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Kalkan H, Panza E, Pagano E, Ercolano G, Moriello C, Piscitelli F, Sztretye M, Capasso R, Di Marzo V, Iannotti FA. Dysfunctional endocannabinoid CB1 receptor expression and signaling contribute to skeletal muscle cell toxicity induced by simvastatin. Cell Death Dis 2023; 14:544. [PMID: 37612317 PMCID: PMC10447569 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-023-06080-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
Statins are the most prescribed lipid-lowering agents worldwide. Their use is generally safe, although muscular toxicity occurs in about 1 in 10.000 patients. In this study, we explored the role of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) during muscle toxicity induced by simvastatin. In murine C2C12 myoblasts exposed to simvastatin, levels of the endocannabinoids AEA and 2-AG as well the expression of specific miRNAs (in particular miR-152) targeting the endocannabinoid CB1 gene were increased in a time-dependent manner. Rimonabant, a selective CB1 antagonist, exacerbated simvastatin-induced toxicity in myoblasts, while only a weak opposite effect was observed with ACEA and GAT211, selective orthosteric and allosteric agonists of CB1 receptor, respectively. In antagomiR152-transfected myoblasts, simvastatin toxicity was in part prevented together with the functional rescue of CB1. Further analyses revealed that simvastatin in C2C12 cells also suppresses PKC and ERK signaling pathways, which are instead activated downstream of CB1 receptor stimulation, thus adding more insight into the mechanism causing CB1 functional inactivation. Importantly, simvastatin induced similar alterations in skeletal muscles of C57BL/6 J mice and primary human myoblasts. In sum, we identified the dysregulated expression of the endocannabinoid CB1 receptor as well as the impairment of its downstream signaling pathways as a novel pathological mechanism involved in statin-induced myopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilal Kalkan
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB), National Research Council (CNR), Pozzuoli, NA, 80078, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Panza
- Department of Pharmacy, University Federico II of Naples Italy, Naples, Italy
| | - Ester Pagano
- Department of Pharmacy, University Federico II of Naples Italy, Naples, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Ercolano
- Department of Pharmacy, University Federico II of Naples Italy, Naples, Italy
| | - Claudia Moriello
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB), National Research Council (CNR), Pozzuoli, NA, 80078, Italy
| | - Fabiana Piscitelli
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB), National Research Council (CNR), Pozzuoli, NA, 80078, Italy
| | - Mónika Sztretye
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 4032, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Raffaele Capasso
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Università 100, 80055, Portici, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB), National Research Council (CNR), Pozzuoli, NA, 80078, Italy.
- Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec and Institut Sur la Nutrition et Les Aliments Fonctionnels, Centre NUTRISS, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada.
| | - Fabio Arturo Iannotti
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB), National Research Council (CNR), Pozzuoli, NA, 80078, Italy.
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2
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Zhang Q, Qu H, Chen Y, Luo X, Chen C, Xiao B, Ding X, Zhao P, Lu Y, Chen AF, Yu Y. Atorvastatin Induces Mitochondria-Dependent Ferroptosis via the Modulation of Nrf2-xCT/GPx4 Axis. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:806081. [PMID: 35309902 PMCID: PMC8927716 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.806081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
As one of the cornerstones of clinical cardiovascular disease treatment, statins have an extensive range of applications. However, statins commonly used have side reactions, especially muscle-related symptoms (SAMS), such as muscle weakness, pain, cramps, and severe condition of rhabdomyolysis. This undesirable muscular effect is one of the chief reasons for statin non-adherence and/or discontinuation, contributing to adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Moreover, the underlying mechanism of muscle cell damage is still unclear. Here, we discovered that ferroptosis, a programmed iron-dependent cell death, serves as a mechanism in statin-induced myopathy. Among four candidates including atorvastatin, lovastatin, rosuvastatin, and pravastatin, only atorvastatin could lead to ferroptosis in human cardiomyocytes (HCM) and murine skeletal muscle cells (C2C12), instead of human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC). Atorvastatin inhibits HCM and C2C12 cell viability in a dose-dependent manner, accompanying with significant augmentation in intracellular iron ions, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and lipid peroxidation. A noteworthy investigation found that those alterations particularly occurred in mitochondria and resulted in mitochondrial dysfunction. Biomarkers of myocardial injury increase significantly during atorvastatin intervention. However, all of the aforementioned enhancement could be restrained by ferroptosis inhibitors. Mechanistically, GSH depletion and the decrease in nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4), and xCT cystine–glutamate antiporter (the main component is SLC7A11) are involved in atorvastatin-induced muscular cell ferroptosis and damage. The downregulation of GPx4 in mitochondria-mediated ferroptosis signaling may be the core of it. In conclusion, our findings explore an innovative underlying pathophysiological mechanism of atorvastatin-induced myopathy and highlight that targeting ferroptosis serves as a protective strategy for clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhang
