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He Y, Cheng Z, Zhang J, Chen Y, Zhao G, Tang H, Liao Y, Ye T, Peng Y, Li W, Zheng J. RNA Adduction Resulting from the Metabolic Activation of Myristicin by P450 Enzymes and Sulfotransferases. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:15971-15984. [PMID: 38959404 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c01676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
Myristicin (MYR) mainly occurs in nutmeg and belongs to alkoxy-substituted allylbenzenes, a class of potentially toxic natural chemicals. RNA interaction with MYR metabolites in vitro and in vivo has been investigated in order to gain a better understanding of MYR toxicities. We detected two guanosine adducts (GA1 and GA2), two adenosine adducts (AA1 and AA2), and two cytosine adducts (CA1 and CA2) by LC-MS/MS analysis of total RNA extracts from cultured primary mouse hepatocytes and liver tissues of mice after exposure to MYR. An order of nucleoside adductions was found to be GAs > AAs > CAs, and the result of density functional theory calculations was in agreement with that detected by the LC-MS/MS-based approach. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that MYR was oxidized by cytochrome P450 enzymes to 1'-hydroxyl and 3'-hydroxyl metabolites, which were then sulfated by sulfotransferases (SULTs) to form sulfate esters. The resulting sulfates would react with the nucleosides by SN1 and/or SN2 reactions, resulting in RNA adduction. The modification may alter the biochemical properties of RNA and disrupt RNA functions, perhaps partially contributing to the toxicities of MYR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan He
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
- School of Pharmacy, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
| | - Zihao Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
- School of Pharmacy, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
| | - Jingyu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
- School of Pharmacy, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
| | - Yu Chen
- Department of Pain, Affiliated Hospital of, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, China
- School of Anesthesiology, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, China
- School of Basic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, China
| | - Guode Zhao
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, PR China
| | - Hong Tang
- School of Pharmacy, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
- School of Basic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, China
| | - Yufen Liao
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
- School of Pharmacy, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
| | - Tingmin Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
- School of Pharmacy, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
| | - Ying Peng
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, PR China
| | - Weiwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
- School of Pharmacy, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
| | - Jiang Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
- School of Pharmacy, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, PR China
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, PR China
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2
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Al-Rawi SS, Ibrahim AH, Ahmed HJ, Khudhur ZO. Therapeutic, and pharmacological prospects of nutmeg seed: A comprehensive review for novel drug potential insights. Saudi Pharm J 2024; 32:102067. [PMID: 38690209 PMCID: PMC11059288 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsps.2024.102067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Background and objectives For centuries, plant seed extracts have been widely used and valued for their benefits. They have been used in food, perfumes, aromatherapy, and traditional medicine. These natural products are renowned for their therapeutic properties and are commonly used in medicinal treatments. Their significant pharmacological profiles provide an excellent hallmark for the prevention or treatment of various diseases. In this study, we comprehensively evaluated the biological and pharmacological properties of nutmeg seeds and explored their efficacy in treating various illnesses. Method Published articles in databases including Google Scholar, PubMed, Elsevier, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Wiley, were analyzed using keywords related to nutmeg seed. The searched keywords were chemical compounds, antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antidiabetic, anticancer properties, and their protective mechanisms in cardiovascular and Alzheimer's diseases. Results & discussion Nutmeg seeds have been reported to have potent antimicrobial properties against a wide range of various bacteria and fungi, thus showing potential for combating microbial infections and promoting overall health. Furthermore, nutmeg extract effectively reduces oxidative stress and inflammation by improving the body's natural antioxidant defense mechanism. Nutmeg affected lipid peroxidation, reduced lipid oxidation, reduced low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and increased phospholipid and cholesterol excretion. In addition, nutmeg extract improves the modulation of cardiac metabolism, accelerates cardiac conductivity and ventricular contractility, and prevents cell apoptosis. This study elucidated the psychotropic, narcotic, antidepressant, and anxiogenic effects of nutmeg seeds and their potential as a pharmaceutical medicine. Notably, despite its sedative and toxic properties, nutmeg ingestion alone did not cause death or life-threatening effects within the dosage range of 20-80 g powder. However, chemical analysis of nutmeg extracts identified over 50 compounds, including flavonoids, alkaloids, and polyphenolic compounds, which exhibit antioxidant properties and can be used as phytomedicines. Moreover, the exceptional pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of nutmeg have been found different for different administration routes, yet, more clinical trials are still needed. Conclusion Understanding the chemical composition and pharmacological properties of nutmeg holds promise for novel drug discovery and therapeutic advancements. Nutmeg seed offers therapeutic and novel drug prospects that can revolutionize medicine. By delving into their pharmacological properties, we can uncover the vast potential possibilities of this natural wonder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sawsan S. Al-Rawi
- Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Education, Tishk International University, Erbil, KRG, Iraq
| | - Ahmad Hamdy Ibrahim
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tishk International University, Erbil, KRG, Iraq
| | - Heshu Jalal Ahmed
- Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Education, Tishk International University, Erbil, KRG, Iraq
| | - Zhikal Omar Khudhur
- Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Education, Tishk International University, Erbil, KRG, Iraq
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3
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Usui K, Kubota E, Kobayashi H, Fujita Y, Hatanaka K, Kamijo Y, Funayama M, Mimasaka S. Detection of major psychoactive compounds (safrole, myristicin, and elemicin) of nutmeg in human serum via GC-MS/MS using MonoSpin® extraction: Application in a nutmeg poisoning case. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2023; 234:115565. [PMID: 37453146 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Nutmeg is an inexpensive, readily available spice used in a variety of recipes. However, the use of nutmeg powder as a recreational drug for its hallucinogenic effects is resulting in an increase in overdose rates. We encountered a male patient being hospitalized after ingesting 75 g of commercially available nutmeg powder with the intent of committing suicide. There are no available reports documenting the toxic or comatose-fatal blood concentrations or time-course of drug action in cases of nutmeg poisoning. Therefore, to improve patient management, we endeavored to determine the blood serum levels and time-course of the major psychoactive compounds (safrole, myristicin, and elemicin) present in nutmeg. We designed a simple and reliable method using the MonoSpin® extraction kit and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to detect the presence of these psychoactive compounds in human serum. The method had detection and quantitation limits of 0.14-0.16 and 0.5 ng/mL (lowest calibration points), respectively. The calibration curves displayed excellent linearity (0.996-0.997) for all three compounds at 0.5-300 ng/mL blood concentrations. The intra- and inter-day precision values for quality assurance were in the ranges of 2.4-11 % and 2.5-11 %, respectively; bias ranged from - 2.6 % to 2.1 %. Blood serum levels of safrole, myristicin, and elemicin were measured at admission (approximately 8 h post-ingestion) and approximately 94 h after a post-admission fluid therapy to evaluate their biological half-lives. We developed this method to obtain information on the psychoactive constituents of nutmeg and, thereby, determine the toxicokinetic parameters of nutmeg in a case of nutmeg poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyotaka Usui
- Division of Forensic Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; Emergency Medical Center and Poison Center, Saitama Medical University Hospital, 38 Morohongo, Moroyama-cho, Iruma-gun, Saitama 350-0495, Japan.
