies and techniques provides the potential for more refined, targeted approaches to cardiovascular medicine. Although discussing the most recent developments in this field, this review article aims to strike a balance between novelty and validity by focusing on recent large sample-size studies that have been validated in a separate cohort in most cases. Risk markers related to atherosclerosis, thrombosis, inflammation, cardiac injury, and fibrosis are introduced in the context of their pathophysiology. Rapidly developing new areas, such as assessment of micro-RNA, are also explored. Subsequently the prognostic ability of these risk markers in coronary artery disease, heart failure, and atrial fibrillation is discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Thomas
- From the University of Birmingham Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, City Hospital, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom (M.R.T., G.Y.H.L.); and Aalborg Thrombosis Research Unit, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Denmark (G.Y.H.L.)
| | - Gregory Y H Lip
- From the University of Birmingham Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, City Hospital, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom (M.R.T., G.Y.H.L.); and Aalborg Thrombosis Research Unit, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Denmark (G.Y.H.L.).
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11
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Bag-Ozbek A, Giles JT. Inflammation, adiposity, and atherogenic dyslipidemia in rheumatoid arthritis: is there a paradoxical relationship? Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2015; 15:497. [PMID: 25504261 DOI: 10.1007/s11882-014-0497-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Dyslipidemia is highly prevalent in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and appears to be present very early in the RA disease process, in some studies even before a diagnosis of clinical RA has been made. The association between lipid measures and the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in RA appears to be paradoxical, whereby lower levels of total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein (LDL-C), and atherogenic ratios are associated with higher CVD risk. This may be due to the lipid-lowering effects of RA-related systemic inflammation. Therefore, standard CVD risk calculators have been shown to underperform in RA. Data also suggest that lipoprotein particle sizes and the apolipoprotein cargo of lipoproteins skew toward atherogenic dyslipidemia in RA and may contribute to the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis. Inflammatory burden in RA may also alter the anti-inflammatory and atheroprotective roles associated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). Adipose tissue is quantitatively increased in RA patients compared with matched non-RA controls and may be more inflamed and metabolically dysfunctional compared with an otherwise similar non-RA patient. In vitro, animal, and a handful of non-RA human, studies suggest that inflamed, metabolically dysfunctional adipose tissue contributes directly to lower HDL-C levels. In turn, lower HDL-C that has been altered functionally by inflammation may lead to expanded adipose mass and further adipose dysfunction and inflammation. In the last part of this review, we speculate how the RA disease state may recapitulate these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayse Bag-Ozbek
- Division of Rheumatology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, 630 W 168th St, Physicians and Surgeons Building, Suite 10-445, New York, NY, 10032, USA
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12
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Guijas C, Rodríguez JP, Rubio JM, Balboa MA, Balsinde J. Phospholipase A2 regulation of lipid droplet formation. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2015; 1841:1661-71. [PMID: 25450448 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The classical regard of lipid droplets as mere static energy-storage organelles has evolved dramatically. Nowadays these organelles are known to participate in key processes of cell homeostasis, and their abnormal regulation is linked to several disorders including metabolic diseases (diabetes, obesity, atherosclerosis or hepatic steatosis), inflammatory responses in leukocytes, cancer development and neurodegenerative diseases. Hence, the importance of unraveling the cell mechanisms controlling lipid droplet biosynthesis, homeostasis and degradation seems evident Phospholipase A2s, a family of enzymes whose common feature is to hydrolyze the fatty acid present at the sn-2 position of phospholipids, play pivotal roles in cell signaling and inflammation. These enzymes have recently emerged as key regulators of lipid droplet homeostasis, regulating their formation at different levels. This review summarizes recent results on the roles that various phospholipase A2 forms play in the regulation of lipid droplet biogenesis under different conditions. These roles expand the already wide range of functions that these enzymes play in cell physiology and pathophysiology.
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13
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Guardiola M, Exeter HJ, Perret C, Folkersen L, van’t Hooft F, Eriksson P, Franco-Cereceda A, Paulsson-Berne G, Palmen J, Li K, Cooper JA, Khaw KT, Mallat Z, Ninio E, Karabina SA, Humphries SE, Boekholdt SM, Holmes MV, Talmud PJ. PLA2G10
Gene Variants, sPLA2 Activity, and Coronary Heart Disease Risk. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 8:356-62. [DOI: 10.1161/circgenetics.114.000633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background—
Observational studies report that secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) activity is a marker for coronary heart disease (CHD) risk, and activity measures are thought to represent the composite activity of sPLA2-IIA, -V, and -X. The aim of this study was to use genetic variants of
PLA2G10
, encoding sPLA2-X, to investigate the contribution of sPLA2-X to the measure of sPLA2 activity and coronary heart disease (CHD) risk traits and outcome.
Methods and Results—
Three
PLA2G10
tagging single-nucleotide polymorphisms (rs72546339, rs72546340, and rs4003232) and a previously studied
PLA2G10
coding single-nucleotide polymorphism rs4003228, R38C, were genotyped in a nested case: control cohort drawn from the prospective EPIC-Norfolk Study (2175 cases and 2175 controls). Meta-analysis of rs4003228 (R38C) and CHD was performed using data from the Northwick Park Heart Study II and 2 published cohorts AtheroGene and SIPLAC, providing in total an additional 1884 cases and 3119 controls. EPIC-Norfolk subjects in the highest tertile of sPLA2 activity were older and had higher inflammatory markers compared with those in the lowest tertile for sPLA2 activity. None of the
PLA2G10
tagging single-nucleotide polymorphism nor R38C, a functional variant, were significantly associated with sPLA2 activity, intermediate CHD risk traits, or CHD risk. In meta-analysis, the summary odds ratio for R38C was odds ratio=0.97 (95% confidence interval, 0.77–1.22).