- Institute for Developmental and Regenerative Cardiovascular Medicine, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hang Qu
- Institute for Developmental and Regenerative Cardiovascular Medicine, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yinghui Chen
- Institute for Developmental and Regenerative Cardiovascular Medicine, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xueyang Luo
- Institute for Developmental and Regenerative Cardiovascular Medicine, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chong Chen
- Institute for Developmental and Regenerative Cardiovascular Medicine, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bing Xiao
- Institute for Developmental and Regenerative Cardiovascular Medicine, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaowei Ding
- Institute for Developmental and Regenerative Cardiovascular Medicine, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Pengjun Zhao
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanan Lu
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Alex F. Chen
- Institute for Developmental and Regenerative Cardiovascular Medicine, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Yu Yu, ; Alex F. Chen,
| | - Yu Yu
- Institute for Developmental and Regenerative Cardiovascular Medicine, Xinhua Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Yu Yu, ; Alex F. Chen,
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3
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Camerino GM, Tarantino N, Canfora I, De Bellis M, Musumeci O, Pierno S. Statin-Induced Myopathy: Translational Studies from Preclinical to Clinical Evidence. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22042070. [PMID: 33669797 PMCID: PMC7921957 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22042070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 02/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Statins are the most prescribed and effective drugs to treat cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Nevertheless, these drugs can be responsible for skeletal muscle toxicity which leads to reduced compliance. The discontinuation of therapy increases the incidence of CVD. Thus, it is essential to assess the risk. In fact, many studies have been performed at preclinical and clinical level to investigate pathophysiological mechanisms and clinical implications of statin myotoxicity. Consequently, new toxicological aspects and new biomarkers have arisen. Indeed, these drugs may affect gene transcription and ion transport and contribute to muscle function impairment. Identifying a marker of toxicity is important to prevent or to cure statin induced myopathy while assuring the right therapy for hypercholesterolemia and counteracting CVD. In this review we focused on the mechanisms of muscle damage discovered in preclinical and clinical studies and highlighted the pathological situations in which statin therapy should be avoided. In this context, preventive or substitutive therapies should also be evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Maria Camerino
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy and Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70125 Bari, Italy; (G.M.C.); (N.T.); (I.C.); (M.D.B.)
| | - Nancy Tarantino
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy and Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70125 Bari, Italy; (G.M.C.); (N.T.); (I.C.); (M.D.B.)
| | - Ileana Canfora
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy and Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70125 Bari, Italy; (G.M.C.); (N.T.); (I.C.); (M.D.B.)
| | - Michela De Bellis
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy and Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70125 Bari, Italy; (G.M.C.); (N.T.); (I.C.); (M.D.B.)
| | - Olimpia Musumeci
- Unit of Neurology and Neuromuscular Disorders, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, 98122 Messina, Italy;
| | - Sabata Pierno
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy and Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70125 Bari, Italy; (G.M.C.); (N.T.); (I.C.); (M.D.B.)
- Correspondence:
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Effect of Schisandra Chinensis Extract Supplementation on Quadriceps Muscle Strength and Fatigue in Adult Women: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17072475. [PMID: 32260466 PMCID: PMC7177795 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17072475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The fruit of Schisandra chinensis (SC) is a well-known traditional herb used for pharmacological purposes in Asian countries (e.g., Korea, China, and Japan). In animal studies, SC extract supplementation had beneficial effects on muscle strength and lactate level. However, the effect of SC extract supplementation on skeletal muscle strength and lactate at rest in humans remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of SC extract supplementation on quadriceps muscle strength (QMS) and lactate at rest in adult women. Forty five healthy post-menopausal middle-aged women (61.9 ± 8.4 years) were randomly divided into the SC (n = 24) or the placebo group (n = 21). The SC group consumed 1000 mg of SC extract per day, whereas the placebo group consumed 1000 mg of starch per day for 12 weeks. The difference in muscle mass, physical function, and biomarkers and the relative changes between baseline and 12 weeks were evaluated. We used two-factor repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine interaction (group × time) effects for variables. Statistical significance was accepted at p < 0.05. In ANOVA results, QMS (p = 0.001) and lactate level (p = 0.038) showed significant interactions. With paired t-tests, QMS was significantly increased (p < 0.001) and lactate level at rest was significantly decreased (p < 0.05) after 12 weeks in the SC group. However, no interactions were found between the other variables. Supplementation of SC extract may help to improve QMS as well as decrease lactate level at rest in adult women. We believe that SC extract is a health supplement that can support healthy life in this population.