| | - Eito Kubota
- Division of Forensic Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Haruka Kobayashi
- Division of Forensic Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yuji Fujita
- Division of Emergency Medicine, Department of Emergency, Disaster and General Medicine, Iwate Medical University School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Idaidori, Yahaba-cho, Shiwa-gun Morioka, Iwate 028-3694, Japan
| | - Kengo Hatanaka
- Department of Traumatology and Critical Care Medicine Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, 5200 Kiyotakecho Kihara, Miyazaki-city, Miyazaki 889-1692, Japan
| | - Yoshito Kamijo
- Emergency Medical Center and Poison Center, Saitama Medical University Hospital, 38 Morohongo, Moroyama-cho, Iruma-gun, Saitama 350-0495, Japan
| | - Masato Funayama
- Division of Forensic Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Sohtaro Mimasaka
- Division of Forensic Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
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Ishii Y, Shi L, Takasu S, Ogawa K, Umemura T. A 13-week comprehensive toxicity study with adductome analysis demonstrates the toxicity, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of the natural flavoring agent elemicin. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 179:113965. [PMID: 37495168 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
Elemicin, an alkenylbenzene flavoring, exists naturally in foods, herbs, and spices. Some alkenylbenzenes are hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic in rodents. However, few studies have examined the toxicology of elemicin. In the current study, we comprehensively evaluated the general toxicity, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of elemicin using gpt delta rats and DNA adductome analysis. Groups of 10 male F344 gpt delta rats were treated with elemicin by gavage at a dose of 0, 25, 100, or 400 mg/kg bw/day for 13 weeks. Liver weights were significantly increased with histopathological changes in groups receiving 100 mg/kg bw/day or more. Significant increases in serum hepatotoxic parameters were observed in the 400 mg/kg bw/day group. Based on the observed changes in liver weights, 18.6 mg/kg bw was identified as the low benchmark dose. Significant increases in the number and area of glutathione S-transferase placental form-positive foci and gpt mutant frequencies were apparent only in the 400 mg/kg/day group, although elemicin-specific DNA adducts were detected from the lowest dose, suggesting that elemicin exhibited hepatocarcinogenicity in rats only at higher doses. Because elemicin showed no mutagenicity at lower doses, there was an adequate safety margin between the acceptable daily intake and the estimated daily intake of elemicin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Ishii
- Division of Pathology, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Liang Shi
- Division of Pathology, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Shinji Takasu
- Division of Pathology, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kumiko Ogawa
- Division of Pathology, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Takashi Umemura
- Division of Pathology, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kanagawa, Japan; Graduate School of Animal Health Technology, Yamazaki University of Animal Health Technology, Tokyo, Japan.
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Casale MJ, MacDonald LQL, Mitra A. Nutmeg Intoxication: A Case Report. Cureus 2023; 15:e46286. [PMID: 37915877 PMCID: PMC10615644 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.46286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Nutmeg intoxication is an uncommon precipitant of hyperactive delirium with severe agitation (HDSA) with anticholinergic properties that require a high index of suspicion for diagnosis. We present a case of a young adult who presented to the emergency department (ED) with HDSA. The patient was intubated and transferred to the medical intensive care unit (MICU) due to increasing safety threats unresponsive to multimodal de-escalation. He ultimately self-extubated, reported excessive nutmeg ingestion, and was discharged home after a short period of observation. Improved detection and streamlined management pathways for nutmeg intoxication will minimize unnecessary invasive procedures and costs to the healthcare system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc J Casale
- Anesthesiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York City, USA
| | | | - Avir Mitra
- Emergency Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York City, USA
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6
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Cui Y, Yao Y, Yang R, Wang Y, Liang J, Ouyang S, Yu S, Zou H, Yan Y. Detection of Mildewed Nutmeg Internal Quality during Storage Using an Electronic Nose Combined with Chemical Profile Analysis. Molecules 2023; 28:6051. [PMID: 37630302 PMCID: PMC10457796 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28166051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Internal mildewed nutmeg is difficult to perceive without cutting the nutmeg open and examining it carefully, which poses a significant risk to public health. At present, macroscopic identification and chromatographic analysis are applied to determine whether nutmeg is moldy or not. However, the former relies on a human panel, with the disadvantages of subjectivity and empirical dependence, whilst the latter is generally time-consuming and requires organic solvents. Therefore, it is urgent to develop a rapid and feasible approach for evaluating the quality and predicting mildew in nutmeg. In this study, the quality and odor characteristics of five groups of nutmeg samples with different degrees of mildew were analyzed by using the responses of an electronic nose combined with chemical profiling. The main physicochemical indicators, such as the levels of α-pinene, β-pinene, elemicin, and dehydro-di-isoeugenol, were determined. The results revealed that the contents of α-pinene, β-pinene, and elemicin changed significantly with the extension of storage time. Through the use of an electronic nose and HS-GC-MS technology to assess the overall odor characteristics of nutmeg samples, it was found that the production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as ammonia/organic amines, carbon monoxide, ethanol, and hydrogen sulfide, as well as changes in the terpene and phenylpropene components of the nutmeg itself, may be the material basis for the changes in odor. The accuracy of the qualitative classification model for the degree of mildew in nutmeg was higher than 90% according to the electronic nose data combined with different machine learning algorithms. Quantitative models were established for predicting the contents of the chemical components, and models based on a BP neural network (BPNN), the support vector machine (SVM), and the random forest algorithm (RF) all showed good performance in predicting the concentrations of these chemical components, except for dehydro-di-isoeugenol. The BPNN performed effectively in predicting the storage time of nutmeg on the basis of the E-nose's responses, with an RMSE and R2 of 0.268 and 0.996 for the training set, and 0.317 and 0.993 for the testing set, respectively. The results demonstrated that the responses of the electronic nose (E-nose) had a high correlation with the internal quality of nutmeg. This work proposes a quick and non-destructive evaluation method for the quality of nutmeg, which has high accuracy in discriminating between different degrees of mold in nutmeg and is conducive to early detection and warning of moldy phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Huiqin Zou
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 102488, China
| | - Yonghong Yan
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 102488, China
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Bampidis V, Azimonti G, Bastos MDL, Christensen H, Durjava M, Kouba M, López‐Alonso M, López Puente S, Marcon F, Mayo B, Pechová A, Petkova M, Ramos F, Sanz Y, Villa RE, Woutersen R, Brantom P, Chesson A, Schlatter J, Westendorf J, Manini P, Dusemund B. Safety and efficacy of a feed additive consisting of an essential oil from the seeds of Myristica fragrans Houtt. (nutmeg oil) for all animal species (FEFANA asbl). EFSA J 2023; 21:e08066. [PMID: 37333988 PMCID: PMC10273060 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2023.8066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of an essential oil from the seeds of Myristica fragrans Houtt. (nutmeg oil), when used as a sensory additive in feed and water for drinking for all animal species. The additive contains myristicin (up to 12%), safrole (2.30%), elemicin (0.40%) and methyleugenol (0.33%). For long-living and reproductive animals, the Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) considered of low concern the use of the additive in complete feed at 0.2 mg/kg for laying hens and rabbits, 0.3 mg/kg for sows and dairy cows, 0.5 mg/kg for sheep/goats, horses and cats, 0.6 mg/kg for dogs and 2.5 mg/kg for ornamental fish. For short-living animals, the Panel had no safety concern when the additive is used at the maximum proposed use level of 10 mg/kg for veal calves, cattle for fattening, sheep/goats, horses for meat production, and salmon and for the other species, at 3.3 mg/kg for turkeys for fattening, 2.8 mg/kg chickens for fattening, 5.0 mg/kg for piglets, 6.0 mg/kg for pigs for fattening and 4.4 mg/kg for rabbits for meat production. These conclusions were extrapolated to other physiologically related species. For any other species, the additive was considered of low concern at 0.2 mg/kg. The use of nutmeg oil in animal feed was expected to be of no concern for consumers and the environment. The additive should be considered as irritant to skin and eyes and as a skin and respiratory sensitiser. Based on the presence of safrole, nutmeg oil is classified as carcinogen (category 1B) and handled accordingly. Since nutmeg oil was recognised to flavour food and its function in feed would be the same, no further demonstration of efficacy was considered necessary.
