Therapeutic applications of monoclonal antibodies

Emerging trends and therapeutic applications of monoclonal antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are being used to prevent, detect, and treat a broad spectrum of malignancies and infectious and autoimmune diseases. Over the past few years, the market for mAbs has grown exponentially. They have become a significant part of many pharmaceutical product lines, and more than 250 therapeutic mAbs are undergoing clinical trials. Ever since the advent of hybridoma technology, antibody-based therapeutics were realized using murine antibodies which further progressed into humanized and fully human antibodies, reducing the risk of immunogenicity. Some of the benefits of using mAbs over conventional drugs include a drastic reduction in the chances of adverse reactions, interactions between drugs, and targeting specific proteins. While antibodies are very efficient, their higher production costs impede the process of commercialization. However, their cost factor has been improved by developing biosimilar antibodies, which are affordable versions of therapeutic antibodies. Along with biosimilars, innovations in antibody engineering have helped to design bio-better antibodies with improved efficacy than the conventional ones. These novel mAb-based therapeutics are set to revolutionize existing drug therapies targeting a wide spectrum of diseases, thereby meeting several unmet medical needs. In the future, mAbs generated by applying next-generation sequencing (NGS) are expected to become a powerful tool in clinical therapeutics. This article describes the methods of mAb production, pre-clinical and clinical development of mAbs, approved indications targeted by mAbs, and novel developments in the field of mAb research.

Adsorption of monoclonal antibody fragments at the water-oil interface: A coarse-grained molecular dynamics study

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) can undergo structural changes due to interaction with oil-water interfaces during storage. Such changes can lead to aggregation, resulting in a loss of therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, understanding the microscopic mechanism controlling mAb adsorption is crucial to developing strategies that can minimize the impact of interfaces on the therapeutic properties of mAbs. In this study, we used MARTINI coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the adsorption of the Fab and Fc domains of the monoclonal antibody COE3 at the oil-water interface. Our aim was to determine the regions on the protein surface that drive mAb adsorption. We also investigate the role of protein concentration on protein orientation and protrusion to the oil phase. While our structural analyses compare favorably with recent neutron reflectivity measurements, we observe some differences. Unlike the monolayer at the interface predicted by neutron reflectivity experiments, our simulations indicate the presence of a secondary diffused layer near the interface. We also find that under certain conditions, protein-oil interaction can lead to a considerable distortion in the protein structure, resulting in enhanced adsorption behavior.

Therapeutics Pipeline

Children have unique physiologic, developmental, and psychosocial needs and unique vulnerabilities, making them a challenging population for which to develop therapeutics. This is particularly apparent in the urgent and chaotic environment of a pandemic or outbreak. Advances in the development of medical countermeasures (MCMs) for pediatric populations have grown substantially over the last decade, and the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic forced advancements in how we approach pediatric MCM development. Consequently, a MCMs pipeline targeting the pediatric population is essential. This article addresses the challenges inherent in these differences that must be taken into account.

Functional diversification of innate and inflammatory immune responses mediated by antibody fragment crystallizable activities against SARS-CoV-2

Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) targeting the SARS-CoV-2 Spike (S) glycoprotein have been exploited for the treatment of severe COVID-19. In this study, we evaluated the immune-regulatory features of two neutralizing anti-S mAbs (nAbs), named J08 and F05, with wild-type (WT) conformation or silenced Fc functions. In the presence of D614G SARS-CoV-2, WT nAbs enhance intracellular viral uptake in immune cells and amplify antiviral type I Interferon and inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production without viral replication, promoting the differentiation of CD16+ inflammatory monocytes and innate/adaptive PD-L1+ and PD-L1+CD80+ plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells. In spite of a reduced neutralizing property, WT J08 nAb still promotes the IL-6 production and differentiation of CD16+ monocytes once binding Omicron BA.1 variant. Fc-mediated regulation of antiviral and inflammatory responses, in the absence of viral replication, highlighted in this study, might positively tune immune response during SARS-CoV-2 infection and be exploited also in mAb-based therapeutic and prophylactic strategies against viral infections.

Enhanced therapeutic potential of antibody fragment via IEDDA-mediated site-specific albumin conjugation

BACKGROUND

The use of single-chain variable fragments (scFvs) for treating human diseases, such as cancer and immune system disorders, has attracted significant attention. However, a critical drawback of scFv is its extremely short serum half-life, which limits its therapeutic potential. Thus, there is a critical need to prolong the serum half-life of the scFv for clinical applications. One promising serum half-life extender for therapeutic proteins is human serum albumin (HSA), which is the most abundant protein in human serum, known to have an exceptionally long serum half-life. However, conjugating a macromolecular half-life extender to a small protein, such as scFv, often results in a significant loss of its critical properties.

RESULTS

In this study, we conjugated the HSA to a permissive site of scFv to improve pharmacokinetic profiles. To ensure minimal damage to the antigen-binding capacity of scFv upon HSA conjugation, we employed a site-specific conjugation approach using a heterobifunctional crosslinker that facilitates thiol-maleimide reaction and inverse electron-demand Diels-Alder reaction (IEDDA). As a model protein, we selected 4D5scFv, derived from trastuzumab, a therapeutic antibody used in human epithermal growth factor 2 (HER2)-positive breast cancer treatment. We introduced a phenylalanine analog containing a very reactive tetrazine group (frTet) at conjugation site candidates predicted by computational methods. Using the linker TCO-PEG4-MAL, a single HSA molecule was site-specifically conjugated to the 4D5scFv (4D5scFv-HSA). The 4D5scFv-HSA conjugate exhibited HER2 binding affinity comparable to that of unmodified 4D5scFv. Furthermore, in pharmacokinetic profile in mice, the serum half-life of 4D5scFv-HSA was approximately 12 h, which is 85 times longer than that of 4D5scFv.

CONCLUSIONS

The antigen binding results and pharmacokinetic profile of 4D5scFv-HSA demonstrate that the site-specifically albumin-conjugated scFv retained its binding affinity with a prolonged serum half-life. In conclusion, we developed an effective strategy to prepare site-specifically albumin-conjugated 4D5scFv, which can have versatile clinical applications with improved efficacy.