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Segatto M, Tonini C, Pfrieger FW, Trezza V, Pallottini V. Loss of Mevalonate/Cholesterol Homeostasis in the Brain: A Focus on Autism Spectrum Disorder and Rett Syndrome. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20133317. [PMID: 31284522 PMCID: PMC6651320 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20133317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The mevalonate (MVA)/cholesterol pathway is crucial for central nervous system (CNS) development and function and consequently, any dysfunction of this fundamental metabolic pathway is likely to provoke pathologic changes in the brain. Mutations in genes directly involved in MVA/cholesterol metabolism cause a range of diseases, many of which present neurologic and psychiatric symptoms. This raises the question whether other diseases presenting similar symptoms are related albeit indirectly to the MVA/cholesterol pathway. Here, we summarized the current literature suggesting links between MVA/cholesterol dysregulation and specific diseases, namely autism spectrum disorder and Rett syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Segatto
- Department of Biosciences and Territory, University of Molise, Contrada Fonte Lappone, 86090 Pesche (IS), Italy
| | - Claudia Tonini
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Viale Marconi, 446, 00146 Rome, Italy
| | - Frank W Pfrieger
- Institute of Cellular and Integrative Neurosciences (INCI) CNRS UPR 3212, Université de Strasbourg, 5, rue Blaise Pascal, 67084 Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Viviana Trezza
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Viale Marconi, 446, 00146 Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Pallottini
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Viale Marconi, 446, 00146 Rome, Italy.
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6
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Fracassi A, Marangoni M, Rosso P, Pallottini V, Fioramonti M, Siteni S, Segatto M. Statins and the Brain: More than Lipid Lowering Agents? Curr Neuropharmacol 2019; 17:59-83. [PMID: 28676012 PMCID: PMC6341496 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x15666170703101816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2017] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Statins represent a class of medications widely prescribed to efficiently treat dyslipidemia. These drugs inhibit 3-βhydroxy 3β-methylglutaryl Coenzyme A reductase (HMGR), the rate-limiting enzyme of mevalonate (MVA) pathway. Besides cholesterol, MVA pathway leads to the production of several other compounds, which are essen-tial in the regulation of a plethora of biological activities, including in the central nervous system. For these reasons, statins are able to induce pleiotropic actions, and acquire increased interest as potential and novel modulators in brain processes, es-pecially during pathological conditions. Objective: The purpose of this review is to summarize and examine the current knowledge about pharmacokinetic and phar-macodynamic properties of statins in the brain. In addition, effects of statin on brain diseases are discussed providing the most up-to-date information. Methods: Relevant scientific information was identified from PubMed database using the following keywords: statins and brain, central nervous system, neurological diseases, neurodegeneration, brain tumors, mood, stroke. Results: 315 scientific articles were selected and analyzed for the writing of this review article. Several papers highlighted that statin treatment is effective in preventing or ameliorating the symptomatology of a number of brain pathologies. Howev-er, other studies failed to demonstrate a neuroprotective effect. Conclusion: Even though considerable research studies suggest pivotal functional outcomes induced by statin therapy, addi-tional investigation is required to better determine the pharmacological effectiveness of statins in the brain, and support their clinical use in the management of different neuropathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Fracassi
- Department of Science, University of Rome "Roma Tre", Italy
| | - Martina Marangoni
- Medical Genetics Unit, University Hospital of Rome "Tor Vergata", Italy
| | - Pamela Rosso
- Department of Science, University of Rome "Roma Tre", Italy.,Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy
| | | | | | - Silvia Siteni
- Department of Science, University of Rome "Roma Tre", Italy
| | - Marco Segatto
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, National Research Council (CNR), Rome, Italy.,Department of Sense Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
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7
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Validation of a clinically-relevant rodent model of statin-associated muscle symptoms for use in pharmacological studies. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2018; 360:78-87. [PMID: 30268577 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2018.09.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Revised: 09/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Various rodent models of statin-associated muscle symptoms (SAMS) have been used to investigate the aetiology of statin myotoxicity. Variability between these models, however, may be contributing to the ambiguity currently surrounding the pathogenesis of SAMS. Furthermore, few studies have assessed the reproducibility of these models. The aim of this study was to compare two established rodent models of statin myotoxicity, differing in treatment duration and dose, to determine which reproducibly caused changes characteristic of SAMS. Isolated skeletal muscle organ bath experiments, biochemical analyses, real-time quantitative-PCR and biometric assessments were used to compare changes in skeletal muscle and renal integrity in statin-treated animals and time-matched control groups. The SIM80 model (80 mg kg-1 day-1 simvastatin for 14 days) produced fibre-selective skeletal muscle damage characteristic of SAMS. Indeed, fast-twitch gastrocnemius muscles showed increased Atrogin-1 expression, reduced peak force of contraction and decreased Myh2 expression while slow-twitch soleus muscles were unaffected. Contrastingly, the SIM50 model (50 mg kg-1 day-1 simvastatin for 30 days) produced little evidence of significant skeletal muscle damage. Neither statin treatment protocol caused significant pathological changes to the kidney. The results of this study indicate that the SIM80 model induces a type of SAMS in rodents that resembles the presentation of statin-induced myalgia in humans. The findings support that the SIM80 model is reproducible and can thus be reliably used as a platform to assess the aetiology and treatment of this condition.