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8
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Götz ME, Eisenreich A, Frenzel J, Sachse B, Schäfer B. Occurrence of Alkenylbenzenes in Plants: Flavours and Possibly Toxic Plant Metabolites. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:plants12112075. [PMID: 37299054 DOI: 10.3390/plants12112075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Alkenylbenzenes are naturally occurring secondary plant metabolites. While some of them are proven genotoxic carcinogens, other derivatives need further evaluation to clarify their toxicological properties. Furthermore, data on the occurrence of various alkenylbenzenes in plants, and especially in food products, are still limited. In this review, we tempt to give an overview of the occurrence of potentially toxic alkenylbenzenes in essential oils and extracts from plants used for flavoring purposes of foods. A focus is layed on widely known genotoxic alkenylbenzenes, such as safrole, methyleugenol, and estragole. However, essential oils and extracts that contain other alkenylbenzenes and are also often used for flavoring purposes are considered. This review may re-raise awareness of the need for quantitative occurrence data for alkenylbenzenes in certain plants but especially in final plant food supplements, processed foods, and flavored beverages as the basis for a more reliable exposure assessment of alkenylbenzenes in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario E Götz
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Eisenreich
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Janine Frenzel
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Benjamin Sachse
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernd Schäfer
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department Food Safety, Max-Dohrn-Strasse 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
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Jayaprakash R, Ramzan F, Miles-Chan JL, Foster M, Mithen RF, Pook C. Exploring the Chemical Space of Kawakawa Leaf ( Piper excelsum). Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14235168. [PMID: 36501198 PMCID: PMC9741024 DOI: 10.3390/nu14235168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The chemical profiles of kawakawa (Piper excelsum) leaves were analysed through targeted and non-targeted LC-MS/MS. The phytochemical profile was obtained for both aqueous extracts representative of kawakawa tea and methanolic extracts. Sixty-four compounds were identified from eight leaf sources including phenylpropanoids, lignans, flavonoids, alkaloids and amides. Eight of these compounds were absolutely quantified. The chemical content varied significantly by leaf source, with two commercially available sources of dried kawakawa leaves being relatively high in phenylpropanoids and flavonoids compared with field-collected fresh samples that were richer in amides, alkaloids and lignans. The concentrations of pharmacologically active metabolites ingested from the traditional consumption of kawakawa leaf as an aqueous infusion, or from novel use as a seasoning, are well below documented toxicity thresholds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramya Jayaprakash
- Liggins Institute, Waipapa Taumata Rau—The University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Farha Ramzan
- Liggins Institute, Waipapa Taumata Rau—The University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Jennifer L. Miles-Chan
- Human Nutrition Unit, Waipapa Taumata Rau, The University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Meika Foster
- Liggins Institute, Waipapa Taumata Rau—The University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
- Edible Research Ltd., Ohoko 7475, New Zealand
- AuOra Ltd., Wakatū Incorporation, Nelson 7010, New Zealand
| | - Richard F. Mithen
- Liggins Institute, Waipapa Taumata Rau—The University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Chris Pook
- Liggins Institute, Waipapa Taumata Rau—The University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +64-9923-6691
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Kobets T, Smith BPC, Williams GM. Food-Borne Chemical Carcinogens and the Evidence for Human Cancer Risk. Foods 2022; 11:2828. [PMID: 36140952 PMCID: PMC9497933 DOI: 10.3390/foods11182828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Commonly consumed foods and beverages can contain chemicals with reported carcinogenic activity in rodent models. Moreover, exposures to some of these substances have been associated with increased cancer risks in humans. Food-borne carcinogens span a range of chemical classes and can arise from natural or anthropogenic sources, as well as form endogenously. Important considerations include the mechanism(s) of action (MoA), their relevance to human biology, and the level of exposure in diet. The MoAs of carcinogens have been classified as either DNA-reactive (genotoxic), involving covalent reaction with nuclear DNA, or epigenetic, involving molecular and cellular effects other than DNA reactivity. Carcinogens are generally present in food at low levels, resulting in low daily intakes, although there are some exceptions. Carcinogens of the DNA-reactive type produce effects at lower dosages than epigenetic carcinogens. Several food-related DNA-reactive carcinogens, including aflatoxins, aristolochic acid, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene and ethylene oxide, are recognized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as causes of human cancer. Of the epigenetic type, the only carcinogen considered to be associated with increased cancer in humans, although not from low-level food exposure, is dioxin (TCDD). Thus, DNA-reactive carcinogens in food represent a much greater risk than epigenetic carcinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetyana Kobets
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
| | - Benjamin P. C. Smith
- Future Ready Food Safety Hub, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Gary M. Williams
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
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Götz ME, Sachse B, Schäfer B, Eisenreich A. Myristicin and Elemicin: Potentially Toxic Alkenylbenzenes in Food. Foods 2022; 11:1988. [PMID: 35804802 PMCID: PMC9265716 DOI: 10.3390/foods11131988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Alkenylbenzenes represent a group of naturally occurring substances that are synthesized as secondary metabolites in various plants, including nutmeg and basil. Many of the alkenylbenzene-containing plants are common spice plants and preparations thereof are used for flavoring purposes. However, many alkenylbenzenes are known toxicants. For example, safrole and methyleugenol were classified as genotoxic carcinogens based on extensive toxicological evidence. In contrast, reliable toxicological data, in particular regarding genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive toxicity is missing for several other structurally closely related alkenylbenzenes, such as myristicin and elemicin. Moreover, existing data on the occurrence of these substances in various foods suffer from several limitations. Together, the existing data gaps regarding exposure and toxicity cause difficulty in evaluating health risks for humans. This review gives an overview on available occurrence data of myristicin, elemicin, and other selected alkenylbenzenes in certain foods. Moreover, the current knowledge on the toxicity of myristicin and elemicin in comparison to their structurally related and well-characterized derivatives safrole and methyleugenol, especially with respect to their genotoxic and carcinogenic potential, is discussed. Finally, this article focuses on existing data gaps regarding exposure and toxicity currently impeding the evaluation of adverse health effects potentially caused by myristicin and elemicin.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Andreas Eisenreich
- Department of Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.E.G.); (B.S.); (B.S.)