Rapid and cost-effective epitope mapping using PURE ribosome display coupled with next-generation sequencing and bioinformatics

A novel, efficient and cost-effective approach for epitope identification of an antibody has been developed using a ribosome display platform. This platform, known as PURE ribosome display, utilizes an Escherichia coli-based reconstituted cell-free protein synthesis system (PURE system). It stabilizes the mRNA-ribosome-peptide complex via a ribosome-arrest peptide sequence. This system was complemented by next-generation sequencing (NGS) and an algorithm for analyzing binding epitopes. To showcase the effectiveness of this method, selection conditions were refined using the anti-PA tag monoclonal antibody with the PA tag peptide as a model. Subsequently, a random peptide library was constructed using 10 NNK triplet oligonucleotides via the PURE ribosome display. The resulting random peptide library-ribosome-mRNA complex was selected using a commercially available anti-HA (YPYDVPDYA) tag monoclonal antibody, followed by NGS and bioinformatic analysis. Our approach successfully identified the DVPDY sequence as an epitope within the hemagglutinin amino acid sequence, which was then experimentally validated. This platform provided a valuable tool for investigating continuous epitopes in antibodies.

Development of Analytical Method for the Quantitation of Monoclonal Antibodies Solutions via Raman Spectroscopy: The Case of Bevacizumab

Personalized dosages of monoclonal antibodies are being used more regularly to treat various diseases, rendering their quantitation more essential than ever for the right dose administration to the patients. A promising alternative, which overcomes the obstacles of the well-established chromatographic techniques regarding the quantification of biopharmaceuticals, is Raman spectroscopy. This study aimed to develop and validate a novel analytical method for the quantitation of bevacizumab in solutions via Raman spectroscopy. For this purpose, a droplet of the solution was left to dry on a highly reflective carrier and a home-made apparatus was employed for rotation of the sample. Hence, each recorded Raman spectrum was the average of the signal acquired simultaneously from multiple points on a circular circumference. The method was validated, and the detection limit of the antibody was found to be 1.06 mg/mL. Bevacizumab was found to be highly distributed at the formed coffee ring of the dried droplet, though this was a function of solution concentration. Finally, Raman spectra at different distances on the coffee ring were obtained from the four quarters. The lowest bevacizumab detection limit was found at a distance of 75 μm from the external side of the coffee ring and it was determined to be equal to 0.53 mg/mL.

Unraveling the Microscopic Mechanism of Molecular Ion Interaction with Monoclonal Antibodies: Impact on Protein Aggregation

Understanding and predicting protein aggregation represents one of the major challenges in accelerating the pharmaceutical development of protein therapeutics. In addition to maintaining the solution pH, buffers influence both monoclonal antibody (mAb) aggregation in solution and the aggregation mechanisms since the latter depend on the protein charge. Molecular-level insight is necessary to understand the relationship between the buffer-mAb interaction and mAb aggregation. Here, we use all-atom molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the interaction of phosphate (Phos) and citrate (Cit) buffer ions with the Fab and Fc domains of mAb COE3. We demonstrate that Phos and Cit ions feature binding mechanisms, with the protein that are very different from those reported previously for histidine (His). These differences are reflected in distinctive ion-protein binding modes and adsorption/desorption kinetics of the buffer molecules from the mAb surface and result in dissimilar effects of these buffer species on mAb aggregation. While His shows significant affinity toward hydrophobic amino acids on the protein surface, Phos and Cit ions preferentially bind to charged amino acids. We also show that Phos and Cit anions provide bridging contacts between basic amino acids in neighboring proteins. The implications of such contacts and their connection to mAb aggregation in therapeutic formulations are discussed.

Correlating Surface Activity with Interface-Induced Aggregation in a High-Concentration mAb Solution

Interface-induced aggregation resulting in protein particle formation is an issue during the manufacturing and storage of protein-based therapeutics. High-concentration formulations of therapeutic proteins are even more prone to protein particle formation due to increased protein-protein interactions. However, the dependence of interface-induced protein particle formation on bulk protein concentration is not understood. Furthermore, the formation of protein particles is often mitigated by the addition of polysorbate-based surfactants. However, the details of surfactant-protein interactions that prevent protein particle formation at high concentrations remain unclear. In this work, a tensiometer technique was used to evaluate the surface pressure of an industrially relevant mAb at different bulk concentrations, and in the absence and presence of a polysorbate-based surfactant, polysorbate 20 (PS20). The adsorption kinetics was correlated with subvisible protein particle formation at the air-water interface and in the bulk protein solution using a microflow imaging technique. Our results showed that, in the absence of any surfactant, the number of subvisible particles in the bulk protein solutions increased linearly with mAb concentration, while the number of protein particles measured at the interface showed a logarithmic dependence on bulk protein concentration. In the presence of surfactants above the critical micelle concentration (CMC), our results for low-concentration mAb solutions (10 mg/mL) showed an interface that is surfactant-dominated, and particle characterization results showed that the addition of the surfactant led to reduced particle formation. In contrast, for the highest concentration (170 mg/mL), coadsorption of proteins and surfactants was observed at the air-water interface, even for surfactant formulations above CMC and the surfactant did not mitigate subvisible particle formation. Our results taken together provide evidence that the ratio between the surfactant and mAb molecules is an important consideration when formulating high-concentration mAb therapeutics to prevent unwanted aggregation.

Mechanistic Insights into the Adsorption of Monoclonal Antibodies at the Water/Vapor Interface

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are active components of therapeutic formulations that interact with the water-vapor interface during manufacturing, storage, and administration. Surface adsorption has been demonstrated to mediate antibody aggregation, which leads to a loss of therapeutic efficacy. Controlling mAb adsorption at interfaces requires a deep understanding of the microscopic processes that lead to adsorption and identification of the protein regions that drive mAb surface activity. Here, we report all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of the adsorption behavior of a full IgG1-type antibody at the water/vapor interface. We demonstrate that small local changes in the protein structure play a crucial role in promoting adsorption. Also, interfacial adsorption triggers structural changes in the antibody, potentially contributing to the further enhancement of surface activity. Moreover, we identify key amino acid sequences that determine the adsorption of antibodies at the water-air interface and outline strategies to control the surface activity of these important therapeutic proteins.

Novel 40 µm spot size 3050/3200 nm DFG laser versus CO2 laser for laser-assisted drug delivery

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The use of ablative fractional lasers to enhance the delivery of topical drugs through the skin is known as laser-assisted drug delivery. Here, we compare a novel 3050/3200 nm difference frequency generation (DFG) fiber laser (spot size: 40 µm) to a commercially used CO2 laser (spot size: 120 µm). The objective is to determine whether differences in spot size and coagulation zone (CZ) thickness influence drug uptake.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fractional ablation was performed on ex-vivo human abdominal skin with the DFG (5 mJ) and CO2 (12 mJ) lasers to generate 680 µm deep lesions. To evaluate drug delivery, 30 kDa encapsulated fluorescent dye was topically applied to the skin and histologically analyzed at skin depths of 100, 140, 200, 400, and 600 µm. Additionally, transcutaneous permeation of encapsulated and 350 Da nonencapsulated dye was assessed using Franz Cells.