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8
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Godoy JC, Niesman IR, Busija AR, Kassan A, Schilling JM, Schwarz A, Alvarez EA, Dalton ND, Drummond JC, Roth DM, Kararigas G, Patel HH, Zemljic-Harpf AE. Atorvastatin, but not pravastatin, inhibits cardiac Akt/mTOR signaling and disturbs mitochondrial ultrastructure in cardiac myocytes. FASEB J 2018; 33:1209-1225. [PMID: 30169110 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201800876r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Statins, which reduce LDL-cholesterol by inhibition of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase, are among the most widely prescribed drugs. Skeletal myopathy is a known statin-induced adverse effect associated with mitochondrial changes. We hypothesized that similar effects would occur in cardiac myocytes in a lipophilicity-dependent manner between 2 common statins: atorvastatin (lipophilic) and pravastatin (hydrophilic). Neonatal cardiac ventricular myocytes were treated with atorvastatin and pravastatin for 48 h. Both statins induced endoplasmic reticular (ER) stress, but only atorvastatin inhibited ERK1/2T202/Y204, AktSer473, and mammalian target of rapamycin signaling; reduced protein abundance of caveolin-1, dystrophin, epidermal growth factor receptor, and insulin receptor-β; decreased Ras homolog gene family member A activation; and induced apoptosis. In cardiomyocyte-equivalent HL-1 cells, atorvastatin, but not pravastatin, reduced mitochondrial oxygen consumption. When male mice underwent atorvastatin and pravastatin administration per os for up to 7 mo, only long-term atorvastatin, but not pravastatin, induced elevated serum creatine kinase; swollen, misaligned, size-variable, and disconnected cardiac mitochondria; alteration of ER structure; repression of mitochondria- and endoplasmic reticulum-related genes; and a 21% increase in mortality in cardiac-specific vinculin-knockout mice during the first 2 months of administration. To our knowledge, we are the first to demonstrate in vivo that long-term atorvastatin administration alters cardiac ultrastructure, a finding with important clinical implications.-Godoy, J. C., Niesman, I. R., Busija, A. R., Kassan, A., Schilling, J. M., Schwarz, A., Alvarez, E. A., Dalton, N. D., Drummond, J. C., Roth, D. M., Kararigas, G., Patel, H. H., Zemljic-Harpf, A. E. Atorvastatin, but not pravastatin, inhibits cardiac Akt/mTOR signaling and disturbs mitochondrial ultrastructure in cardiac myocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph C Godoy
- Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Ingrid R Niesman
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Anna R Busija
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Adam Kassan
- Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Coast University, North Hollywood, California, USA
| | - Jan M Schilling
- Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Anna Schwarz
- Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Erika A Alvarez
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Nancy D Dalton
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - John C Drummond
- Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - David M Roth
- Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Georgios Kararigas
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Berlin, Germany
| | - Hemal H Patel
- Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Alice E Zemljic-Harpf
- Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
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9
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Kim KY, Ku SK, Lee KW, Song CH, An WG. Muscle-protective effects of Schisandrae Fructus extracts in old mice after chronic forced exercise. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2018; 212:175-187. [PMID: 29107647 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2017.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Schisandrae Fructus (SF), the dried fruit of Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill., is a well-known traditional herb used in Asia for enhancing physical work capacity as well as providing anti-stress and anti-inflammatory effects. Extracts of SF (SFe) have also been reported to increase skeletal muscle mass and inhibit muscle atrophy. AIM OF THE STUDY We examined whether SFe had muscle-protective effects in old mice after chronic forced exercises, and, if so, relevant mechanisms. MATERIALS AND METHODS Ten-month-old aged male mice were divided into six groups. One group received no forced swimming after oral administration of distilled water (Intact); the other groups received forced swimming after administration of distilled water (SW), oxymetholone (OXY), or SFe at 500, 250 and 125mg/kg (SFe500, SFe250, and SFe125, respectively). Forced swimming was conducted for 2min at 30min after oral administration; the treatment was repeated for 28 days. Muscle thickness, weight, lean proportion, and strength were examined. The sampled muscles were subjected to histopathological and biochemical analyses. Plasma was examined by biochemical analyses. RESULTS The thicknesses of the calf muscle and the sampled gastrocnemius and soleus, protein proportion and