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Sadgrove NJ, Padilla-González GF, Phumthum M. Fundamental Chemistry of Essential Oils and Volatile Organic Compounds, Methods of Analysis and Authentication. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:plants11060789. [PMID: 35336671 PMCID: PMC8955314 DOI: 10.3390/plants11060789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The current text provides a comprehensive introduction to essential oils, their biosynthesis, naming, analysis, and chemistry. Importantly, this text quickly brings the reader up to a level of competence in the authentication of essential oils and their components. It gives detailed descriptions of enantiomers and other forms of stereoisomers relevant to the study of natural volatiles and essential oils. The text also describes GC-MS work and provides tips on rapid calculation of arithmetic indices, how to interpret suggested names from the NIST mass spectral library, and what additional efforts are required to validate essential oils and defeat sophisticated adulteration tactics. In brief, essential oils are mixtures of volatile organic compounds that were driven out of the raw plant material in distillation, condensed into an oil that is strongly aroma emitting, and collected in a vessel as the top layer (uncommonly bottom layer) of two phase separated liquids: oil and water. Essential oils commonly include components derived from two biosynthetic groups, being terpenes (monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and their derivatives) and phenylpropanoids (aromatic ring with a propene tail). The current text provides details of how terpenes and phenylpropanoids are further categorised according to their parent skeleton, then recognised by the character of oxidation, which may be from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulphur, or the presence/absence of a double bond. The essential oil's science niche is an epicentre of individuals from diverse backgrounds, such as aromatherapy, pharmacy, synthetic and analytical chemistry, or the hobbyist. To make the science more accessible to the curious student or researcher, it was necessary to write this fundamentals-level introduction to the chemistry of essential oils (i.e., organic chemistry in the context of essential oils), which is herein presented as a comprehensive and accessible overview. Lastly, the current review constitutes the only resource that highlights common errors and explains in simplistic detail how to correctly interpret GC-MS data then accurately present the respective chemical information to the wider scientific audience. Therefore, detailed study of the contents herein will equip the individual with prerequisite knowledge necessary to effectively analyse an essential oil and make qualified judgement on its authenticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J. Sadgrove
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Green, Richmond TW9 3DS, UK; (N.J.S.); (G.F.P.-G.)
| | | | - Methee Phumthum
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Kew Green, Richmond TW9 3DS, UK; (N.J.S.); (G.F.P.-G.)
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
- Correspondence:
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Liu T, Yan T, Jia X, Liu J, Ma R, Wang Y, Wang X, Liang Y, Xiao Y, Dong Y. Systematic exploration of the potential material basis and molecular mechanism of the Mongolian medicine Nutmeg-5 in improving cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 285:114847. [PMID: 34800647 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Nutmeg-5, which consists of Myristica fragrans Houtt., Aucklandia lappa Decne., Inula helenium L., Fructus Choerospondiatis and Piper longum L., is an ancient and classic formula in traditional Mongolian medicine that is widely used in the treatment of ischemic heart disease. However, its material basis and pharmacological mechanisms remain to be fully elucidated. AIM OF THE STUDY The aim of this study was to explore the potential material basis and molecular mechanism of Nutmeg-5 in improving cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI). MATERIALS AND METHODS The constituents of Nutmeg-5 absorbed into the blood were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). A mouse MI model was induced in male Kunming mice by permanent ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery (LDA) ligation. Echocardiography was performed to assess cardiac function. The protective effect of Nutmeg-5 and compound Danshen dripping pills as positive control medicine on post-MI cardiac remodeling was evaluated by tissue histology and determination of the serum protein levels of biomarkers of myocardial injury. RNA sequencing analysis of mouse left ventricle tissue was performed to explore the molecular mechanism of Nutmeg-5 in cardiac remodeling after MI. RESULTS A total of 27 constituents absorbed into blood were identified in rat plasma following gavage administration of Nutmeg-5 (0.54 g/kg) for 1 h. We found that ventricular remodeling after MI was significantly improved after Nutmeg-5 treatment in mice, which was demonstrated by decreased mortality, better cardiac function, decreased heart weight to body weight and heart weight to tibia length ratios, and attenuated cardiac fibrosis and myocardial injury. RNA sequencing revealed that the protective effect of Nutmeg-5 on cardiac remodeling after MI was associated with improved heart metabolism. Further study found that Nutmeg-5 treatment could preserve the ultrastructure of mitochondria and upregulate gene expression related to mitochondrial function and structure. HIF-1α (hypoxia inducible factor 1, alpha subunit) expression was significantly upregulated in the hearts of MI mice and significantly suppressed in the hearts of Nutmeg-5-treated mice. In addition, Nutmeg-5 treatment significantly activated the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha signaling pathway, which was inhibited in the hearts of MI mice. CONCLUSIONS Nutmeg-5 attenuates cardiac remodeling after MI by improving heart metabolism and preserving mitochondrial dysfunction by inhibiting HIF-1α expression in the mouse heart after MI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianlong Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Hospital of Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010059, PR China
| | - Tingting Yan
- Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010110, PR China; Engineering Technology Research Center of Pharmacodynamic Substance and Quality Control of Mongolian Medicine in Inner Mongolia, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010110, PR China
| | - Xin Jia
- Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Hospital of Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010059, PR China; Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010110, PR China; Engineering Technology Research Center of Pharmacodynamic Substance and Quality Control of Mongolian Medicine in Inner Mongolia, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010110, PR China
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Hospital of Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010059, PR China
| | - Ruilian Ma
- Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Hospital of Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010059, PR China
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Hospital of Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010059, PR China
| | - Xianjue Wang
- Clinical Medical Research Center of the Affiliated Hospital, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Hohhot, 010050, Inner Mongolia, PR China
| | - Yabin Liang
- Clinical Medical Research Center of the Affiliated Hospital, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Hohhot, 010050, Inner Mongolia, PR China
| | - Yunfeng Xiao
- Engineering Technology Research Center of Pharmacodynamic Substance and Quality Control of Mongolian Medicine in Inner Mongolia, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010110, PR China; Center for New Drug Safety Evaluation and Research, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, China
| | - Yu Dong
- Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010110, PR China; Engineering Technology Research Center of Pharmacodynamic Substance and Quality Control of Mongolian Medicine in Inner Mongolia, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010110, PR China.