RESULTS

The DFG laser generated smaller channels (diameter: 56.5 µm) with thinner CZs (thickness: 22.4 µm) than the CO2 laser (diameter: 75.9 µm, thickness: 66.8 µm). The DFG laser treated group exhibited significantly higher encapsulated dye total fluorescence intensities after 3 h compared to the CO2 laser treated group across all skin depths (p < 0.001). Permeation of nonencapsulated dye was also higher in the DFG laser treated group vs the CO2 laser treated group after 48 h (p < 0.0001), while encapsulated dye was not detected in any group.

CONCLUSION

The DFG laser treated skin exhibited significantly higher total fluorescence uptake compared to the CO2 laser. Additionally, the smaller spot size and thinner CZ of the DFG laser could result in faster wound healing and reduced adverse effects while delivering similar or greater amount of topically applied drugs.

Safety Analysis of Bapineuzumab in the Treatment of Mild to Moderate Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease affects millions of people worldwide, and very few drugs are available for its treatment. Monoclonal antibodies have shown promising effects in the treatment of various types of diseases. Bapineuzumab is one of the humanized monoclonal antibodies, which have shown promising effects in AD patients. Bapineuzumab has shown efficacy in the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. However, its safety is still unclear.

OBJECTIVE

Thus, the main objective of the current study is to find out the exact safety profile of bapineuzumab in the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease.

METHODS

We performed a web-based literature search of PubMed and clinical trial websites using the relevant keywords. Data were extracted from eligible records, and the risk ratio (RR) was calculated with a 95% confidence interval (CI). All the analyses were performed using Review Manager software (version 5.3 for windows). Heterogeneity was measured by Chi-square and I-square tests.

RESULTS

Non-significant association of bapineuzumab with serious treatment-emergent adverse events [RR: 1.11 (0.92, 1.35)], headache [RR: 1.03 (0.81, 1.32)], delirium [RR: 2.21 (0.36, 13.53)], vomiting [RR: 0.92 (0.55, 1.55)], hypertension [RR: 0.49 (0.12, 2.12)], convulsions [RR:2.23 (0.42, 11.71)], falls [RR: 0.98 (0.80, 1.21)], fatal AEs [RR: 1.18 (0.59, 2.39)], and neoplasms [RR:1.81 (0.07, 49.52)] was reported; however, a significant association was found with vasogenic edema [RR: 22.58 (3.48, 146.44)].

CONCLUSION

Based on available evidence, bapineuzumab is found to be safe in the treatment of AD patients. However, vasogenic edema should be considered.

Production and Purification of Antibodies in Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells

Antibodies are versatile biological molecules with widespread applications in research and medicine. This protocol outlines the generation of monoclonal IgG antibodies from Chinese hamster ovary cells. It includes steps for cell maintenance, transient transfection, and antibody purification via protein A affinity chromatography. The methods described are intended for the production of milligram amounts of protein but can be adapted for most small- to mid-scale applications.

Evaluation of the Potential Impact of In Silico Humanization on VHH Dynamics

Camelids have the peculiarity of having classical antibodies composed of heavy and light chains as well as single-chain antibodies. They have lost their light chains and one heavy-chain domain. This evolutionary feature means that their terminal heavy-chain domain, VH, called VHH here, has no partner and forms an independent domain. The VHH is small and easy to express alone; it retains thermodynamic and interaction properties. Consequently, VHHs have garnered significant interest from both biotechnological and pharmaceutical perspectives. However, due to their origin in camelids, they cannot be used directly on humans. A humanization step is needed before a possible use. However, changes, even in the constant parts of the antibodies, can lead to a loss of quality. A dedicated tool, Llamanade, has recently been made available to the scientific community. In a previous paper, we already showed the different types of VHH dynamics. Here, we have selected a representative VHH and tested two humanization hypotheses to accurately assess the potential impact of these changes. This example shows that despite the non-negligible change (1/10th of residues) brought about by humanization, the effect is not drastic, and the humanized VHH retains conformational properties quite similar to those of the camelid VHH.

A novel filter-assisted protein precipitation (FAPP) based sample pre-treatment method for LC-MS peptide mapping for biosimilar characterization

Establishing analytical and functional comparability serves as the foundation of biosimilar development. A critical part of this exercise is sequence similarity search and categorization of post-translational modifications (PTMs), often by peptide mapping using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). When performing bottom-up proteomic sample preparation, efficient digestion of the protein and extraction of peptides for subsequent mass spectrometric analysis can be a challenge. Conventional sample preparation strategies face the risk of allowing interference of chemicals which are essential for extraction but are likely to interfere with digestion, resulting in complex chromatographic profiles due to semi-cleavages, insufficient peptide cleavages, and other unwanted reactions. Further, peptide cleanup through commonly used immobilized C-18 pipette tips can cause significant peptide loss as well as variability in individual peptide yields, thereby causing artifacts of various product-related modifications. In this study, we proposed a simple enzymatic digestion technique by incorporating different molecular weight filters and protein precipitation, with the objective to minimize interference of denaturing, reducing, and alkylating agents throughout overnight digestion. As a result, the need for peptide cleanup is significantly reduced and results in higher peptide yield. The proposed FAPP approach outperformed the conventional method across multiple metrics including, 30% more peptides, 8.19% more fully digested peptides, 14% higher sequence coverage rate, and 11.82% more site-specific alterations. Quantitative and qualitative repeatability of the proposed approach have been demonstrated. It can be concluded that the filter-assisted protein precipitation (FAPP) protocol proposed in this study offers an effective substitute for the traditional approach.

Contemporary Monoclonal Antibody Utilization in Glomerular Diseases

Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) have been one of the fastest growing drug classes in the past 2 decades and are indicated in the treatment of cancer, autoimmune disorders, solid organ transplantation, and glomerular diseases. The Food and Drug Administration has approved 100 MAbs between 1986 and 2021, and MAbs account for 20% of Food and Drug Administration's new drug approval every year. MAbs are preferred over traditional immunosuppressive agents because of their high specificity, reduced number of drug-drug interactions, and low toxicity, which make them a prime example of personalized medicine. In this review article, we provide an overview of the taxonomy, pharmacology, and therapeutic applications of MAbs in glomerular diseases. We searched the literature through PubMed using the following search terms: monoclonal antibodies, glomerular diseases, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, immunoglobulin, murine, chimeric,humanized, and fully human, and limited our search to years 2018-2023. We selected peer-reviewed journal articles with an evidence-based approach, prioritizing randomized control trials in specific glomerular diseases, if available. Advances in the MAb field have resulted in a significant paradigm shift in targeted treatment of immune-mediated glomerular diseases, and multiple randomized control trials are currently being conducted. Increased recognition is critical to expand their use in experimental research and personalized medicine.