muscle strength increased significantly in the SW group versus Intact, and they were further increased in the SFe and OXY groups versus SW. The forced swimming in the SW group upregulated mRNA expression related to protein synthesis (Akt1, PI3K) and muscle growth (A1R, TRPV4), while it downregulated mRNAs related to protein degradation (atrogin-1, MuRF1) and muscle growth inhibitor (myostatin, SIRT1). The detected upregulation and downregulation were enhanced in the SFe groups. In addition, the SFe administration inhibited lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species, and accelerated activities of endogenous anti-oxidants and anti-oxidant enzymes. Plasma biochemistry showed decreases in creatine, creatine kinase and LDH in the SFe groups versus SW, suggesting muscle-protective effects of SFe. In the SFe groups versus SW, histopathological analyses revealed an increase in myofibre diameter, and immunohistochemistry showed increases in myofibres immunoreactive for ATPase and decreases in myofibres for apoptosis markers (caspase-3, PARP) and oxidative stress markers (NT, 4HNE, iNOS). CONCLUSIONS Oral administration of SFe, especially SFe500, enhanced exercise-induced adaptive muscle strengthening in aged mice after forced swimming through anti-apoptotic and anti-oxidant effects, mediated via modulation of gene expression related to muscle synthesis or degradation. These results suggest that SFe may be helpful in improvement various muscle disorders as an adjuvant therapy to exercise-based remedies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ki-Young Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea; Research Institute, Bio Port Korea, Busan 619-912, Republic of Korea
| | - Sae-Kwang Ku
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, College of Korean Medicine, Daegu Haany University, Gyeongsan 712-715, Republic of Korea; MRC-GHF, College of Korean Medicine, Daegu Haany University, Gyeongsan 712-715, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki-Won Lee
- Research Institute, Bio Port Korea, Busan 619-912, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Hyun Song
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, College of Korean Medicine, Daegu Haany University, Gyeongsan 712-715, Republic of Korea; MRC-GHF, College of Korean Medicine, Daegu Haany University, Gyeongsan 712-715, Republic of Korea.
| | - Won G An
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea.
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10
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Diao YP, Cui FK, Yan S, Chen ZG, Lian LS, Guo LL, Li YJ. Nerve Growth Factor Promotes Angiogenesis and Skeletal Muscle Fiber Remodeling in a Murine Model of Hindlimb Ischemia. Chin Med J (Engl) 2017; 129:313-9. [PMID: 26831234 PMCID: PMC4799576 DOI: 10.4103/0366-6999.174496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Therapeutic angiogenesis has been shown to promote blood vessel growth and improve tissue perfusion. Nerve growth factor (NGF) has been reported to play an important role in both physiological and pathological angiogenesis. This study aimed to investigate the effects of NGF on angiogenesis and skeletal muscle fiber remodeling in a murine model of hindlimb ischemia and study the relationship between NGF and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in angiogenesis. Methods: Twenty-four mice were randomly allocated to normal control group (n = 6), blank control group (n = 6), VEGF gene transfection group (n = 6), and NGF gene transfection group (n = 6). The model of left hindlimb ischemia model was established by ligating the femoral artery. VEGF165 plasmid (125 μg) and NGF plasmid (125 μg) was injected into the ischemic gastrocnemius of mice from VEGF group and NGF group, respectively. Left hindlimb function and ischemic damage were assessed with terminal points at 21th day postischemia induction. The gastrocnemius of four groups was tested by hematoxylin-eosin staining, proliferating cell nuclear antigen and CD34 immunohistochemistry staining, and myosin ATPase staining. NGF and VEGF protein expression was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Results: On the 21th day after surgery, the functional assessment score and skeletal muscle atrophy degree of VEGF group and NGF group were significantly lower than those of normal control group and blank control group. The endothelial cell proliferation index and the capillary density of VEGF group and NGF group were significantly increased compared with normal control group and blank control group (P < 0.05). The NGF and VEGF protein expression of NGF group showed a significant rise when compared with blank control group (P < 0.05). Similarly, the VEGF protein expression of VEGF group was significantly higher than that of blank control group (P < 0.05), but there was no significant difference of the NGF protein expression between VEGF group and blank control group (P > 0.05). The type I skeletal muscle fiber proportion in gastrocnemius of NGF group and VEGF group was significantly higher than that of blank control group (P < 0.05). Conclusions: NGF transfection can promote NGF and VEGF protein expression which not only can induce angiogenesis but also induce type I muscle fiber expression in ischemic limbs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Yong-Jun Li