Conclusions—
PLA2G10
variants are not significantly associated with plasma sPLA2 activity or with CHD risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Montse Guardiola
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Holly J. Exeter
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Claire Perret
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Lasse Folkersen
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Ferdinand van’t Hooft
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Per Eriksson
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Anders Franco-Cereceda
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Gabrielle Paulsson-Berne
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Jutta Palmen
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - KaWah Li
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Jackie A. Cooper
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Kay-Tee Khaw
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Ziad Mallat
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Ewa Ninio
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Sonia-Athina Karabina
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Steve E. Humphries
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - S. Matthijs Boekholdt
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Michael V. Holmes
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
| | - Philippa J. Talmud
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Cardiovascular Science (M.G., H.J.E., J.P., K.W.L., J.A.C., S.E.H., P.J.T.), and Genetic Epidemiology Group, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (M.V.H.), University College London, London, UK; Unitat de Recerca en Lípids i Arteriosclerosi, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, CIBERDEM, IISPV, Reus, Spain (M.G.); Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, ICAN, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S
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14
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In vitro anti-Plasmodium falciparum properties of the full set of human secreted phospholipases A2. Infect Immun 2015; 83:2453-65. [PMID: 25824843 DOI: 10.1128/iai.02474-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
We have previously shown that secreted phospholipases A2 (sPLA2s) from animal venoms inhibit the in vitro development of Plasmodium falciparum, the agent of malaria. In addition, the inflammatory-type human group IIA (hGIIA) sPLA2 circulates at high levels in the serum of malaria patients. However, the role of the different human sPLA2s in host defense against P. falciparum has not been investigated. We show here that 4 out of 10 human sPLA2s, namely, hGX, hGIIF, hGIII, and hGV, exhibit potent in vitro anti-Plasmodium properties with half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) of 2.9 ± 2.4, 10.7 ± 2.1, 16.5 ± 9.7, and 94.2 ± 41.9 nM, respectively. Other human sPLA2s, including hGIIA, are inactive. The inhibition is dependent on sPLA2 catalytic activity and primarily due to hydrolysis of plasma lipoproteins from the parasite culture. Accordingly, purified lipoproteins that have been prehydrolyzed by hGX, hGIIF, hGIII, and hGV are more toxic to P. falciparum than native lipoproteins. However, the total enzymatic activities of human sPLA2s on purified lipoproteins or plasma did not reflect their inhibitory activities on P. falciparum. For instance, hGIIF is 9-fold more toxic than hGV but releases a lower quantity of nonesterified fatty acids (NEFAs). Lipidomic analyses of released NEFAs from lipoproteins demonstrate that sPLA2s with anti-Plasmodium properties are those that release polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), with hGIIF being the most selective enzyme. NEFAs purified from lipoproteins hydrolyzed by hGIIF were more potent at inhibiting P. falciparum than those from hGV, and PUFA-enriched liposomes hydrolyzed by sPLA2s were highly toxic, demonstrating the critical role of PUFAs. The selectivity of sPLA2s toward low- and high-density (LDL and HDL, respectively) lipoproteins and their ability to directly attack parasitized erythrocytes further explain their anti-Plasmodium activity. Together, our findings indicate that 4 human sPLA2s are active against P. falciparum in vitro and pave the way to future investigations on their in vivo contribution in malaria pathophysiology.
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Layne JD, Shridas P, Webb NR. Ectopically expressed pro-group X secretory phospholipase A2 is proteolytically activated in mouse adrenal cells by furin-like proprotein convertases: implications for the regulation of adrenal steroidogenesis. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:7851-60. [PMID: 25623068 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.634667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Group X secretory phospholipase A2 (GX sPLA2) hydrolyzes mammalian cell membranes, liberating free fatty acids and lysophospholipids. GX sPLA2 is produced as a pro-enzyme (pro-GX sPLA2) that contains an N-terminal 11-amino acid propeptide ending in a dibasic motif, suggesting cleavage by a furin-like proprotein convertase (PC). Although propeptide cleavage is clearly required for enzymatic activity, the protease(s) responsible for pro-GX sPLA2 activation have not been identified. We previously reported that GX sPLA2 negatively regulates adrenal glucocorticoid production, likely by suppressing liver X receptor-mediated activation of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression. In this study, using a FLAG epitope-tagged pro-GX sPLA2 expression construct (FLAG-pro-GX sPLA2), we determined that adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) enhanced FLAG-pro-GX sPLA2 processing and phospholipase activity secreted by Y1 adrenal cells. ACTH increased the expression of furin and PCSK6, but not other members of the PC family, in Y1 cells. Overexpression of furin and PCSK6 in HEK 293 cells significantly enhanced FLAG-pro-GX sPLA2 processing, whereas siRNA-mediated knockdown of both PCs almost completely abolished FLAG-pro-GX sPLA2 processing in Y1 cells. Expression of either furin or PCSK6 enhanced the ability of GX sPLA2 to suppress liver X receptor reporter activity. The PC inhibitor decanoyl-Arg-Val-Lys-Arg-chloromethyl ketone significantly suppressed FLAG-pro-GX sPLA2 processing and sPLA2 activity in Y1 cells, and it significantly attenuated GX sPLA2-dependent inhibition of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression and progesterone production. These findings provide strong evidence that pro-GX sPLA2 is a substrate for furin and PCSK6 proteolytic processing and define a novel mechanism for regulating corticosteroid production in adrenal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph D Layne
- From the Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, Division of Nutritional Sciences, the Saha Cardiovascular Research Center, and
| | - Preetha Shridas
- the Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | - Nancy R Webb
- the Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
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16
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Liu A, Ming JY, Fiskesund R, Ninio E, Karabina SA, Bergmark C, Frostegård AG, Frostegård J. Induction of dendritic cell-mediated T-cell activation by modified but not native low-density lipoprotein in humans and inhibition by annexin a5: involvement of heat shock proteins. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2014; 35:197-205. [PMID: 25395618 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.114.304342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease, where activated immunocompetent cells, including dendritic cells (DCs) and T cells are abundant in plaques. Low-density lipoprotein modified either by oxidation (oxLDL) or by human group X-secreted phospholipase A2 (LDLx) and heat shock proteins (HSP), especially HSP60 and 90, have been implicated in atherosclerosis. We previously reported that Annexin A5 inhibits inflammatory effects of phospholipids, decreases vascular inflammation and improves vascular function in apolipoprotein E(-/-) mice. Here, we focus on the LDLx effects on human DCs and T cells. APPROACH AND RESULTS Human DCs were differentiated from peripheral blood monocytes, stimulated by oxLDL or LDLx. Naive autologous T cells were cocultured with pretreated DCs. oxLDL and LDLx, in contrast to LDL, induced DC-activation and T-cell proliferation. T cells exposed to LDLx-treated DCs produced interferon-γ, interleukin (IL)-17 but not IL-4 and IL-10. Annexin A5 abrogated LDLx effects on DCs and T cells and increased production of transforming growth factor-β and IL-10. Furthermore, IL-10 producing T cells suppressed primary T-cell activation via soluble IL-10, transforming growth factor-β, and cell-cell contact. Lentiviral-mediated shRNA knock-down HSP60 and 90 in DCs attenuated the effect of LDLx on DCs and subsequent T-cell proliferation. Experiments on DC and T cells derived from carotid atherosclerotic plaques gave similar results. CONCLUSIONS Our data show that modified forms of LDL such as LDLx but not native LDL activate human T cells through DCs. HSP60 and 90 contribute to such T-cell activation. Annexin A5 promotes induction of regulatory T cells and is potentially interesting as a therapeutic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anquan Liu
- From the Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (A.L., J.Y.M., R.F., A.G.F., J.F.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S 1166, ICAN, Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, Paris, France (E.N.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_933, Hôpital Armand-Trousseau, Paris, France (S.-A.K.); Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (C.B.); and Division of Acute Internal Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden (J.F.).
| | - Julia Yue Ming
- From the Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (A.L., J.Y.M., R.F., A.G.F., J.F.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S 1166, ICAN, Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, Paris, France (E.N.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_933, Hôpital Armand-Trousseau, Paris, France (S.-A.K.); Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (C.B.); and Division of Acute Internal Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden (J.F.)
| | - Roland Fiskesund
- From the Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (A.L., J.Y.M., R.F., A.G.F., J.F.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S 1166, ICAN, Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, Paris, France (E.N.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_933, Hôpital Armand-Trousseau, Paris, France (S.-A.K.); Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (C.B.); and Division of Acute Internal Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden (J.F.)
| | - Ewa Ninio
- From the Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (A.L., J.Y.M., R.F., A.G.F., J.F.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S 1166, ICAN, Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, Paris, France (E.N.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_933, Hôpital Armand-Trousseau, Paris, France (S.-A.K.); Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (C.B.); and Division of Acute Internal Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden (J.F.)