Current status and future expectations of nanobodies in oncology trials

INTRODUCTION

Monoclonal antibodies have revolutionized personalized medicine for cancer in recent decades. Despite their broad application in oncology, their large size and complexity may interfere with successful tumor targeting for certain applications of cancer diagnosis and therapy. Nanobodies have unique structural and pharmacological features compared to monoclonal antibodies and have successfully been used as complementary anti-cancer diagnostic and/or therapeutic tools.

AREAS COVERED

Here, an overview is given of the nanobody-based diagnostics and therapeutics that have been or are currently being tested in oncological clinical trials. Furthermore, preclinical developments, which are likely to be translated into the clinic in the near future, are highlighted.

EXPERT OPINION

Overall, the presented studies show the application potential of nanobodies in the field of oncology, making it likely that more nanobodies will be clinically approved in the upcoming future.

Physiologic Changes During Pregnancy and Impact on Small-Molecule Drugs, Biologic (Monoclonal Antibody) Disposition, and Response

Pregnancy is a unique physiological state that results in many changes in bodily function, including cellular, metabolic, and hormonal changes. These changes can have a significant impact on the way small-molecule drugs and monoclonal antibodies (biologics) function and are metabolized, including efficacy, safety, potency, and adverse effects. In this article, we review the various physiologic changes that occur during pregnancy and their effects on drug and biologic metabolism, including changes in the coagulation, gastrointestinal, renal, endocrine, hepatic, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems. Additionally, we discuss how these changes can affect the processes of drug and biologic absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination (pharmacokinetics), and how drugs and biologics interact with biological systems, including mechanisms of drug action and effect (pharmacodynamics) during pregnancy, as well as the potential for drug-induced toxicity and adverse effects in the mother and developing fetus. The article also examines the implications of these changes for the use of drugs and biologics during pregnancy, including consequences of suboptimal plasma drug concentrations, effect of pregnancy on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of biologics, and the need for careful monitoring and individualized drug dosing. Overall, this article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the physiologic changes during pregnancy and their effects on drug and biologic metabolism to improve the safe and effective use of drugs.

Identification of monoclonal antibody drug substances using non-destructive Raman spectroscopy

Monoclonal antibodies provide highly specific and effective therapies for the treatment of chronic diseases. These protein-based therapeutics, or drug substances, are transported in single used plastic packaging to fill finish sites. According to good manufacturing practice guidelines, each drug substance needs to be identified before manufacturing of the drug product. However, considering their complex structure, it is challenging to correctly identify therapeutic proteins in an efficient manner. Common analytical techniques for therapeutic protein identification are SDS-gel electrophoresis, enzyme linked immunosorbent assays, high performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry-based assays. Although effective in correctly identifying the protein therapeutic, most of these techniques need extensive sample preparation and removal of samples from their containers. This step not only risks contamination but the sample taken for the identification is destroyed and cannot be re-used. Moreover, these techniques are often time consuming, sometimes taking several days to process. Here, we address these challenges by developing a rapid and non-destructive identification technique for monoclonal antibody-based drug substances. Raman spectroscopy in combination with chemometrics were used to identify three monoclonal antibody drug substances. This study explored the impact of laser exposure, time out of refrigerator and multiple freeze thaw cycles on the stability of monoclonal antibodies. and demonstrated the potential of using Raman spectroscopy for the identification of protein-based drug substances in the biopharmaceutical industry.

Future perspectives of emerging novel drug targets and immunotherapies to control drug addiction

Substance Use Disorder (SUD) is one of the major mental illnesses that is terrifically intensifying worldwide. It is becoming overwhelming due to limited options for treatment. The complexity of addiction disorders is the main impediment to understanding the pathophysiology of the illness. Hence, unveiling the complexity of the brain through basic research, identification of novel signaling pathways, the discovery of new drug targets, and advancement in cutting-edge technologies will help control this disorder. Additionally, there is a great hope of controlling the SUDs through immunotherapeutic measures like therapeutic antibodies and vaccines. Vaccines have played a cardinal role in eliminating many diseases like polio, measles, and smallpox. Further, vaccines have controlled many diseases like cholera, dengue, diphtheria, Haemophilus influenza type b (Hib), human papillomavirus, influenza, Japanese encephalitis, etc. Recently, COVID-19 was controlled in many countries by vaccination. Currently, continuous effort is done to develop vaccines against nicotine, cocaine, morphine, methamphetamine, and heroin. Antibody therapy against SUDs is another important area where serious attention is required. Antibodies have contributed substantially against many serious diseases like diphtheria, rabies, Crohn's disease, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and bladder cancer. Antibody therapy is gaining immense momentum due to its success rate in cancer treatment. Furthermore, enormous advancement has been made in antibody therapy due to the generation of high-efficiency humanized antibodies with a long half-life. The advantage of antibody therapy is its instant outcome. This article's main highlight is discussing the drug targets of SUDs and their associated mechanisms. Importantly, we have also discussed the scope of prophylactic measures to eliminate drug dependence.

Monoclonal antibodies in breast cancer: A critical appraisal

In breast cancer, mAbs can play multifunctional roles like targeting cancer cells, sometimes directly attacking them, helping in locating and delivering therapeutic drugs to targets, inhibiting cell growth and blocking immune system inhibitors, etc. Monoclonal antibodies are also one of the important successful treatment strategies especially against HER2 but they have not been explored much for other types of breast cancers especially in triple negative breast cancers. Monoclonal antibodies impact the feasibility of antigen specificity, bispecific and trispecific mAbs have opened new doors for more targeted specific efficacy. Monoclonal antibodies can be used diversly and with efficacy as compared to other methods of treatment thus maining it a suitable candidate for breast cancer treatment. However, mAbs treatment also causes various side effects such as fever, trembling, fatigue, headache and muscle pain, nausea/vomiting, difficulty in breathing, rashes and bleeding. Understanding the pros and cons of this strategy, we have explored in this review, the current and future potential capabilities of monoclonal antibodies with respect to diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer. DATA AVAILABILITY: Not applicable.