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Science, Beijing 100730, China
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El-Ganainy SO, El-Mallah A, Abdallah D, Khattab MM, Mohy El-Din MM, El-Khatib AS. Rosuvastatin safety: An experimental study of myotoxic effects and mitochondrial alterations in rats. Toxicol Lett 2016; 265:23-29. [PMID: 27815113 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Myopathy is the most commonly reported adverse effect of statins. All statins are associated with myopathy, though with different rates. Rosuvastatin is a potent statin reported to induce myopathy comparable to earlier statins. However, in clinical practice most patients could tolerate rosuvastatin over other statins. This study aimed to evaluate the myopathic pattern of rosuvastatin in rats using biochemical, functional and histopathological examinations. The possible deleterious effects of rosuvastatin on muscle mitochondria were also examined. The obtained results were compared to myopathy induced by atorvastatin in equimolar dose. Results showed that rosuvastatin induced a rise in CK, a slight increase in myoglobin level together with mild muscle necrosis. Motor activity, assessed by rotarod, showed that rosuvastatin decreased rats' performance. All these manifestations were obviously mild compared to the prominent effects of atorvastatin. Parallel results were obtained in mitochondrial dysfunction parameters. Rosuvastatin only induced a slight increase in LDH and a minor decrease in ATP (∼14%) and pAkt (∼12%). On the other hand, atorvastatin induced an increase in LDH, lactate/pyruvate ratio and a pronounced decline in ATP (∼80%) and pAkt (∼65%). These findings showed that rosuvastatin was associated with mild myotoxic effects in rats, especially when compared to atorvastatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samar O El-Ganainy
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Pharos University, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Ahmed El-Mallah
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Pharos University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Dina Abdallah
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud M Khattab
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud M Mohy El-Din
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Pharos University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Aiman S El-Khatib
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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12
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Piette AB, Dufresne SS, Frenette J. A short-term statin treatment changes the contractile properties of fast-twitch skeletal muscles. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2016; 17:449. [PMID: 27793139 PMCID: PMC5084426 DOI: 10.1186/s12891-016-1306-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cumulative evidence indicates that statins induce myotoxicity. However, the lack of understanding of how statins affect skeletal muscles at the structural, functional, and physiological levels hampers proper healthcare management. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the early after-effects of lovastatin on the slow-twitch soleus (Sol) and fast-twitch extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles. Methods Adult C57BL/6 mice were orally administrated with placebo or lovastatin [50 mg/kg/d] for 28 days. At the end of the treatment, the isometric ex vivo contractile properties of the Sol and EDL muscles were measured. Subtetanic and tetanic contractions were assessed and contraction kinetics were recorded. The muscles were then frozen for immunohistochemical analyses. Data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA followed by an a posteriori Tukey’s test. Results The short-term lovastatin treatment did not induce muscle mass loss, muscle fiber atrophy, or creatine kinase (CK) release. It had no functional impact on slow-twitch Sol muscles. However, subtetanic stimulations at 10 Hz provoked greater force production in fast-twitch EDL muscles. The treatment also decreased the maximal rate of force development (dP/dT) of twitch contractions and prolonged the half relaxation time (1/2RT) of tetanic contractions of EDL muscles. Conclusions An early short-term statin treatment induced subtle but significant changes in some parameters of the contractile profile of EDL muscles, providing new insights into the selective initiation of statin-induced myopathy in fast-twitch muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Boulanger Piette
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université Laval (CHUQ-CHUL), Axe Neurosciences, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Sébastien S Dufresne
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université Laval (CHUQ-CHUL), Axe Neurosciences, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Jérôme Frenette
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université Laval (CHUQ-CHUL), Axe Neurosciences, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, G1V 4G2, Canada. .,Département de Réadaptation, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada.