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Sadgrove NJ, Padilla-González GF, Leuner O, Melnikovova I, Fernandez-Cusimamani E. Pharmacology of Natural Volatiles and Essential Oils in Food, Therapy, and Disease Prophylaxis. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:740302. [PMID: 34744723 PMCID: PMC8566702 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.740302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
This commentary critically examines the modern paradigm of natural volatiles in 'medical aromatherapy', first by explaining the semantics of natural volatiles in health, then by addressing chemophenetic challenges to authenticity or reproducibility, and finally by elaborating on pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic processes in food, therapy, and disease prophylaxis. Research over the last 50 years has generated substantial knowledge of the chemical diversity of volatiles, and their strengths and weaknesses as antimicrobial agents. However, due to modest in vitro outcomes, the emphasis has shifted toward the ability to synergise or potentiate non-volatile natural or pharmaceutical drugs, and to modulate gene expression by binding to the lipophilic domain of mammalian cell receptors. Because essential oils and natural volatiles are small and lipophilic, they demonstrate high skin penetrating abilities when suitably encapsulated, or if derived from a dietary item they bioaccumulate in fatty tissues in the body. In the skin or body, they may synergise or drive de novo therapeutic outcomes that range from anti-inflammatory effects through to insulin sensitisation, dermal rejuvenation, keratinocyte migration, upregulation of hair follicle bulb stem cells or complementation of anti-cancer therapies. Taking all this into consideration, volatile organic compounds should be examined as candidates for prophylaxis of cardiovascular disease. Considering the modern understanding of biology, the science of natural volatiles may need to be revisited in the context of health and nutrition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Olga Leuner
- Department of Crop Sciences and Agroforestry, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Ingrid Melnikovova
- Department of Crop Sciences and Agroforestry, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Eloy Fernandez-Cusimamani
- Department of Crop Sciences and Agroforestry, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
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Phase II Metabolism of Asarone Isomers In Vitro and in Humans Using HPLC-MS/MS and HPLC-qToF/MS. Foods 2021; 10:foods10092032. [PMID: 34574142 PMCID: PMC8467817 DOI: 10.3390/foods10092032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Metabolism data of asarone isomers, in particular phase II, in vitro and in humans is limited so far. For the first time, phase II metabolites of asarone isomers were characterized and human kinetic as well as excretion data after oral intake of asarone-containing tea infusion was determined. (2) Methods: A high pressure liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-qTOF-MS) approach was used to identify phase II metabolites using liver microsomes of different species and in human urine samples. For quantitation of the respective glucuronides, a beta-glucuronidase treatment was performed prior to analysis via high pressure liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). (3) Results: Ingested beta-asarone and erythro and threo-asarone diols were excreted as diols and respective diol glucuronide conjugates within 24 h. An excretion rate about 42% was estimated. O-Demethylation of beta-asarone was also indicated as a human metabolic pathway because a corresponding glucuronic acid conjugate was suggested. (4) Conclusions: Already reported O-demethylation and epoxide-derived diols formation in phase I metabolism of beta-asarone in vitro was verified in humans and glucuronidation was characterized as main conjugation reaction. The excretion rate of 42% as erythro and threo-asarone diols and respective asarone diol glucuronides suggests that epoxide formation is a key step in beta-asarone metabolism, but further, as yet unknown metabolites should also be taken into consideration.
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A Proteomics Study on the Mechanism of Nutmeg-Induced Hepatotoxicity. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26061748. [PMID: 33804713 PMCID: PMC8003901 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26061748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Nutmeg is a traditional spice and medicinal plant with a variety of pharmacological activities. However, nutmeg abuse due to its hallucinogenic characteristics and poisoning cases are frequently reported. Our previous metabolomics study proved the hepatotoxicity of nutmeg and demonstrated that high-dose nutmeg can affect the synthesis and secretion of bile acids and cause oxidative stress. In order to further investigate the hepatotoxicity of nutmeg, normal saline, 1 g/kg, 4 g/kg nutmeg were administrated to male Kunming mice by intragastrical gavage for 7 days. Histopathological investigation of liver tissue, proteomics and biochemical analysis were employed to explore the mechanism of liver damage caused by nutmeg. The results showed that a high-dose (4 g/kg) of nutmeg can cause significant increased level of CYP450s and depletion of antioxidants, resulting in obvious oxidative stress damage and lipid metabolism disorders; but this change was not observed in low-dose group (1 g/kg). In addition, the increased level of malondialdehyde and decreased level of glutathione peroxidase were found after nutmeg exposure. Therefore, the present study reasonably speculates that nutmeg exposure may lead to liver injury through oxidative stress and the degree of this damage is related to the exposure dose.