[Biological cancer therapies: an approach towards accessibility]

OBJECTIVE

Monoclonal antibodies are a useful tool for laboratory diagnosis and an instrument used in the treatment of various diseases and represent one of the most important groups of new drugs for the treatment of cancer. The revolution in the world occured in 1975 when Milstein and Köhler discovered monoclonal antibodies in Cambridge. To review the use of monoclonal antibodies in medicine and in the treatment of cancer. To provide a generalized vision of the concept of monoclonal antibody to explain its therapeutic applicability, and to approach an economic, health-care approach to obtaining and accessing new therapies.

METHOD

In the characterization of the research phenomenon, the descriptive study, the collection of documentary data and the correlation between the different sources were used.

DISCUSSION

However, the costs for both the patient and the public health systems are still high, and the cost-effectiveness assessment must be optimized so that cost-effectiveness and access to time for patients can be compatible. And the challenge of developing new mAbs aimed at new targets, improving the safety profile, avoiding, or reducing adverse immune reactions and achieving lower production costs through improvements in biotechnology, is left open.

Development and Validation of an Artificial Neural-Network-Based Optical Density Soft Sensor for a High-Throughput Fermentation System

Optical density (OD) is a critical process parameter during fermentation, this being directly related to cell density, which provides valuable information regarding the state of the process. However, to measure OD, sampling of the fermentation broth is required. This is particularly challenging for high-throughput-microbioreactor (HT-MBR) systems, which require robotic liquid-handling (LiHa) systems for process control tasks, such as pH regulation or carbon feed additions. Bioreactor volume is limited and automated at-line sampling occupies the resources of LiHa systems; this affects their ability to carry out the aforementioned pipetting operations. Minimizing the number of physical OD measurements is therefore of significant interest. However, fewer measurements also result in less process information. This resource conflict has previously represented a challenge. We present an artificial neural-network-based soft sensor developed for the real-time estimation of the OD in an MBR system. This sensor was able to estimate the OD to a high degree of accuracy (>95%), even without informative process variables stemming from, e.g., off-gas analysis only available at larger scales. Furthermore, we investigated and demonstrated scaling of the soft sensor’s generalization capabilities with the data from different antibody fragments expressing Escherichia coli strains. This study contributes to accelerated biopharmaceutical process development.

EBV LMP1-C terminal binding affibody molecule downregulates MEK/ERK/p90RSK pathway and inhibits the proliferation of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells in mouse tumor xenograft models

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), is an Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) associated malignancy most common in Southern China and Southeast Asia. In southern China, it is one of the major causes of cancer-related death. Despite improvement in radiotherapy and chemotherapy techniques, locoregional recurrence and distant metastasis remains the major causes for failure of treatment in NPC patients. Therefore, finding new specific drug targets for treatment interventions are urgently needed. Here, we report three potential ZLMP1-C affibody molecules (ZLMP1-C15, ZLMP1-C114 and ZLMP1-C277) that showed specific binding interactions for recombinant and native EBV LMP1 as determined by epitope mapping, co-localization and co-immunoprecipitation assays. The ZLMP1-C affibody molecules exhibited high antitumor effects on EBV-positive NPC cell lines and displayed minimal cytotoxicity towards EBV-negative NPC cell line. Moreover, ZLMP1-C277 showed higher antitumor efficacy than ZLMP1-C15 and ZLMP1-C114 affibody molecules. The ability of ZLMP1-C277 decrease the phosphorylation levels of up-stream activator phospho-Raf-1(Ser338), phospho-MEK1/2(Ser217/Ser221), phospho-ERK1/2(Thr202/Thr204), thereby leading to downstream suppression of phospho-p90RSK(Ser380) and transcription factor c-Fos. Importantly, tumor growth was reduced in tumor-bearing mice treated with ZLMP1-C277 and caused no apparent toxicity. Taken together, our findings provide evidence that ZLMP1-C277 as a promising therapeutic agent in EBV-associated NPC.

Advances in Nanotechnology for Cancer Immunoprevention and Immunotherapy: A Review

One of the most effective cancer therapies, cancer immunotherapy has produced outstanding outcomes in the field of cancer treatment. However, the cost is excessive, which limits its applicability. A smart way to address this issue would be to apply the knowledge gained through immunotherapy to develop strategies for the immunoprevention of cancer. The use of cancer vaccines is one of the most popular methods of immunoprevention. This paper reviews the technologies and processes that support the advantages of cancer immunoprevention over traditional cancer immunotherapies. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems and nanoparticle-based nano-vaccines have been employed in the past for cancer immunotherapy. This paper outlines numerous immunoprevention strategies and how nanotechnology can be applied in immunoprevention. To comprehend the non-clinical and clinical evaluation of these cancer vaccines through clinical studies is essential for acceptance of the vaccines.

Fluorinated Protein and Peptide Materials for Biomedical Applications

Fluorination represents one of the most powerful modern design strategies to impart biomacromolecules with unique functionality, empowering them for widespread application in the biomedical realm. However, the properties of fluorinated protein materials remain unpredictable due to the heavy context-dependency of the surrounding atoms influenced by fluorine’s strong electron-withdrawing tendencies. This review aims to discern patterns and elucidate design principles governing the biochemical synthesis and rational installation of fluorine into protein and peptide sequences for diverse biomedical applications. Several case studies are presented to deconvolute the overgeneralized fluorous stabilization effect and critically examine the duplicitous nature of the resultant enhanced chemical and thermostability as it applies to use as biomimetic therapeutics, drug delivery vehicles, and bioimaging modalities.

Monoclonal Antibodies for Bacterial Pathogens: Mechanisms of Action and Engineering Approaches for Enhanced Effector Functions

Monoclonal antibody (mAb) therapy has opened a new era in the pharmaceutical field, finding application in various areas of research, from cancer to infectious diseases. The IgG isoform is the most used therapeutic, given its long half-life, high serum abundance, and most importantly, the presence of the Fc domain, which can be easily engineered. In the infectious diseases field, there has been a rising interest in mAbs research to counteract the emerging crisis of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Various pathogens are acquiring resistance mechanisms, inhibiting any chance of success of antibiotics, and thus may become critically untreatable in the near future. Therefore, mAbs represent a new treatment option which may complement or even replace antibiotics. However, very few antibacterial mAbs have succeeded clinical trials, and until now, only three mAbs have been approved by the FDA. These failures highlight the need of improving the efficacy of mAb therapeutic activity, which can also be achieved with Fc engineering. In the first part of this review, we will describe the mechanisms of action of mAbs against bacteria, while in the second part, we will discuss the recent advances in antibody engineering to increase efficacy of pre-existing anti-bacterial mAbs.