| | - Sonia-Athina Karabina
- From the Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (A.L., J.Y.M., R.F., A.G.F., J.F.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S 1166, ICAN, Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, Paris, France (E.N.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_933, Hôpital Armand-Trousseau, Paris, France (S.-A.K.); Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (C.B.); and Division of Acute Internal Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden (J.F.)
| | - Claes Bergmark
- From the Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (A.L., J.Y.M., R.F., A.G.F., J.F.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S 1166, ICAN, Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, Paris, France (E.N.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_933, Hôpital Armand-Trousseau, Paris, France (S.-A.K.); Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (C.B.); and Division of Acute Internal Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden (J.F.)
| | - Anna G Frostegård
- From the Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (A.L., J.Y.M., R.F., A.G.F., J.F.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S 1166, ICAN, Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, Paris, France (E.N.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_933, Hôpital Armand-Trousseau, Paris, France (S.-A.K.); Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (C.B.); and Division of Acute Internal Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden (J.F.)
| | - Johan Frostegård
- From the Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (A.L., J.Y.M., R.F., A.G.F., J.F.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_S 1166, ICAN, Genomics and Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases Team, Paris, France (E.N.); Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, INSERM UMR_933, Hôpital Armand-Trousseau, Paris, France (S.-A.K.); Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (C.B.); and Division of Acute Internal Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden (J.F.)
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Kelvin AA, Degousee N, Banner D, Stefanski E, Leόn AJ, Angoulvant D, Paquette SG, Huang SSH, Danesh A, Robbins CS, Noyan H, Husain M, Lambeau G, Gelb M, Kelvin DJ, Rubin BB. Lack of group X secreted phospholipase A₂ increases survival following pandemic H1N1 influenza infection. Virology 2014; 454-455:78-92. [PMID: 24725934 PMCID: PMC4106042 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.01.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 11/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The role of Group X secreted phospholipase A2 (GX-sPLA2) during influenza infection has not been previously investigated. We examined the role of GX-sPLA2 during H1N1 pandemic influenza infection in a GX-sPLA2 gene targeted mouse (GX(-/-)) model and found that survival after infection was significantly greater in GX(-/-) mice than in GX(+/+) mice. Downstream products of GX-sPLA2 activity, PGD2, PGE2, LTB4, cysteinyl leukotrienes and Lipoxin A4 were significantly lower in GX(-/-) mice BAL fluid. Lung microarray analysis identified an earlier and more robust induction of T and B cell associated genes in GX(-/-) mice. Based on the central role of sPLA2 enzymes as key initiators of inflammatory processes, we propose that activation of GX-sPLA2 during H1N1pdm infection is an early step of pulmonary inflammation and its inhibition increases adaptive immunity and improves survival. Our findings suggest that GX-sPLA2 may be a potential therapeutic target during influenza.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Norbert Degousee
- Division of Vascular Surgery, Peter Munk Cardiac Centre, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network and the University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - David Banner
- Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Eva Stefanski
- Division of Vascular Surgery, Peter Munk Cardiac Centre, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network and the University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alberto J Leόn
- Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; International Institute of Infection and Immunity, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Denis Angoulvant
- Division of Cardiology, Trousseau Hospital, Tours University Hospital Center and EA 4245, Francois Rabelais University, Tours, France
| | - Stéphane G Paquette
- Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stephen S H Huang
- Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ali Danesh
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, CA 2-Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Clinton S Robbins
- Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hossein Noyan
- Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mansoor Husain
- Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Heart & Stroke Richard Lewar Centre of Excellence, University of Toronto, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Gerard Lambeau
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, UMR 7275 CNRS and Université de Nice Sophia Antipolis, IPMC, Sophia Antipolis, 06560 Valbonne, France
| | - Michael Gelb
- Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - David J Kelvin
- Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; International Institute of Infection and Immunity, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China; Institute of Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Sezione di Microbiologia Sperimentale e Clinica, Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Universita׳ degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy.
| | - Barry B Rubin
- Division of Vascular Surgery, Peter Munk Cardiac Centre, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network and the University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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18
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Polkinghorne VR, Standeven KF, Schroeder V, Carter AM. Role of proteomic technologies in understanding risk of arterial thrombosis. Expert Rev Proteomics 2014; 6:539-50. [DOI: 10.1586/epr.09.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Ait-Oufella H, Herbin O, Lahoute C, Coatrieux C, Loyer X, Joffre J, Laurans L, Ramkhelawon B, Blanc-Brude O, Karabina S, Girard CA, Payré C, Yamamoto K, Binder CJ, Murakami M, Tedgui A, Lambeau G, Mallat Z. Group X Secreted Phospholipase A2 Limits the Development of Atherosclerosis in LDL Receptor–Null Mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2013; 33:466-73. [DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.112.300309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Objective—
Several secreted phospholipases A2 (sPLA2s), including group IIA, III, V, and X, have been linked to the development of atherosclerosis, which led to the clinical testing of A-002 (varespladib), a broad sPLA2 inhibitor for the treatment of coronary artery disease. Group X sPLA2 (PLA2G10) has the most potent hydrolyzing activity toward phosphatidylcholine and is believed to play a proatherogenic role.
Methods and Results—
Here, we show that
Ldlr
–/–
mice reconstituted with bone marrow from mouse group X–deficient mice (
Pla2g10
–/–
) unexpectedly display a doubling of plaque size compared with
Pla2g10
+/+
chimeric mice. Macrophages of
Pla2g10
–/–
mice are more susceptible to apoptosis in vitro, which is associated with a 4-fold increase of plaque necrotic core in vivo. In addition, chimeric
Pla2g10
–/–
mice show exaggerated T lymphocyte (Th)1 immune response, associated with enhanced T-cell infiltration in atherosclerotic plaques. Interestingly, overexpression of human PLA2G10 in murine bone marrow cells leads to significant reduction of Th1 response and to 50% reduction of lesion size.