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Manier SK, Wagmann L, Weber AA, Meyer MR. Abuse of nutmeg seeds: Detectable by means of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry techniques? Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1440-1444. [PMID: 33720530 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Numerous case reports of intoxications with nutmeg seeds (Myristica fragrans, Houtt.) can be found in literature often following their abuse, as psychotropic effects were described after ingestions of large doses. The successful detection of the main ingredients of the nutmeg seeds essential oil elemicin, myristicin, and safrole, as well as their metabolites in human urine by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was already described. The aim of this study was to investigate the detectability of the main ingredients of nutmeg seeds and their metabolites in human blood and urine samples using liquid chromatography coupled to linear ion trap mass spectrometry (LC-LIT-MSn ) and liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS) after nutmeg seed abuse. Sample material of three individuals was retrospectively investigated after a systematic screening approach indicated an intoxication with nutmeg seeds as a likely cause of symptoms. Metabolic patterns in plasma and urine using GC-MS were comparable with those described in earlier publications. Investigations using hyphenated liquid chromatography techniques lead to the detection of myristicin and safrole, as well as further metabolites not described using GC-MS and revealed sulfation as an additional Phase II metabolic pathway. These results might help to detect or confirm future intoxications with nutmeg seeds by using LC-MS techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha K Manier
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany
| | - Lea Wagmann
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany
| | - Armin A Weber
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Homburg, Germany
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18
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Hepatotoxicity of nutmeg: A pilot study based on metabolomics. Biomed Pharmacother 2020; 131:110780. [PMID: 33152938 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Incidences of abuse and poisoning have been reported for nutmeg, a household spice made from grinding the seed of Myristica fragrans, owing to its hallucinogenic properties. However, there have been no reports on nutmeg hepatotoxicity in relation to dose and duration of exposure. To investigate the hepatotoxicity of different nutmeg exposure durations and doses, male mice were administered daily with normal saline, 1.0 g/kg nutmeg, or 4.0 g/kg nutmeg by intragastrical gavage for either 7 or 14 days (for a total of six treatment groups, n = 6). Body weight of each mouse was monitored daily. Histological analysis of liver tissues was performed using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining to investigate the morphological changes in hepatocytes. Serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to investigate liver function. Metabolomics and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were performed between treatment groups for identifying differential metabolites. Mice in the nutmeg exposure groups exhibited slow growth trends, hepatocyte damage, and significantly elevated serum AST and ALT levels associated with nutmeg dose and exposure duration. Metabolomics and KEGG enrichment pathway analyses also revealed differential levels of some metabolites related to liver function upon nutmeg exposure. Therefore, the present study reasonably speculates that nutmeg exposure may cause liver damage and affect liver function depending on the dose and duration.
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Sadgrove NJ. Southern Africa as a ‘cradle of incense’ in wider African aromatherapy. SCIENTIFIC AFRICAN 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
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Vázquez-Manjarrez N, Ulaszewska M, Garcia-Aloy M, Mattivi F, Praticò G, Dragsted LO, Manach C. Biomarkers of intake for tropical fruits. GENES AND NUTRITION 2020; 15:11. [PMID: 32560627 PMCID: PMC7304196 DOI: 10.1186/s12263-020-00670-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Consumption of fruit and vegetable is a key component of a healthy and sustainable diet. However, their accurate dietary assessment remains a challenge. Due to errors in self-reporting methods, the available dietary information is usually biased. Biomarkers of intake constitute objective tools to better reflect the usual or recent consumption of different foods, including fruits and vegetables. Partners of The Food Biomarker Alliance (FoodBall) Project have undertaken the task of reviewing the available literature on putative biomarkers of tropical fruit intake. The identified candidate biomarkers were subject to validation evaluation using eight biological and chemical criteria. This publication presents the current knowledge on intake biomarkers for 17 tropical fruits including banana, mango, and avocado as the most widely consumed ones. Candidate biomarkers were found only for banana, avocado, and watermelon. An array of banana-derived metabolites has been reported in human biofluids, among which 5-hydroxyindole-acetic acid, dopamine sulfate, methoxyeugenol glucuronide, salsolinol sulfate, 6-hydroxy-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-sulfate, and other catecholamine metabolites. Their validation is still at an early stage, with insufficient data on dose-response relationship. Perseitol and mannoheptulose have recently been reported as candidate biomarkers for avocado intake, while the amino acid citrulline has been associated with watermelon intake. Additionally, the examination of food composition data revealed some highly specific phytochemicals, which metabolites after absorption may be further studied as putative BFI for one or several tropical fruits. To make the field move forward, untargeted metabolomics, as a data-driven explorative approach, will have to be applied in both intervention and observational studies to discover putative BFIs, while their full validation and the establishment of dose-response calibration curves will require quantification methods at a later stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Vázquez-Manjarrez
- Human Nutrition Unit, Université Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, F-63000, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Dirección de Nutrición, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - M Ulaszewska
- Research and Innovation Centre Food Quality and Nutrition, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via Mach 1, 38010, San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - M Garcia-Aloy
- Biomarkers and Nutrimetabolomic Laboratory, Department of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Gastronomy, XaRTA, INSA, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Campus Torribera, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
| | - F Mattivi
- Research and Innovation Centre Food Quality and Nutrition, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via Mach 1, 38010, San Michele all'Adige, Italy.,Department of Cellular, Computational and Integrative Biology, CIBIO, University of Trento, San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - G Praticò
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - L O Dragsted
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - C Manach
- Human Nutrition Unit, Université Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, F-63000, Clermont-Ferrand, France.