Application of recombinant antibodies for treatment of Clostridioides difficile infection: Current status and future perspective

Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile), known as the major cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea, is regarded as one of the most common healthcare-associated bacterial infections worldwide. Due to the emergence of hypervirulent strains, development of new therapeutic methods for C. difficile infection (CDI) has become crucially important. In this context, antibodies have been introduced as valuable tools in the research and clinical environments, as far as the effectiveness of antibody therapy for CDI was reported in several clinical investigations. Hence, production of high-performance antibodies for treatment of CDI would be precious. Traditional approaches of antibody generation are based on hybridoma technology. Today, application of in vitro technologies for generating recombinant antibodies, like phage display, is considered as an appropriate alternative to hybridoma technology. These techniques can circumvent the limitations of the immune system and they can be exploited for production of antibodies against different types of biomolecules in particular active toxins. Additionally, DNA encoding antibodies is directly accessible in in vitro technologies, which enables the application of antibody engineering in order to increase their sensitivity and specificity. Here, we review the application of antibodies for CDI treatment with an emphasis on recombinant fragment antibodies. Also, this review highlights the current and future prospects of the aforementioned approaches for antibody-mediated therapy of CDI.

Understanding the Stabilizing Effect of Histidine on mAb Aggregation: A Molecular Dynamics Study

Histidine, a widely used buffer in monoclonal antibody (mAb) formulations, is known to reduce antibody aggregation. While experimental studies suggest a nonelectrostatic, nonstructural (relating to secondary structure preservation) origin of the phenomenon, the underlying microscopic mechanism behind the histidine action is still unknown. Understanding this mechanism will help evaluate and predict the stabilizing effect of this buffer under different experimental conditions and for different mAbs. We have used all-atom molecular dynamics simulations and contact-based free energy calculations to investigate molecular-level interactions between the histidine buffer and mAbs, which lead to the observed stability of therapeutic formulations in the presence of histidine. We reformulate the Spatial Aggregation Propensity index by including the buffer–protein interactions. The buffer adsorption on the protein surface leads to lower exposure of the hydrophobic regions to water. Our analysis indicates that the mechanism behind the stabilizing action of histidine is connected to the shielding of the solvent-exposed hydrophobic regions on the protein surface by the buffer molecules.

Role of Antimicrobial Drug in the Development of Potential Therapeutics

Population of the world run into several health-related emergencies among mankind and humans as it creates a challenge for the evolution of novel drug discoveries. One such can be the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains in both hospital and community settings, which have been due to an inappropriate use and inadequate control of antibiotics that has led to the foremost human health concerns with a high impact on the global economy. So far, there has been application of two strategies for the development of anti-infective agents either by classical antibiotics that have been derived for their synthetic analogs with increased efficacy or screening natural compounds along with the synthetic compound libraries for the antimicrobial activities. However, need for newer treatment options for infectious diseases has led research to develop new generation of antimicrobial activity to further lessen the spread of antibiotic resistance. Currently, the principles aim to find novel mode of actions or products to target the specific sites and virulence factors in pathogens by a series of better understanding of physiology and molecular aspects of the microbial resistance, mechanism of infection process, and gene-pathogenicity relationship. The design various novel strategies tends to provide us a path for the development of various antimicrobial therapies that intends to have a broader and wider antimicrobial spectrum that helps to combat MDR strains worldwide. The development of antimicrobial peptides, metabolites derived from plants, microbes, phage-based antimicrobial agents, use of metal nanoparticles, and role of CRISPR have led to an exceptional strategies in designing and developing the next-generation antimicrobials. These novel strategies might help to combat the seriousness of the infection rates and control the health crisis system.

AAV Vector-Mediated Antibody Delivery (A-MAD) in the Central Nervous System

In the last four decades, monoclonal antibodies and their derivatives have emerged as a powerful class of therapeutics, largely due to their exquisite targeting specificity. Several clinical areas, most notably oncology and autoimmune disorders, have seen the successful introduction of monoclonal-based therapeutics. However, their adoption for treatment of Central Nervous System diseases has been comparatively slow, largely due to issues of efficient delivery resulting from limited permeability of the Blood Brain Barrier. Nevertheless, CNS diseases are becoming increasingly prevalent as societies age, accounting for ~6.5 million fatalities worldwide per year. Therefore, harnessing the full therapeutic potential of monoclonal antibodies (and their derivatives) in this clinical area has become a priority. Adeno-associated virus-based vectors (AAVs) are a potential solution to this problem. Preclinical studies have shown that AAV vector-mediated antibody delivery provides protection against a broad range of peripheral diseases, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza and malaria. The parallel identification and optimization of AAV vector platforms which cross the Blood Brain Barrier with high efficiency, widely transducing the Central Nervous System and allowing high levels of local transgene production, has now opened a number of interesting scenarios for the development of AAV vector-mediated antibody delivery strategies to target Central Nervous System proteinopathies.

AAV-mediated delivery of an anti-BACE1 VHH alleviates pathology in an Alzheimer's disease model

Single domain antibodies (VHHs) are potentially disruptive therapeutics, with important biological value for treatment of several diseases, including neurological disorders. However, VHHs have not been widely used in the central nervous system (CNS), largely because of their restricted blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration. Here, we propose a gene transfer strategy based on BBB-crossing Adeno-associated virus (AAV)-based vectors to deliver VHH directly into the CNS. As a proof-of-concept, we explored the potential of AAV-delivered VHH to inhibit BACE1, a well-characterized target in Alzheimer's disease. First, we generated a panel of VHHs targeting BACE1, one of which, VHH-B9, shows high selectivity for BACE1 and efficacy in lowering BACE1 activity in vitro. We further demonstrate that a single systemic dose of AAV-VHH-B9 produces positive long-term (12 months plus) effects on amyloid load, neuroinflammation, synaptic function, and cognitive performance, in the App^NL-G-F Alzheimer's disease mouse model. These results constitute a novel therapeutic approach forneurodegenerative diseases, which is applicable to a range of CNS disease targets.