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13
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El-Ganainy SO, El-Mallah A, Abdallah D, Khattab MM, Mohy El-Din MM, El-Khatib AS. Elucidation of the mechanism of atorvastatin-induced myopathy in a rat model. Toxicology 2016; 359-360:29-38. [PMID: 27345130 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2016.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Myopathy is among the well documented and the most disturbing adverse effects of statins. The underlying mechanism is still unknown. Mitochondrial dysfunction related to coenzyme Q10 decline is one of the proposed theories. The present study aimed to investigate the mechanism of atorvastatin-induced myopathy in rats. In addition, the mechanism of the coenzyme Q10 protection was investigated with special focus of mitochondrial alterations. Sprague-Dawely rats were treated orally either with atorvastatin (100mg/kg) or atorvastatin and coenzyme Q10 (100mg/kg). Myopathy was assessed by measuring serum creatine kinase (CK) and myoglobin levels together with examination of necrosis in type IIB fiber muscles. Mitochondrial dysfunction was evaluated by measuring muscle lactate/pyruvate ratio, ATP level, pAkt as well as mitochondrial ultrastructure examination. Atorvastatin treatment resulted in a rise in both CK (2X) and myoglobin (6X) level with graded degrees of muscle necrosis. Biochemical determinations showed prominent increase in lactate/pyruvate ratio and a decline in both ATP (>80%) and pAkt (>50%) levels. Ultrastructure examination showed mitochondrial swelling with disrupted organelle membrane. Co-treatment with coenzyme Q10 induced reduction in muscle necrosis as well as in CK and myoglobin levels. In addition, coenzyme Q10 improved all mitochondrial dysfunction parameters including mitochondrial swelling and disruption. These results presented a model for atorvastatin-induced myopathy in rats and proved that mitochondrial dysfunction is the main contributor in statin-myopathy pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samar O El-Ganainy
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Pharos University, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Ahmed El-Mallah
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Pharos University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Dina Abdallah
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud M Khattab
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud M Mohy El-Din
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Pharos University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Aiman S El-Khatib
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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Pallottini V. 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase modulator: toward age- and sex-personalized medicine. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2015; 25:1079-83. [PMID: 26135220 DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2015.1061996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Cholesterol homeostasis maintenance is regulated by a cellular feedback system that senses cholesterol amount in cellular membranes. 3-hydroxy 3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGR) plays a pivotal role in cholesterol metabolism as it is the key rate-limiting enzyme of its biosynthetic pathway; its inhibition provokes a feedback response capable of reducing plasma cholesterol content. HMGR inhibition is a keystone in the treatment and prevention of cardiovascular disease and, therefore, statins (HMGR inhibitors) are widely prescribed even though they may sometimes induce side effects. These drugs are prescribed indifferently to both man and women even if there are several well-known differences in cholesterol metabolism depending on the gender and the age. Thus, gender-related differences in cholesterol metabolism should be taken into account to identify new targets for customized pharmacological treatments for hypercholesterolemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Pallottini
- a University Roma Tre, Biomedical and Technology Section, Department of Science , Viale Marconi 446, 00146, Rome, Italy +39.06.57336320 ; +39.06.57336321 ;
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15
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Lee DSH, Markwardt S, Goeres L, Lee CG, Eckstrom E, Williams C, Fu R, Orwoll E, Cawthon PM, Stefanick ML, Mackey D, Bauer DC, Nielson CM. Statins and physical activity in older men: the osteoporotic fractures in men study. JAMA Intern Med 2014; 174:1263-70. [PMID: 24911216 PMCID: PMC4346343 DOI: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.2266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Muscle pain, fatigue, and weakness are common adverse effects of statin medications and may decrease physical activity in older men. OBJECTIVE To determine whether statin use is associated with physical activity, longitudinally and cross-sectionally. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS Men participating in the Osteoporotic Fractures in Men Study (N = 5994), a multicenter prospective cohort study of community-living men 65 years and older, enrolled between March 2000 and April 2002. Follow-up was conducted through 2009. EXPOSURES Statin use as determined by an inventory of medications (taken within the last 30 days). In cross-sectional analyses (n = 4137), statin use categories were users and nonusers. In longitudinal analyses (n = 3039), categories were prevalent users (baseline use and throughout the study), new users (initiated use during the study), and nonusers (never used). MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Self-reported physical activity at baseline and 2 follow-up visits using the Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE). At the third visit, an accelerometer measured metabolic equivalents (METs [kilocalories per kilogram per hour]) and minutes of moderate activity (METs ≥3.0), vigorous activity (METs ≥6.0), and sedentary behavior (METs ≤1.5). RESULTS At baseline, 989 men (24%) were users and 3148 (76%) were nonusers. The adjusted difference in baseline PASE between users and nonusers was -5.8 points (95% CI, -10.9 to -0.7 points). A total of 3039 men met the inclusion criteria for longitudinal analysis: 727 (24%) prevalent users, 845 (28%) new users, and 1467 (48%) nonusers. PASE score declined by a mean (95% CI) of 2.5 (2.0 to 3.0) points per year for nonusers and 2.8 (2.1 to 3.5) points per year for prevalent users, a nonstatistical difference (0.3 [-0.5 to 1.0] points). For new users, annual PASE score declined at a faster rate than nonusers (difference of 0.9 [95% CI, 0.1 to 1.7] points). A total of 3071 men had adequate accelerometry data, 1542 (50%) were statin users. Statin users expended less METs (0.03 [95% CI, 0.02-0.04] METs less) and engaged in less moderate physical activity (5.4 [95% CI, 1.9-8.8] fewer minutes per day), less vigorous activity (0.6 [95% CI, 0.1-1.1] fewer minutes per day), and more sedentary behavior (7.6 [95% CI, 2.6-12.4] greater minutes per day). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Statin use was associated with modestly lower physical activity among community-living men, even after accounting for medical history and other potentially confounding factors. The clinical significance of these findings deserves further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S H Lee