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Neukamm MA, Schwelm HM, Vieser S, Schiesel N, Auwärter V. Detection of Nutmeg Abuse by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometric Screening of Urine. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:103-108. [PMID: 31504590 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkz054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
High doses of nutmeg (seeds from Myristica fragrans Houtt.) can be abused as a psychoactive drug due to phenylpropene ingredients. During controlled abstinence, e.g., in forensic psychiatric clinics, nutmeg abuse has to be distinguished from an ingestion of other spices having phenylpropene ingredients (e.g., black pepper or garden lovage) or unintentional low-dose nutmeg intake. The aim of this study was to develop an evaluation model for the estimation of time point and amount of nutmeg abuse and differentiation from ingestion of other spices or low doses of nutmeg based on the gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric (GC-MS) analysis of urine samples. A total of 3 volunteers ingested 1.5 g of freshly ground nutmeg. No symptoms were reported. Urine samples were collected for up to 3 days. In addition, 18 blank samples from volunteers with regular diet and 2 authentic samples from forensic psychiatry patients with supposed nutmeg abuse were analyzed. All samples were analyzed by GC-MS in full scan mode. Metabolites of the nutmeg ingredients safrole, myristicin and elemicin were identified via a library search. For semi-quantitative estimations, the area ratios of the analytes to the internal standard (MDMA-d5) were normalized to the creatinine concentration. Up to 8 different metabolites were detected for at least 18 hours after intake of 1.5 g of nutmeg. In the two authentic samples, the normalized area ratios of those metabolites were 0.5-14 times the maximum reached in the intake study. Two additional metabolites could be detected in authentic samples. Probably due to ingestion of other spices, 5 of the 8 metabolites after intake of 1.5 g of nutmeg were detected in blank urine samples as well. The intake of high doses of nutmeg can be differentiated from the ingestion of other spices or low doses of nutmeg via standard GC-MS analysis of urine and application of the proposed evaluation model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merja A Neukamm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacher Str.153, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Hannes M Schwelm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacher Str.153, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Simon Vieser
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacher Str.153, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nadine Schiesel
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacher Str.153, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Albertstraße 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacher Str.153, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
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El-Alfy AT, Abourashed EA, Patel C, Mazhari N, An H, Jeon A. Phenolic compounds from nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) inhibit the endocannabinoid-modulating enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 71:1879-1889. [PMID: 31595522 DOI: 10.1111/jphp.13174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The study aimed to identify nutmeg compounds that indirectly interact with the endocannabinoid system through inhibition of the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) enzymes. METHODS Thirteen compounds were screened for FAAH and MAGL inhibition. Compounds demonstrating significant FAAH inhibition were evaluated to determine the halfmaximal inhibitory concentration (IC50 ). The most potent compound was investigated in the elevated plus maze (EPM) rodent anxiety model. KEY FINDINGS Three compounds, licarin A (9), 5'-methoxylicarin A (8) and malabaricone C (6) were most active in inhibiting FAAH with IC50 of 7.02 μm ± 2.02, 4.57 μm ± 0.66 and 38.29 μm ± 6.18, respectively. None of the purified compounds showed significant MAGL inhibition. Because of its relative high potency and selectivity, compound 8 was further evaluated in the EPM animal model of anxiety. The compound showed significant increase in number of open arm entries (P < 0.05) when administered at 120 mg/kg dose. No effect was observed on the locomotor activity. CONCLUSIONS Results collected introduce active nutmeg compounds as potential leads for further development. Of the three compounds, 8 possesses highest potency and FAAH selectivity as well as anxiolytic activity. Furthermore, in vivo testing in appropriate behavioural animal paradigms is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abir T El-Alfy
- School of Pharmacy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Ehab A Abourashed
- School of Pharmacy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Christina Patel
- College of Pharmacy, Chicago State University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | - HeaRe An
- College of Pharmacy, Chicago State University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Andrew Jeon
- College of Pharmacy, Chicago State University, Chicago, IL, USA
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23
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Vázquez-Manjarrez N, Weinert CH, Ulaszewska MM, Mack CI, Micheau P, Pétéra M, Durand S, Pujos-Guillot E, Egert B, Mattivi F, Bub A, Dragsted LO, Kulling SE, Manach C. Discovery and Validation of Banana Intake Biomarkers Using Untargeted Metabolomics in Human Intervention and Cross-sectional Studies. J Nutr 2019; 149:1701-1713. [PMID: 31240312 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxz125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Banana is one of the most widely consumed fruits in the world. However, information regarding its health effects is scarce. Biomarkers of banana intake would allow a more accurate assessment of its consumption in nutrition studies. OBJECTIVES Using an untargeted metabolomics approach, we aimed to identify the banana-derived metabolites present in urine after consumption, including new candidate biomarkers of banana intake. METHODS A randomized controlled study with a crossover design was performed on 12 healthy subjects (6 men, 6 women, mean ± SD age: 30.0 ± 4.9 y; mean ± SD BMI: 22.5 ± 2.3 kg/m2). Subjects underwent 2 dietary interventions: 1) 250 mL control drink (Fresubin 2 kcal fiber, neutral flavor; Fresenius Kabi), and 2) 240 g banana + 150 mL control drink. Twenty-four-hour urine samples were collected and analyzed with ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a quadrupole time-of-flight MS and 2-dimensional GC-MS. The discovered biomarkers were confirmed in a cross-sectional study [KarMeN (Karlsruhe Metabolomics and Nutrition study)] in which 78 subjects (mean BMI: 22.8; mean age: 47 y) were selected reflecting high intake (126-378 g/d), low intake (47.3-94.5 g/d), and nonconsumption of banana. The confirmed biomarkers were examined singly or in combinations, for established criteria of validation for biomarkers of food intake. RESULTS We identified 33 potentially bioactive banana metabolites, of which 5 metabolites, methoxyeugenol glucuronide (MEUG-GLUC), dopamine sulfate (DOP-S), salsolinol sulfate, xanthurenic acid, and 6-hydroxy-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline sulfate, were confirmed as candidate intake biomarkers. We demonstrated that the combination of MEUG-GLUC and DOP-S performed best in predicting banana intake in high (AUCtest = 0.92) and low (AUCtest = 0.87) consumers. The new biomarkers met key criteria establishing their current applicability in nutrition and health research for assessing the occurrence of banana intake. CONCLUSIONS Our metabolomics study in healthy men and women revealed new putative bioactive metabolites of banana and a combined biomarker of intake. These findings will help to better decipher the health effects of banana in future focused studies. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03581955 and with the Ethical Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects Sud-Est 6 as CPP AU 1251, IDRCB 2016-A0013-48; the KarMeN study was registered with the German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS00004890). Details about the study can be obtained from https://www.drks.de.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Vázquez-Manjarrez
- Human Nutrition Unit, INRA, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France.,Department of Nutrition, Exercise, and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christoph H Weinert
- Department of Safety and Quality of Fruit and Vegetables, Max Rubner-Institut, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Maria M Ulaszewska
- Department of Food Quality and Nutrition, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Carina I Mack
- Department of Safety and Quality of Fruit and Vegetables, Max Rubner-Institut, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Pierre Micheau
- Human Nutrition Unit, INRA, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Mélanie Pétéra
- Human Nutrition Unit, Plateforme d'Exploration du Métabolisme MetaboHUB, INRA, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Stephanie Durand
- Human Nutrition Unit, Plateforme d'Exploration du Métabolisme MetaboHUB, INRA, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Estelle Pujos-Guillot
- Human Nutrition Unit, Plateforme d'Exploration du Métabolisme MetaboHUB, INRA, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Björn Egert
- Department of Safety and Quality of Fruit and Vegetables, Max Rubner-Institut, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Fulvio Mattivi
- Department of Food Quality and Nutrition, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all'Adige, Italy.,Centre of Agriculture Food Environment, University of Trento, San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Achim Bub