VHH Structural Modelling Approaches: A Critical Review

V_HH, i.e., VH domains of camelid single-chain antibodies, are very promising therapeutic agents due to their significant physicochemical advantages compared to classical mammalian antibodies. The number of experimentally solved V_HH structures has significantly improved recently, which is of great help, because it offers the ability to directly work on 3D structures to humanise or improve them. Unfortunately, most V_HHs do not have 3D structures. Thus, it is essential to find alternative ways to get structural information. The methods of structure prediction from the primary amino acid sequence appear essential to bypass this limitation. This review presents the most extensive overview of structure prediction methods applied for the 3D modelling of a given V_HH sequence (a total of 21). Besides the historical overview, it aims at showing how model software programs have been shaping the structural predictions of V_HHs. A brief explanation of each methodology is supplied, and pertinent examples of their usage are provided. Finally, we present a structure prediction case study of a recently solved V_HH structure. According to some recent studies and the present analysis, AlphaFold 2 and NanoNet appear to be the best tools to predict a structural model of V_HH from its sequence.

Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes carrying hsa-miRNA-128-3p suppress pancreatic ductal cell carcinoma by inhibiting Galectin-3

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the most fatal malignant tumors of the digestive system. Many patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage and lose eligibility for surgery. Moreover, there are few effective methods for treating pancreatic ductal cell carcinoma. Increasing attention has been given to microRNAs (miRNAs) and their regulatory roles in tumor progression. In this study, we investigated the effects of exosomes extracted from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (HUCMSCs) carrying hsa-miRNA-128-3p on pancreatic cancer cells.

METHODS

Based on existing experimental and database information, we selected Galectin-3, which is associated with pancreatic cancer, and the corresponding upstream hsa-miRNA-128-3p. We extracted HUCMSCs from a fresh umbilical cord, hsa-miRNA-128-3p was transfected into HUCMSCs, and exosomes containing hsa-miRNA-128-3p were extracted and collected. The effect of exosomes rich in hsa-miRNA-128-3p on pancreatic cancer cells was analyzed.

RESULTS

The expression of Galectin-3 in normal pancreatic duct epithelial cells was significantly lower than that in PDAC cell lines. We successfully extracted HUCMSCs from the umbilical cord and transfected hsa-miRNA-128-3p into HUCMSCs. Then we demonstrated that HUCMSC-derived exosomes with hsa-miRNA-128-3p could suppress the proliferation, invasion, and migration of PANC-1 cells in vitro by targeting Galectin-3.

CONCLUSION

Hsa-miRNA-128-3p could be considered as a potential therapy for pancreatic cancer. We provided a new idea for targeted therapy of PDAC.

A universal in silico V(D)J recombination strategy for developing humanized monoclonal antibodies

BACKGROUND

Humanization of mouse monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is crucial for reducing their immunogenicity in humans. However, humanized mAbs often lose their binding affinities. Therefore, an in silico humanization method that can prevent the loss of the binding affinity of mAbs is needed.

METHODS

We developed an in silico V(D)J recombination platform in which we used V(D)J human germline gene sequences to design five humanized candidates of anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α mAbs (C1-C5) by using different human germline templates. The candidates were subjected to molecular dynamics simulation. In addition, the structural similarities of their complementarity-determining regions (CDRs) to those of original mouse mAbs were estimated to derive the weighted interatomic root mean squared deviation (wRMSDi) value. Subsequently, the correlation of the derived wRMSDi value with the half maximal effective concentration (EC50) and the binding affinity (KD) of the humanized anti-TNF-α candidates was examined. To confirm whether our in silico estimation method can be used for other humanized mAbs, we tested our method using the anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) a4.6.1, anti-glypican-3 (GPC3) YP9.1 and anti-α4β1 integrin HP1/2L mAbs.

RESULTS

The R2 value for the correlation between the wRMSDi and log(EC50) of the recombinant Remicade and those of the humanized anti-TNF-α candidates was 0.901, and the R2 value for the correlation between wRMSDi and log(KD) was 0.9921. The results indicated that our in silico V(D)J recombination platform could predict the binding affinity of humanized candidates and successfully identify the high-affinity humanized anti-TNF-α antibody (Ab) C1 with a binding affinity similar to that of the parental chimeric mAb (5.13 × 10-10). For the anti-EGFR a4.6.1, anti-GPC3 YP9.1, and anti-α4β1 integrin HP1/2L mAbs, the wRMSDi and log(EC50) exhibited strong correlations (R2 = 0.9908, 0.9999, and 0.8907, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Our in silico V(D)J recombination platform can facilitate the development of humanized mAbs with low immunogenicity and high binding affinities. This platform can directly transform numerous mAbs with therapeutic potential to humanized or even human therapeutic Abs for clinical use.

Futuristic approach to cancer treatment

Cancer is becoming one of the deadliest disease in both developed as well as developing countries and continuous effort is being made to find innovative therapies for myriad types of cancers that afflict the human body. Therapeutic options for cancer have grown exponentially over the time but we are quite a way off from finding a magic bullet that can help cure cancer and based on the current evidence we may never find a catch all cure ever and it becomes crucial that we keep on innovating and find multiple ways to attack the menace of this dreaded disease. Many patients suffer recurrence of disease and require second-line or in some cases more than two lines of treatment. In this review article we have discussed the available therapies along with the newer advancements that have been made in cancer therapy. Latest developments in treatment of various cancers that have been discussed include gene editing using CRISPR/Cas9, theranostics, viral mediated therapy, artificial intelligence, tumor infiltrating lymphocyte therapy, etc.

A comprehensive comparison between camelid nanobodies and single chain variable fragments

By the emergence of recombinant DNA technology, many antibody fragments have been developed devoid of undesired properties of natural immunoglobulins. Among them, camelid heavy-chain variable domains (VHHs) and single-chain variable fragments (scFvs) are the most favored ones. While scFv is used widely in various applications, camelid antibodies (VHHs) can serve as an alternative because of their superior chemical and physical properties such as higher solubility, stability, smaller size, and lower production cost. Here, these two counterparts are compared in structure and properties to identify which one is more suitable for each of their various therapeutic, diagnosis, and research applications.

Enhancing Antibodies' Binding Capacity through Oriented Functionalization of Plasmonic Surfaces

Protein A has long been used in different research fields due to its ability to specifically recognize immunoglobulins (Ig). The protein derived from Staphylococcus aureus binds Ig through the Fc region of the antibody, showing its strongest binding in immunoglobulin G (IgG), making it the most used protein in its purification and detection. The research presented here integrates, for the first time, protein A to a silicon surface patterned with gold nanoparticles for the oriented binding of IgG. The signal detection is conveyed through a metal enhanced fluorescence (MEF) system. Orienting immunoglobulins allows the exposition of the fragment antigen-binding (Fab) region for the binding to its antigen, substantially increasing the binding capacity per antibody immobilized. Antibodies orientation is of crucial importance in many diagnostics devices, particularly when either component is in limited quantities.