Conclusion—
PLA2G10 expression in bone marrow cells controls a proatherogenic Th1 response and limits the development of atherosclerosis. The results may provide an explanation for the recently reported inefficacy of A-002 (varespladib) to treat patients with coronary artery disease. Indeed, A-002 is a nonselective sPLA2 inhibitor that inhibits both proatherogenic (groups IIA and V) and antiatherogenic (group X) sPLA2s. Our results suggest that selective targeting of individual sPLA2 enzymes may be a better strategy to treat cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hafid Ait-Oufella
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Olivier Herbin
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Charlotte Lahoute
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Christelle Coatrieux
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Xavier Loyer
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Jeremie Joffre
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Ludivine Laurans
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Bhama Ramkhelawon
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Olivier Blanc-Brude
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Sonia Karabina
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Christophe A. Girard
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Christine Payré
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Kei Yamamoto
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Christoph J. Binder
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Makoto Murakami
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Alain Tedgui
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Gérard Lambeau
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
| | - Ziad Mallat
- From the Inserm U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, Université René Descartes, Paris, France (H.A.-O., O.H., C.L., X.L., J.J., L.L., B.R., O.B.-B., A.T., Z.M.); Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, AP-HP, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France (H.A.-O.); Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology (IPMC), UMR 7275 CNRS- and Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Valbonne, France (C.C., C.A.G., C.P., G.L.); Inserm UMRS 937, Paris, France (S.K.); Lipid Metabolism
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Emerging roles of secreted phospholipase A2 enzymes: An update. Biochimie 2013; 95:43-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2012.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/11/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Point V, Bénarouche A, Jemel I, Parsiegla G, Lambeau G, Carrière F, Cavalier JF. Effects of the propeptide of group X secreted phospholipase A2 on substrate specificity and interfacial activity on phospholipid monolayers. Biochimie 2013; 95:51-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2012.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2012] [Accepted: 07/27/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Miyazaki T, Koya T, Kigawa Y, Oguchi T, Lei XF, Kim-Kaneyama JR, Miyazaki A. Calpain and atherosclerosis. J Atheroscler Thromb 2012; 20:228-37. [PMID: 23171729 DOI: 10.5551/jat.14787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
This review highlights the pro-atherogenic roles of Ca(2+)-sensitive intracellular protease calpains. Among more than ten species of calpain isozymes, µ- and m-calpains have been characterized most extensively. These two isozymes are ubiquitously expressed in mammalian tissues, including blood vessels, and tightly regulate functional molecules in the vascular component cells through limited proteolytic cleavage. Indeed, previous cell-based experiments showed that calpains play significant roles in nitric oxide production in vascular endothelial cells (ECs), maintenance of EC barrier function and angiogenesis for maintaining vascular homeostasis. Recently, we demonstrated that modified-low density lipoprotein (LDL)-induced m-calpain causes hyperpermeability in ECs, leading to the infiltration of monocytes/macrophages and plasma lipids into the intimal spaces (Miyazaki T. et al., Circulation. 2011; 124: 2522-2532). Calpains also mediate oxidized LDL-induced apoptotic death in ECs. In monocytes/macrophages, calpains induce proteolytic degradation of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) and G1 (ABCG1), which results in impaired cholesterol efflux and subsequent macrophage foam cell formation. In vascular smooth muscle cells, calpains may be involved in the conversion from contractile phenotype to proliferative phenotype. In hepatocytes, calpains disrupt the biogenesis of high-density lipoprotein via proteolytic degradation of ABCA1. Thus, calpains may serve as novel candidate molecular targets for control of atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuro Miyazaki
- Department of Biochemistry, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan.
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23
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Perrin-Cocon L, Diaz O, André P, Lotteau V. Modified lipoproteins provide lipids that modulate dendritic cell immune function. Biochimie 2012; 95:103-8. [PMID: 22959067 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2012.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2012] [Accepted: 08/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Both physiological and pathological situations can result in biochemical changes of low-density lipoproteins (LDL). Because they can deliver signals to dendritic cells (DC), these modified lipoproteins now appear as regulators of the immune response. Among these modified lipoproteins, oxidized LDL (oxLDL) that accumulate during inflammatory conditions have been extensively studied. Numerous studies have shown that oxLDL induce the maturation of DC, enhancing their ability to activate IFNγ secretion by T cells. LDL treated by secreted phospholipase A(2) also promote DC maturation. Among the bioactive lipids generated by oxidation or phospholipase treatment of LDL, lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) and some saturated fatty acids induce DC maturation whereas some unsaturated fatty acids or oxidized derivatives have opposite effects. Among other factors, the nuclear receptor peroxisome-proliferator activated receptor γ (PPARγ) plays a crucial role in this regulation. Non-modified lipoproteins also contribute to the regulation of DC function, suggesting that the balance between native and modified lipoproteins, as well as the biochemical nature of the LDL modifications, can regulate the activation threshold of DC. Here we discuss two pathological situations in which the impact of LDL modifications on inflammation and immunity could play an important role. During atherosclerosis, modified LDL accumulating in the arterial intima may interfere with DC maturation and function, promoting a Th1 immune response and a local inflammation favoring the development of the pathology. In patients chronically infected, the hepatitis C virus (HCV) interferes with lipoprotein metabolism resulting in the production of infectious modified lipoproteins. These lipo-viral-particles (LVP) are modified low-density lipoproteins containing viral material that can alter DC maturation and affect specific toll-like receptor signaling. In conclusion, lipoprotein modifications play an important role in the regulation of immunity by delivering signals of danger to DC and modulating their function.
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Nicholls SJ, Cavender MA, Kastelein JJP, Schwartz G, Waters DD, Rosenson RS, Bash D, Hislop C. Inhibition of secretory phospholipase A(2) in patients with acute coronary syndromes: rationale and design of the vascular inflammation suppression to treat acute coronary syndrome for 16 weeks (VISTA-16) trial. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2012; 26:71-5. [PMID: 22109255 DOI: 10.1007/s10557-011-6358-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The action of secretory phospholipase A(2) (sPLA(2)) on lipoproteins may render them more susceptible to oxidation, thereby promoting vascular inflammation and increasing cardiovascular risk. Patients with acute coronary syndrome face a high risk of early, recurrent cardiovascular events that is associated with biomarkers of inflammation, including sPLA(2). The Vascular Inflammation Suppression to Treat Acute Coronary Syndrome for 16 Weeks (VISTA-16, NCT01130246) tests the hypothesis that varespladib methyl, an inhibitor of several sPLA(2) isoforms with a causal role in atherosclerosis, reduces cardiovascular risk among patients with acute coronary syndromes. METHODS Up to 6,500 patients with acute coronary syndrome will be randomized to receive treatment with varespladib methyl 500 mg daily or placebo for 16 weeks, in addition to background treatment with atorvastatin and other evidence-based therapies. The primary efficacy parameter is the combination of cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke or hospitalization for unstable angina with objective evidence of myocardial ischemia. Effects of varespladib methyl on lipid and inflammatory markers, in addition to safety and tolerability, will also be evaluated. CONCLUSION sPLA(2) inhibition has the potential to exert a favorable effect on the artery wall. The VISTA-16 study will determine whether varespladib methyl has a beneficial impact on cardiovascular events in patients with an acute coronary syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Nicholls
- Cleveland Clinic Coordinating Center for Clinical Research, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA.
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26
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Atout R, Karabina SA, Dollet S, Carreras M, Payré C, André P, Lambeau G, Lotteau V, Ninio E, Perrin-Cocon L. Human group X secreted phospholipase A2 induces dendritic cell maturation through lipoprotein-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Atherosclerosis 2012; 222:367-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2011] [Revised: 01/25/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Potent and selective 2-oxoamide inhibitors of phospholipases A2 as novel medicinal agents for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. PURE APPL CHEM 2012. [DOI: 10.1351/pac-con-11-10-32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) are enzymes that are capable of catalyzing the hydrolysis of the sn-2 ester bond of glycerophospholipids, releasing free fatty acids, including arachidonic acid (AA), and lysophospholipids. Both products are precursor signaling molecules involved in inflammation. Among the various PLA2s, cytosolic GIVA cPLA2 is considered a major target for inflammatory diseases, while secreted GIIA sPLA2 is involved in cardiovascular diseases. We have developed lipophilic 2-oxoamides based on (S)-γ- or δ-amino acids as potent and selective inhibitors of GIVA cPLA2, which present interesting in vivo anti-inflammatory activity. 2-Oxoamides based on natural α-amino acids are selective inhibitors of GIIA sPLA2. The mode of binding of 2-oxoamides with either GIVA cPLA2 or GIIA sPLA2 has been studied by various techniques.