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Oregon State University/Oregon Health and Science University College of Pharmacy, Portland
| | - Sheila Markwardt
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Oregon State University/Oregon Health and Science University College of Pharmacy, Portland
| | - Leah Goeres
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Oregon State University/Oregon Health and Science University College of Pharmacy, Portland
| | - Christine G Lee
- Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Portland, Oregon3Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Diabetes and Clinical Nutrition, Oregon Health and Science University School of Medicine, Portland
| | - Elizabeth Eckstrom
- Division of General Medicine and Geriatrics, Oregon Health and Science University School of Medicine, Portland
| | - Craig Williams
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Oregon State University/Oregon Health and Science University College of Pharmacy, Portland
| | - Rongwei Fu
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University School of Medicine, Portland
| | - Eric Orwoll
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Diabetes and Clinical Nutrition, Oregon Health and Science University School of Medicine, Portland
| | - Peggy M Cawthon
- California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute, San Francisco
| | - Marcia L Stefanick
- Prevention Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Dawn Mackey
- California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute, San Francisco
| | - Douglas C Bauer
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco
| | - Carrie M Nielson
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University School of Medicine, Portland
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Segatto M, Manduca A, Lecis C, Rosso P, Jozwiak A, Swiezewska E, Moreno S, Trezza V, Pallottini V. Simvastatin treatment highlights a new role for the isoprenoid/cholesterol biosynthetic pathway in the modulation of emotional reactivity and cognitive performance in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2014; 39:841-54. [PMID: 24108067 PMCID: PMC3924519 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2013.284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Revised: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present work was to shed light on the role played by the isoprenoid/cholesterol biosynthetic pathway in the modulation of emotional reactivity and memory consolidation in rodents through the inhibition of the key and rate-limiting enzyme 3-hydroxy 3-methylglutaryl Coenzyme A reductase (HMGR) both in vivo and in vitro with simvastatin. Three-month-old male Wistar rats treated for 21 days with simvastatin or vehicle were tested in the social interaction, elevated plus-maze, and inhibitory avoidance tasks; after behavioral testing, the amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, dorsal, and ventral striatum were dissected out for biochemical assays. In order to delve deeper into the molecular mechanisms underlying the observed effects, primary rat hippocampal neurons were used. Our results show that HMGR inhibition by simvastatin induces anxiogenic-like effects in the social interaction but not in the elevated plus-maze test, and improves memory consolidation in the inhibitory avoidance task. These effects are accompanied by imbalances in the activity of specific prenylated proteins, Rab3 and RhoA, involved in neurotransmitter release, and synaptic plasticity, respectively. Taken together, the present findings indicate that the isoprenoid/cholesterol biosynthetic pathway is critically involved in the physiological modulation of both emotional and cognitive processes in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Segatto
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Viale Marconi, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonia Manduca
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Viale Marconi, Rome, Italy
| | - Claudio Lecis
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Viale Marconi, Rome, Italy
| | - Pamela Rosso
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Viale Marconi, Rome, Italy
| | - Adam Jozwiak
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Swiezewska
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Sandra Moreno
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Viale Marconi, Rome, Italy
| | - Viviana Trezza
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Viale Marconi, Rome, Italy
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Trapani L, Segatto M, Pallottini V. New compounds able to control hepatic cholesterol metabolism: Is it possible to avoid statin treatment in aged people? World J Hepatol 2013; 5:676-684. [PMID: 24432184 PMCID: PMC3879689 DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v5.i12.676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 11/16/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging is characterized by the loss of homeostasis that leads to changes in the biochemical composition of tissues, reduced ability to respond adaptively to environmental stimuli, and increased susceptibility and vulnerability to diseases including coronary artery diseases, carotid artery disease and brain vessel disease. Hypercholesterolemia is one of the primary risk factors for these pathologies, whose incidence is highly related to aging. Almost 25% of men and 42% of women older than 65 years have a serum total cholesterol level greater than 240 mg/dL. The mechanisms behind this age-related increase in plasma cholesterol are still incompletely understood, thus, the control of plasma cholesterol content in aged people is more challenging than in adults. In this review the different pharmacological approaches to reduce plasma cholesterol levels, particularly in aged people, will be discussed. In brief, current therapies are mostly based on the prescription of statins (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors) that are pretty effective but that exert several side effects. More attention should be given to potential drug interactions, potential age-related changes in drug pharmacokinetics, adverse effects such as myopathy and competing risks when statins are prescribed to old patients. In combination or in alternative to statin therapy, other agents might be required to reduce low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels. Among the available drugs, the most commonly prescribed are those addressed to reduce cholesterol absorption, to modulate lipoprotein lipase activity and bile acid sequestrants: even these pharmacological interventions are not exempt from side effects. The use of antioxidants or organoselenium compounds and the discovery of new proteins able to modulate exclusively LDL receptor recycling such as Proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin 9 and SEC24 offer new pharmacological approaches to selectively reduce the main causes of dyslipidemia.
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