Recent advances in management of COVID-19: A review

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused and is still causing significant mortality and economic consequences all over the globe. As of today, there are three U.S Food and Drug administration (FDA) approved vaccines, Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna and Janssen COVID-19 vaccine. Also, the antiviral drug remdesivir and two combinations of monoclonal antibodies are authorized for Emergency use (EUA) in certain patients. Furthermore, baricitinib was approved in Japan (April 23, 2021). Despite available vaccines and EUA, pharmacological therapy for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 is still highly required. There are several ongoing clinical trials investigating the efficacy of clinically available drugs in treating COVID-19. In this study, selected novel pharmacological agents for the possible treatment of COVID-19 will be discussed. Point of discussion will cover mechanism of action, supporting evidence for safety and efficacy and reached stage in development. Drugs were classified into three classes according to the phase of viral life cycle they target. Phase I, the early infective phase, relies on supportive care and symptomatic treatment as needed. In phase II, the pulmonary phase, treatment aims at inhibiting viral entry or replication. Drugs used during this phase are famotidine, monoclonal antibodies, nanobodies, ivermectin, remdesivir, camostat mesylate and other antiviral agents. Finally, phase III, the hyper-inflammatory phase, tocilizumab, dexamethasone, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), and melatonin are used. The aim of this study is to summarize current findings and suggest gaps in knowledge that can influence future COVID-19 treatment study design.

Determination of the Serum Concentrations of the Monoclonal Antibodies Bevacizumab, Rituximab, and Panitumumab Using Porous Membranes Containing Immobilized Peptide Mimotopes

Effective monoclonal antibody (mAb) therapies require a threshold mAb concentration in patient serum. Moreover, the serum concentration of the mAb Bevacizumab should reside in a specific range to avoid side effects. Methods for conveniently determining the levels of mAbs in patient sera could allow for personalized dosage schedules that lead to more successful treatments. This work utilizes microporous nylon membranes functionalized with antibody-binding peptides to capture Bevacizumab, Rituximab, or Panitumumab from diluted (25%) serum. Modification of the capture-peptide terminus is often crucial to creating the affinity necessary for effective binding. The high purity of eluted mAbs allows for their quantitation using native fluorescence, and membranes are effective in spin devices that can be used in any laboratory. The technique is effective over the therapeutic range of Bevacizumab concentrations. Future work aims at further modifications to develop rapid point-of-care devices and decrease detection limits.

Report on biopharmaceutical profile of recent biotherapeutics and insilco docking studies on target bindings of known aptamer biotherapeutics

Accumulated Toxicity, disease recurrence and drug resistivity problems have been observed due to the synthetic and semisynthetic therapeutic practices, which alternatively led to focus on Bio-therapeutics production than xenobiotics. Quick plasma clearance and high potency are the reasons for trending research with huge pharma market of numerous Bio-therapeutics than ever before. Researchers proved that most of the nano and micro Bio-therapeutics have multiple beneficial therapeutic effects. We have analyzed the past, and present scenario of some notable clinically approved Bio-therapeutics to identify the future formulation needs with advanced techniques. Protein-related drugs are the foremost Bio-therapeutics such as antibodies, enzymes, and short, fragmented polypeptides show aggregation properties during storage, naked peptide moieties are resisted by the polar cell membrane, and also the antidrug antibodies were reported. Even though Nucleic acid nano-bodies are excellent target binders than proteins, they had only a few minutes of half-life. Maintaining homogeneousness upon storage of Bio-therapeutics is still a significant challenge in industrial-scale formulation. Notably, plant systems are identified as most useful cost-effective hosts to produce human enzymes than animal systems without any possible viral loads. Irrespective of numerous advancements in routes of administration and additives, subcutaneous is still a golden one to achieve better dynamics. Additionally, the interactions and effective bonds made by each class of well-known aptamer biotherapeutics which are considered as future drugs were studied.

Analysis of Monoclonal Antibody Glycopeptides by Capillary Electrophoresis-Mass Spectrometry Coupling (CE-MS)

Glycosylation is a crucial posttranslational modification (PTM) that might affect the safety and efficacy of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry (CE-MS) enables the characterization of the primary structure of mAbs. A bottom-up proteomic workflow is designed to provide detailed information about the glycosylation. In this chapter, we describe the validated experimental protocol applied for the characterization and relative quantification of mAbs N-glycosylation at the glycopeptide level.

Monoclonal Antibody-Based Immunotherapy and Its Role in the Development of Cardiac Toxicity

Immunotherapy is one of the most effective therapeutic options for cancer patients. Five specific classes of immunotherapies, which includes cell-based chimeric antigenic receptor T-cells, checkpoint inhibitors, cancer vaccines, antibody-based targeted therapies, and oncolytic viruses. Immunotherapies can improve survival rates among cancer patients. At the same time, however, they can cause inflammation and promote adverse cardiac immune modulation and cardiac failure among some cancer patients as late as five to ten years following immunotherapy. In this review, we discuss cardiotoxicity associated with immunotherapy. We also propose using human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes/ cardiac-stromal progenitor cells and cardiac organoid cultures as innovative experimental model systems to (1) mimic clinical treatment, resulting in reproducible data, and (2) promote the identification of immunotherapy-induced biomarkers of both early and late cardiotoxicity. Finally, we introduce the integration of omics-derived high-volume data and cardiac biology as a pathway toward the discovery of new and efficient non-toxic immunotherapy.

Phage Display Derived Monoclonal Antibodies: From Bench to Bedside

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have become one of the most important classes of biopharmaceutical products, and they continue to dominate the universe of biopharmaceutical markets in terms of approval and sales. They are the most profitable single product class, where they represent six of the top ten selling drugs. At the beginning of the 1990s, an in vitro antibody selection technology known as antibody phage display was developed by John McCafferty and Sir. Gregory Winter that enabled the discovery of human antibodies for diverse applications, particularly antibody-based drugs. They created combinatorial antibody libraries on filamentous phage to be utilized for generating antigen specific antibodies in a matter of weeks. Since then, more than 70 phage–derived antibodies entered clinical studies and 14 of them have been approved. These antibodies are indicated for cancer, and non-cancer medical conditions, such as inflammatory, optical, infectious, or immunological diseases. This review will illustrate the utility of phage display as a powerful platform for therapeutic antibodies discovery and describe in detail all the approved mAbs derived from phage display.