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28
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IgM-phosphorylcholine autoantibodies and outcome in acute coronary syndromes. Int J Cardiol 2012; 167:464-9. [PMID: 22305633 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2011] [Revised: 01/02/2012] [Accepted: 01/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antibodies against proinflammatory phosphorylcholine (anti-PC) seem to be protective and reduce morbidity. We sought to determine whether low levels of immunoglobulin-M (IgM) autoantibodies against PC add prognostic information in acute coronary syndromes (ACS). METHODS IgM anti-PC titers were measured in serum obtained within 24h of admission from 1185 ACS patients (median age 66 years, 30% women). We evaluated major acute cardiovascular events (MACE) and all-cause mortality short--(6 months), intermediate--(18 months) and long--(72 months) terms. RESULTS Low anti-PC titers were associated with MACE and all-cause mortality at all follow-up times. After adjusting for clinical variables, plasma troponin-I, proBNP and CRP levels, associations remained at all times with MACE, short and intermediate terms also with all-cause mortality. With anti-PC titers below median, adjusted hazard ratios at 18months were for MACE 1.79 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.31 to 2.44; p=0.0002) and for all-cause mortality 2.28 (95% CI: 1.32 to 3.92; p=0.003). Anti-PC and plasma CRP were unrelated and added to risk prediction. CONCLUSIONS Serum IgM anti-PC titers provide prognostic information above traditional risk factors in ACS. The ease of measurement and potential therapeutic perspective indicate that it may be a valuable novel biomarker in ACS.
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Ryu SK, Mallat Z, Benessiano J, Tedgui A, Olsson AG, Bao W, Schwartz GG, Tsimikas S. Phospholipase A2 enzymes, high-dose atorvastatin, and prediction of ischemic events after acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 2012; 125:757-66. [PMID: 22230483 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.111.063487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA(2)) and lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA(2)) are enzyme biomarkers of increased cardiovascular risk and targets of emerging therapeutic agents. Their relationship to cardiovascular events in the setting of high-dose statin therapy compared with placebo in patients with acute coronary syndrome is not known. METHODS AND RESULTS sPLA(2) and Lp-PLA(2) mass and activity were measured in 2587 patients in the Myocardial Ischemia Reduction With Acute Cholesterol Lowering (MIRACL) trial at baseline and after 16 weeks of treatment with atorvastatin 80 mg/d or placebo. Baseline levels of sPLA(2) and Lp-PLA(2) mass and activity were not associated with the primary efficacy measure of the trial of death, myocardial infarction, or unstable angina. However, in the overall cohort, baseline sPLA(2) mass predicted risk of death after multivariable adjustment (hazard ratio for 2-fold increase, 1.30; 95% confidence interval, 1.09-1.56; P=0.004). This association remained significant when examined separately in the placebo group but not in the atorvastatin group. Compared with placebo, atorvastatin reduced median sPLA(2) mass (-32.1% versus -23.1%), sPLA(2) activity (-29.5% versus -19.2%), Lp-PLA(2) mass (-35.8% versus -6.2%), and Lp-PLA(2) activity (-24.3% versus 5.4%; P<0.001 for all). Atorvastatin reduced the hazard of death associated with elevated sPLA(2) mass and activity by ≈50%. CONCLUSIONS sPLA(2) mass independently predicts death during a 16-week period after acute coronary syndrome. High-dose atorvastatin significantly reduces sPLA(2) and Lp-PLA(2) mass and activity after acute coronary syndrome and mitigates the risk of death associated with sPLA(2) mass. Atorvastatin may exert antiinflammatory effects on phospholipases that contribute to its therapeutic benefit after acute coronary syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Kee Ryu
- Vascular Medicine Program, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0682, USA
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Tanabe Y, Saito-Tanji M, Morikawa Y, Kamataki A, Sawai T, Nakayama K. Role of Secretory Phospholipase A2 in Rhythmic Contraction of Pulmonary Arteries of Rats With Monocrotaline-Induced Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. J Pharmacol Sci 2012; 119:271-81. [DOI: 10.1254/jphs.12024fp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
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Abstract
Phospholipids are present in all living organisms. They are a major component of all biological membranes, along with glycolipids and cholesterol. Enzymes aimed at cleaving the various bonds in phospholipids, namely phospholipases, are consequently widespread in nature, playing very diverse roles from aggression in snake venom to signal transduction, lipid mediators production, and digestion in humans. Although all phospholipases target phospholipids as substrates, they vary in the site of action on the phospholipids molecules, physiological function, mode of action, and their regulation. Significant studies on phospholipases characterization, physiological role, and industrial potential have been conducted worldwide. Some of them have been directed for biotechnological advances, such as gene discovery and functional enhancement by protein engineering. Others reported phospholipases as virulence factors and major causes of pathophysiological effects. In this introductory chapter, we provide brief details of different phospholipases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Aloulou
- National School of Engineers of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia.
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Miyazaki T, Taketomi Y, Takimoto M, Lei XF, Arita S, Kim-Kaneyama JR, Arata S, Ohata H, Ota H, Murakami M, Miyazaki A. m-Calpain induction in vascular endothelial cells on human and mouse atheromas and its roles in VE-cadherin disorganization and atherosclerosis. Circulation 2011; 124:2522-32. [PMID: 22064597 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.111.021675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although dysfunction of VE-cadherin-mediated adherence junctions in vascular endothelial cells (ECs) is thought to be one of the initial steps of atherosclerosis, little is known regarding how VE-cadherin is disrupted during atherogenic development. This study focused on the role of calpain, an intracellular cysteine protease, in the proteolytic disorganization of VE-cadherin and subsequent progression of atherosclerosis. METHODS AND RESULTS Increased expression of m-calpain was observed in aortic ECs in atherosclerotic lesions in humans and low-density lipoprotein receptor-deficient (ldlr(-/-)) mice. Furthermore, proteolytic disorganization of VE-cadherin was shown in aortic ECs in ldlr(-/-) and apolipoprotein E-deficient (apoE(-/-)) mice. Long-term administration of calpain inhibitors into these mice attenuated atherosclerotic lesion development and proinflammatory responses, as well as VE-cadherin disorganization, without normalization of plasma lipid profiles. Furthermore, in vivo transfection of m-calpain siRNA to ldlr(-/-) mice prevented disorganization of VE-cadherin and proatherogenic hyperpermeability in aortic ECs. Treatment of cultured ECs with oxidized LDL, lysophosphatidylcholine, or LDL pretreated with secreted phospholipase A(2) led to the induction of m-calpain but not of μ-calpain, thereby eliciting selective m-calpain overactivation. These data suggest that lysophosphatidylcholine-induced m-calpain directly cleaves a juxtamembrane region of VE-cadherin, resulting in dissociation of β-catenin from the VE-cadherin complex, disorganization of adherence junctions, and hyperpermeability in ECs. CONCLUSIONS Subtype-selective induction of m-calpain in aortic ECs during atherosclerotic progression is associated with proteolytic disorganization of VE-cadherin and proatherogenic hyperpermeability in cells. Thus, a strategy to selectively inhibit m-calpain may be useful for the therapeutic treatment of patients with atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuro Miyazaki
- Department of Biochemistry, Showa University School of Medicine, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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Dennis EA, Cao J, Hsu YH, Magrioti V, Kokotos G. Phospholipase A2 enzymes: physical structure, biological function, disease implication, chemical inhibition, and therapeutic intervention. Chem Rev 2011; 111:6130-85. [PMID: 21910409 PMCID: PMC3196595 DOI: 10.1021/cr200085w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 804] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Edward A. Dennis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0601
| | - Jian Cao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0601
| | - Yuan-Hao Hsu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0601
| | - Victoria Magrioti
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens 15771, Greece
| | - George Kokotos
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens 15771, Greece
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Watanabe K, Fujioka D, Saito Y, Nakamura T, Obata JE, Kawabata K, Watanabe Y, Mishina H, Tamaru S, Hanasaki K, Kugiyama K. Group X secretory PLA2 in neutrophils plays a pathogenic role in abdominal aortic aneurysms in mice. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2011; 302:H95-104. [PMID: 21984544 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00695.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Group X secretory PLA(2) (sPLA(2)-X) is expressed in neutrophils and plays a role in the pathogenesis of neutrophil-mediated tissue inflammation and injury. This study tested the hypothesis that sPLA(2)-X in neutrophils may contribute to the pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAA) using sPLA(2)-X(-/-) mice. AAA was created by application of CaCl(2) to external surface of aorta. As a result, the aortas of sPLA(2)-X(-/-) mice had smaller diameters (percent increase from baseline; 24.8 ± 3.5% vs. 49.9 ± 9.1%, respectively; P < 0.01), a reduced grade of elastin degradation, and lower activities of elastase and gelatinase (26% and 19% lower, respectively) after CaCl(2) treatment compared with sPLA(2)-X(+/+) mice. In sPLA(2)-X(+/+) mice, immunofluorescence microscopic images showed that the immunoreactivity of sPLA(2)-X was detected only in neutrophils within aortic walls 3 days, 1, 2, and 6 wk after CaCl(2) treatment, whereas the immunoreactivity was not detected in macrophages or mast cells in aortic walls. sPLA(2)-X immunoreactivity also was colocalized in cells expressing matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9. Neutrophils isolated from sPLA(2)-X(-/-) mice had lower activities of elastase, gelatinase, and MMP-9 in response to stimuli compared with sPLA(2)-X(+/+) mice. The attenuated release of elastase and gelatinase from sPLA(2)-X(-/-) neutrophils was reversed by exogenous addition of mouse sPLA(2)-X protein. The adoptive transfer of sPLA(2)-X(+/+) neutrophils days 0 and 3 after CaCl(2) treatment reversed aortic diameters and elastin degradation grades in the lethally irradiated sPLA(2)-X(+/+) mice reconstituted with sPLA(2)-X(-/-) bone marrow to an extent similar to that seen in sPLA(2)-X(+/+) mice. In conclusion, sPLA(2)-X in neutrophils plays a pathogenic role in AAA in a mice model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro Watanabe
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
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Yamamoto K, Isogai Y, Sato H, Taketomi Y, Murakami M. Secreted phospholipase A2, lipoprotein hydrolysis, and atherosclerosis: integration with lipidomics. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 400:1829-42. [PMID: 21445663 PMCID: PMC3098357 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-4864-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2010] [Revised: 02/14/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is a group of enzymes that hydrolyze the sn-2 position of glycerophospholipids to yield fatty acids and lysophospholipids. Of many PLA2s or related enzymes identified to date, secreted PLA2s (sPLA2s) comprise the largest family that contains 10 catalytically active isozymes. Besides arachidonic acid released from cellular membranes for eicosanoid synthesis, several if not all sPLA2s have recently been implicated in hydrolysis of phospholipids in lipoprotein particles. The sPLA2-processed low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles contain a large amount of lysophospholipids and exhibit the property of “small-dense” or “modified” LDL, which facilitates foam cell formation from macrophages. Transgenic overexpression of these sPLA2s leads to development of atherosclerosis in mice. More importantly, genetic deletion or pharmacological inhibition of particular sPLA2s significantly attenuates atherosclerosis and aneurysm. In this article, we will give an overview of current understanding of the role of sPLA2s in atherosclerosis, with recent lipidomics data showing the action of a subset of sPLA2s on lipoprotein phospholipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei Yamamoto
- Lipid Metabolism Project, The Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, 2-1-6 Kamikitazawa, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, 156-8506, Japan
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Mallat Z, Lambeau G, Tedgui A. Lipoprotein-associated and secreted phospholipases A₂ in cardiovascular disease: roles as biological effectors and biomarkers. Circulation 2010; 122:2183-200. [PMID: 21098459 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.110.936393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ziad Mallat
- INSERM, Paris-Cardiovascular Research Center, Université Paris Descartes, UMR, Paris, France
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Murakami M, Taketomi Y, Miki Y, Sato H, Hirabayashi T, Yamamoto K. Recent progress in phospholipase A₂ research: from cells to animals to humans. Prog Lipid Res 2010; 50:152-92. [PMID: 21185866 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2010.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 368] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian genomes encode genes for more than 30 phospholipase A₂s (PLA₂s) or related enzymes, which are subdivided into several classes including low-molecular-weight secreted PLA₂s (sPLA₂s), Ca²+-dependent cytosolic PLA₂s (cPLA₂s), Ca²+-independent PLA₂s (iPLA₂s), platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolases (PAF-AHs), lysosomal PLA₂s, and a recently identified adipose-specific PLA. Of these, the intracellular cPLA₂ and iPLA₂ families and the extracellular sPLA₂ family are recognized as the "big three". From a general viewpoint, cPLA₂α (the prototypic cPLA₂ plays a major role in the initiation of arachidonic acid metabolism, the iPLA₂ family contributes to membrane homeostasis and energy metabolism, and the sPLA₂ family affects various biological events by modulating the extracellular phospholipid milieus. The cPLA₂ family evolved along with eicosanoid receptors when vertebrates first appeared, whereas the diverse branching of the iPLA₂ and sPLA₂ families during earlier eukaryote development suggests that they play fundamental roles in life-related processes. During the past decade, data concerning the unexplored roles of various PLA₂ enzymes in pathophysiology have emerged on the basis of studies using knockout and transgenic mice, the use of specific inhibitors, and information obtained from analysis of human diseases caused by mutations in PLA₂ genes. This review focuses on current understanding of the emerging biological functions of PLA₂s and related enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Murakami
- Lipid Metabolism Project, The Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, 2-1-6 Kamikitazawa, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8506, Japan.
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Garces F, López F, Niño C, Fernandez A, Chacin L, Hurt-Camejo E, Camejo G, Apitz-Castro R. High plasma phospholipase A2 activity, inflammation markers, and LDL alterations in obesity with or without type 2 diabetes. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2010; 18:2023-9. [PMID: 20134414 DOI: 10.1038/oby.2010.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Plasma phospholipases A(2) (PLA(2)) hydrolyze phospholipids of circulating lipoproteins or deposited in arteries producing bioactive lipids believed to contribute to the atherosclerotic inflammatory response. PLA(2)(s) are elevated in obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D) but it is not clear which of these conditions is the cause since they frequently coexist. This study attempts to evaluate if high plasma PLA(2)(s) activities and markers of their effects in lipoproteins are associated with obesity or T2D diabetes, or with both. Total PLA(2) and Ca(2+)-dependent and -independent activities, lipids, lipoproteins, apoAI, and apoB apolipoproteins and affinity of apoB-lipoproteins for arterial proteoglycans were measured, as well as Inflammation markers. These parameters were evaluated in plasma samples of four groups: (i) apparently healthy controls with normal BMI (nBMI), (ii) obese subjects with no T2D, (iii) patients with T2D but with nBMI, and (iv) obese patients with T2D. PLA(2) activities were measured in the presence and absence of Ca(2+) and in the presence of specific inhibitors. Obese subjects, with or without T2D, had high activities of total PLA(2) and of Ca(2+)-dependent and Ca(2+)-independent enzymes. The activities were correlated with inflammation markers in obese subjects with and without diabetes and with alterations of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) that increased their affinity for arterial proteoglycans. Ca(2+)-dependent secretory (sPLA(2)) enzymes were the main responsible of the obesity-associated high activity. We speculate that augmented PLA(2)(s) activity that increases affinity of circulating LDL for arterial intima proteoglycans could be another atherogenic component of obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Garces
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones Básicas y Aplicadas, Escuela de Bioanálisis, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
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Alberghina M. Phospholipase A2: New lessons from endothelial cells. Microvasc Res 2010; 80:280-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2010.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2010] [Revised: 03/24/2010] [Accepted: 03/24/2010] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Rosenson RS, Fraser H, Trias J, Hislop C. Varespladib methyl in cardiovascular disease. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2010; 19:1245-55. [DOI: 10.1517/13543784.2010.517193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Zack M, Boyanovsky BB, Shridas P, Bailey W, Forrest K, Howatt DA, Gelb MH, de Beer FC, Daugherty A, Webb NR. Group X secretory phospholipase A(2) augments angiotensin II-induced inflammatory responses and abdominal aortic aneurysm formation in apoE-deficient mice. Atherosclerosis 2010; 214:58-64. [PMID: 20833395 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2010.08.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2010] [Revised: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 08/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a complex vascular disease characterized by matrix degradation and inflammation and is a major cause of mortality in older men. Specific interventions that prevent AAA progression remain to be identified. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that Group X secretory phospholipase A(2) (GX sPLA(2)), an enzyme implicated in inflammatory processes, mediates AAA. METHODS AND RESULTS GX sPLA(2) was detected by immunostaining in human aneurysmal tissue and in angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced AAAs in apolipoprotein E-deficient (apoE(-/-)) mice. GX sPLA(2) mRNA was increased significantly (11-fold) in abdominal aortas of apoE(-/-) mice in response to Ang II infusion. To define the role of GX sPLA(2) in experimental AAAs, apoE(-/-) and apoE(-/-) x GX sPLA(2)(-/-) (GX DKO) mice were infused with Ang II for either 10 (n=7) or 28 (n=24-26) days. Deficiency of GX sPLA(2) significantly reduced the incidence and severity of AAAs, as assessed by ultrasound measurements in vivo of aortic lumens and by computer-assisted morphometric analyses ex vivo of external diameter. Results from gene expression profiling indicated that the expression of specific matrix metalloproteinases and inflammatory mediators was blunted in aortas from GX DKO mice compared to apoE(-/-) mice after 10-day Ang II infusion. Ang II induction of cyclooxygenase-2, interleukin-6, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-13 and MMP-14 was reduced significantly in GX DKO mice compared to apoE(-/-) mice. CONCLUSION GX sPLA(2) promotes Ang II-induced pathological responses leading to AAA formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Zack
- Graduate Center for Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0200, USA
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Li X, Shridas P, Forrest K, Bailey W, Webb NR. Group X secretory phospholipase A2 negatively regulates adipogenesis in murine models. FASEB J 2010; 24:4313-24. [PMID: 20585029 DOI: 10.1096/fj.10-154716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Studies in vitro indicate that group X secretory phospholipase A(2) (GX sPLA(2)) potently releases arachidonic acid (AA) and lysophosphatidylcholine from mammalian cell membranes. To define the function of GX sPLA(2) in vivo, our laboratory recently generated C57BL/6 mice with targeted deletion of GX sPLA(2) (GX(-/-) mice). When fed a normal rodent diet, GX(-/-) mice gained significantly more weight and had increased adiposity compared to GX(+/+) mice, which was not attributable to alterations in food consumption or energy expenditure. When treated with adipogenic stimuli ex vivo, stromal vascular cells isolated from adipose tissue of GX(-/-) mice accumulated significantly more (20%) triglyceride compared to cells from GX(+/+) mice. Conversely, overexpression of GX sPLA(2), but not catalytically inactive GX sPLA(2), resulted in a significant 50% reduction in triglyceride accumulation in OP9 adipocytes. The induction of genes encoding adipogenic proteins (PPARγ, SREBP-1c, SCD1, and FAS) was also significantly blunted by 50-80% in OP9 cells overexpressing GX sPLA(2). Activation of the liver X receptor (LXR), a nuclear receptor known to up-regulate adipogenic gene expression, was suppressed in 3T3-L1 and OP9 cells when GX sPLA(2) was overexpressed. Thus, hydrolytic products generated by GX sPLA(2) negatively regulate adipogenesis, possibly by suppressing LXR activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Li
- Graduate Center for Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington, KY 40536-0200, USA
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Extracellular phospholipases in atherosclerosis. Biochimie 2010; 92:594-600. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2009] [Accepted: 02/02/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Gora S, Maouche S, Atout R, Wanherdrick K, Lambeau G, Cambien F, Ninio E, Karabina SA. Phospholipolyzed LDL induces an inflammatory response in endothelial cells through endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling. FASEB J 2010; 24:3284-97. [PMID: 20430794 DOI: 10.1096/fj.09-146852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Secreted phospholipases A2 (sPLA2s) are present in atherosclerotic plaques and are now considered novel attractive therapeutic targets and potential biomarkers as they contribute to the development of atherosclerosis through lipoprotein-dependent and independent mechanisms. We have previously shown that hGX-sPLA2-phospholipolyzed LDL (LDL-X) induces proinflammatory responses in human umbilical endothelial cells (HUVECs); here we explore the molecular mechanisms involved. Global transcriptional gene expression profiling of the response of endothelial cells exposed to either LDL or LDL-X revealed that LDL-X activates multiple distinct cellular pathways including the unfolded protein response (UPR). Mechanistic insight showed that LDL-X activates UPR through calcium depletion of intracellular stores, which in turn disturbs cytoskeleton organization. Treatment of HUVECs and aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) with LDL-X led to activation of all 3 proximal initiators of UPR: eIF-2alpha, IRE1alpha, and ATF6. In parallel, we observed a sustained phosphorylation of the p38 pathway resulting in the phosphorylation of AP-1 downstream targets. This was accompanied by significant production of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-8. Our study demonstrates that phospholipolyzed LDL uses a range of molecular pathways including UPR to initiate endothelial cell perturbation and thus provides an LDL oxidation-independent mechanism for the initiation of vascular inflammation in atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Gora
- INSERM UMRS 937, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, UPMC-Paris 6, Paris, France
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Shridas P, Bailey WM, Boyanovsky BB, Oslund RC, Gelb MH, Webb NR. Group X secretory phospholipase A2 regulates the expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) in mouse adrenal glands. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:20031-9. [PMID: 20421306 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.090423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We developed C57BL/6 mice with targeted deletion of group X secretory phospholipase A(2) (GX KO). These mice have approximately 80% higher plasma corticosterone concentrations compared with wild-type (WT) mice under both basal and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-induced stress conditions. This increased corticosterone level was not associated with increased circulating ACTH or a defect in the hypothalamic-pituitary axis as evidenced by a normal response to dexamethasone challenge. Primary cultures of adrenal cells from GX KO mice exhibited significantly increased corticosteroid secretion compared with WT cells. Conversely, overexpression of GX secretory phospholipase A(2) (sPLA(2)), but not a catalytically inactive mutant form of GX sPLA(2), significantly reduced steroid production 30-40% in Y1 mouse adrenal cell line. This effect was reversed by the sPLA(2) inhibitor, indoxam. Silencing of endogenous M-type receptor expression did not restore steroid production in GX sPLA(2)-overexpressing Y1 cells, ruling out a role for this sPLA(2) receptor in this regulatory process. Expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), the rate-limiting protein in corticosteroid production, was approximately 2-fold higher in adrenal glands of GX KO mice compared with WT mice, whereas StAR expression was suppressed in Y1 cells overexpressing GX sPLA(2). Results from StAR-promoter luciferase reporter gene assays indicated that GX sPLA(2) antagonizes StAR promoter activity and liver X receptor-mediated StAR promoter activation. In summary, GX sPLA(2) is expressed in mouse adrenal glands and functions to negatively regulate corticosteroid synthesis, most likely by negatively regulating StAR expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preetha Shridas
- Graduate Center for Nutritional Sciences, the Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
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Murakami M, Taketomi Y, Girard C, Yamamoto K, Lambeau G. Emerging roles of secreted phospholipase A2 enzymes: Lessons from transgenic and knockout mice. Biochimie 2010; 92:561-82. [PMID: 20347923 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2009] [Accepted: 03/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Among the emerging phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) superfamily, the secreted PLA(2) (sPLA(2)) family consists of low-molecular-mass, Ca(2+)-requiring extracellular enzymes with a His-Asp catalytic dyad. To date, more than 10 sPLA(2) enzymes have been identified in mammals. Individual sPLA(2)s exhibit unique tissue and cellular localizations and enzymatic properties, suggesting their distinct pathophysiological roles. Despite numerous enzymatic and cell biological studies on this enzyme family in the past two decades, their precise in vivo functions still remain largely obscure. Recent studies using transgenic and knockout mice for several sPLA(2) enzymes, in combination with lipidomics approaches, have opened new insights into their distinct contributions to various biological events such as food digestion, host defense, inflammation, asthma and atherosclerosis. In this article, we overview the latest understanding of the pathophysiological functions of individual sPLA(2) isoforms fueled by studies employing transgenic and knockout mice for several sPLA(2)s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Murakami
- Biomembrane Signaling Project, The Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, 2-1-6 Kamikitazawa, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8506, Japan.
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Boyanovsky BB, Li X, Shridas P, Sunkara M, Morris AJ, Webb NR. Bioactive products generated by group V sPLA(2) hydrolysis of LDL activate macrophages to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines. Cytokine 2010; 50:50-7. [PMID: 20138782 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2009.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2009] [Revised: 12/16/2009] [Accepted: 12/18/2009] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Previous studies have established that hydrolysis of LDL by Group V secretory phospholipase A(2) (GV sPLA(2)) generates a modified particle capable of inducing macrophage foam cell formation. The aim of the present study was to determine whether GV sPLA(2)-hydrolyzed LDL (GV-LDL) produces pro-atherogenic effects in macrophages independent of cholesterol accumulation. METHODS AND RESULTS J-774 cells incubated with GV-LDL produced more TNF-alpha and IL-6 compared to cells incubated with control-LDL. Indirect immunofluorescence showed that GV-LDL but not control-LDL induced nuclear translocation of NFkappaB. Inhibitors of NFkappaB activation, effectively blocked cytokine production induced by GV-LDL. Control-LDL and GV-LDL were separated from albumin present in reaction mixtures by ultracentrifugation. The albumin fraction derived from GV-LDL contained 80% of the FFA generated and was more potent than the re-isolated GV-LDL in inducing pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion. Linoleic acid (18:2) and oleic acid (18:1) were the most abundant FFAs generated, whereas newly formed lyso-PCs contained 14:0 (myristic), 16:1 (palmitic), and 18:2 fatty acyl groups. Experiments with synthetic FFA showed that 18:1 induced J-774 cells to secrete TNF-alpha and IL-6. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that in addition to promoting atherosclerotic lipid accumulation in macrophages, GV sPLA(2) hydrolysis of LDL leads to activation of NFkappaB, a key regulator of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris B Boyanovsky
- Department of Internal Medicine Endocrinology Division, University of Kentucky, Lexington, 40536, USA.
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48
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Namgaladze D, Morbitzer D, von Knethen A, Brüne B. Phospholipase A
2
–Modified Low-Density Lipoprotein Activates Macrophage Peroxisome Proliferator–Activated Receptors. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2010; 30:313-20. [DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.109.199232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dmitry Namgaladze
- From Goethe-University Frankfurt, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry I/ZAFES, Frankfurt, Germany (D.N., D.M., A.v.K., and B.B.)
| | - Daniel Morbitzer
- From Goethe-University Frankfurt, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry I/ZAFES, Frankfurt, Germany (D.N., D.M., A.v.K., and B.B.)
| | - Andreas von Knethen
- From Goethe-University Frankfurt, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry I/ZAFES, Frankfurt, Germany (D.N., D.M., A.v.K., and B.B.)
| | - Bernhard Brüne
- From Goethe-University Frankfurt, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry I/ZAFES, Frankfurt, Germany (D.N., D.M., A.v.K., and B.B.)
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Karakas M, Koenig W. Phospholipase A2 as a therapeutic target for atherosclerosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.2217/clp.09.74] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Plihtari R, Hurt-Camejo E, Oörni K, Kovanen PT. Proteolysis sensitizes LDL particles to phospholipolysis by secretory phospholipase A2 group V and secretory sphingomyelinase. J Lipid Res 2010; 51:1801-9. [PMID: 20124257 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m003103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
LDL particles that enter the arterial intima become exposed to proteolytic and lipolytic modifications. The extracellular hydrolases potentially involved in LDL modification include proteolytic enzymes, such as chymase, cathepsin S, and plasmin, and phospholipolytic enzymes, such as secretory phospholipases A2 (sPLA2-IIa and sPLA2-V) and secretory acid sphingomyelinase (sSMase). Here, LDL was first proteolyzed and then subjected to lipolysis, after which the effects of combined proteolysis and lipolysis on LDL fusion and on binding to human aortic proteoglycans (PG) were studied. Chymase and cathepsin S led to more extensive proteolysis and release of peptide fragments from LDL than did plasmin. sPLA2-IIa was not able to hydrolyze unmodified LDL, and even preproteolysis of LDL particles failed to enhance lipolysis by this enzyme. However, preproteolysis with chymase and cathepsin S accelerated lipolysis by sPLA2-V and sSMase, which resulted in enhanced fusion and proteoglycan binding of the preproteolyzed LDL particles. Taken together, the results revealed that proteolysis sensitizes the LDL particles to hydrolysis by sPLA2-V and sSMase. By promoting fusion and binding of LDL to human aortic proteoglycans, the combination of proteolysis and phospholipolysis of LDL particles potentially enhances extracellular accumulation of LDL-derived lipids during atherogenesis.
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