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry of Nutrition, Max Rubner-Institut, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Lars Ove Dragsted
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise, and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sabine E Kulling
- Department of Safety and Quality of Fruit and Vegetables, Max Rubner-Institut, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Claudine Manach
- Human Nutrition Unit, INRA, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
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24
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Wang YK, Yang XN, Zhu X, Xiao XR, Yang XW, Qin HB, Gonzalez FJ, Li F. Role of Metabolic Activation in Elemicin-Induced Cellular Toxicity. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:8243-8252. [PMID: 31271289 PMCID: PMC7385589 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b02137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Elemicin, an alkenylbenzene constituent of natural oils of several plant species, is widely distributed in food, dietary supplements, and medicinal plants. 1'-Hydroxylation is known to cause metabolic activation of alkenylbenzenes leading to their potential toxicity. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between elemicin metabolism and its toxicity through comparing the metabolic maps between elemicin and 1'-hydroxyelemicin. Elemicin was transformed into a reactive metabolite of 1'-hydroxyelemicin, which was subsequently conjugated with cysteine (Cys) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Administration of NAC could significantly ameliorate the elemicin- and 1'-hydroxyelemicin-induced cytotoxicity of HepG2 cells, while depletion of Cys with diethyl maleate (DEM) increased cytotoxicity. Recombinant human CYP screening and CYP inhibition experiments revealed that multiple CYPs, notably CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP3A4, were responsible for the metabolic activation of elemicin. This study revealed that metabolic activation plays a critical role in elemicin cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Kun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiao-Nan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Medicinal Resources Protection and Genetic Improvement, Guangxi Botanical Garden of Medicinal Plant, Nanning 530023, China
| | - Xu Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xue-Rong Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Xiu-Wei Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Hong-Bo Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- Corresponding Authors. Tel: +86-871-65238010. Fax: +86-871-65238010. . Tel: +86-871-65216953. Fax: +86-871-65216953
| | - Frank J. Gonzalez
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Fei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China
- Corresponding Authors. Tel: +86-871-65238010. Fax: +86-871-65238010. . Tel: +86-871-65216953. Fax: +86-871-65216953
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25
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Samet AV, Shevchenko OG, Rusak VV, Chartov EM, Myshlyavtsev AB, Rusanov DA, Semenova MN, Semenov VV. Antioxidant Activity of Natural Allylpolyalkoxybenzene Plant Essential Oil Constituents. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2019; 82:1451-1458. [PMID: 31244145 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.8b00878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Free-radical-scavenging capacity antioxidant and membrane-protective properties of natural and related synthetic allylpolyalkoxybenzenes with different numbers of alkoxy/methoxy groups in the aromatic ring were evaluated using several in vitro models. These included the DPPH assay, inhibition of lipid peroxidation products accumulation, inhibition of H2O2-induced hemolysis, and oxidation of oxyhemoglobin. A synthetic protocol for the synthesis of natural nothoapiol (9) from a parsley seed metabolite, apiol (7), was developed. A structure-activity relationship study revealed that both the methylenedioxy fragment and methoxy groups in the aromatic ring are favorable for antioxidant activity. Hydroxyapiol (14), containing a hydroxy group in the aromatic core, was identified as the most potent compound. The pentaalkoxy-substituted nothoapiol (9) showed antioxidant activity in mouse brain homogenates, whereas in mouse erythrocytes it exhibited a marked pro-oxidant effect. Despite their low free-radical-scavenging capacity, allylpolyalkoxybenzenes can contribute to the total antioxidant potencies of plant essential oils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander V Samet
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry RAS, 47 Leninsky Prospect, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Oksana G Shevchenko
- Institute of Biology of the Komi Scientific Center of the Ural Branch of RAS, 28 Kommunisticheskaya Street, 167982 Syktyvkar, Russian Federation
| | - Vyacheslav V Rusak
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry RAS, 47 Leninsky Prospect, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Eduard M Chartov
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry RAS, 47 Leninsky Prospect, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Andrey B Myshlyavtsev
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry RAS, 47 Leninsky Prospect, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Daniil A Rusanov
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry RAS, 47 Leninsky Prospect, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Marina N Semenova
- N. K. Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology RAS, 26 Vavilov Street, 119334 Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Victor V Semenov
- N. D. Zelinsky Institute of Organic Chemistry RAS, 47 Leninsky Prospect, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation
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26
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Vázquez-Fresno R, Rosana ARR, Sajed T, Onookome-Okome T, Wishart NA, Wishart DS. Herbs and Spices- Biomarkers of Intake Based on Human Intervention Studies - A Systematic Review. GENES AND NUTRITION 2019; 14:18. [PMID: 31143299 PMCID: PMC6532192 DOI: 10.1186/s12263-019-0636-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Culinary herbs and spices have been used as both food flavoring and food preservative agents for centuries. Moreover, due to their known and presumptive health benefits, herbs and spices have also been used in medical practices since ancient times. Some of the health effects attributed to herbs and spices include antioxidant, anti-microbial, and anti-inflammatory effects as well as potential protection against cardiovascular disease, neurodegeneration, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. While interest in herbs and spices as medicinal agents remains high and their use in foods continues to grow, there have been remarkably few studies that have attempted to track the dietary intake of herbs and spices and even fewer that have tried to find potential biomarkers of food intake (BFIs). The aim of the present review is to systematically survey the global literature on herbs and spices in an effort to identify and evaluate specific intake biomarkers for a representative set of common herbs and spices in humans. A total of 25 herbs and spices were initially chosen, including anise, basil, black pepper, caraway, chili pepper, cinnamon, clove, cumin, curcumin, dill, fennel, fenugreek, ginger, lemongrass, marjoram, nutmeg, oregano, parsley, peppermint and spearmint, rosemary, saffron, sage, tarragon, and thyme. However, only 17 of these herbs and spices had published, peer-reviewed studies describing potential biomarkers of intake. In many studies, the herb or spice of interest was administrated in the form of a capsule or extract and very few studies were performed with actual foods. A systematic assessment of the candidate biomarkers was also performed. Given the limitations in the experimental designs for many of the published studies, further work is needed to better evaluate the identified set of BFIs. Although the daily intake of herbs and spices is very low compared to most other foods, this important set of food seasoning agents should not be underestimated, especially given their potential benefits to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Vázquez-Fresno
- 1Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E9 Canada
| | - Albert Remus R Rosana
- 1Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E9 Canada
| | - Tanvir Sajed
- 2Department of Computing Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E8 Canada
| | | | - Noah A Wishart
- 1Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E9 Canada
| | - David S Wishart
- 1Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E9 Canada.,2Department of Computing Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E8 Canada
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27
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Zhu X, Wang YK, Yang XN, Xiao XR, Zhang T, Yang XW, Qin HB, Li F. Metabolic Activation of Myristicin and Its Role in Cellular Toxicity. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:4328-4336. [PMID: 30912427 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b00893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Myristicin is widely distributed in spices and medicinal plants. The aim of this study was to explore the role of metabolic activation of myristicin in its potential toxicity through a metabolomic approach. The myristicin- N-acetylcysteine adduct was identified by comparing the metabolic maps of myristicin and 1'-hydroxymyristicin. The supplement of N-acetylcysteine could protect against the cytotoxicity of myristicin and 1'-hydroxymyristicin in primary mouse hepatocytes. When the depletion of intracellular N-acetylcysteine was pretreated with diethyl maleate in hepatocytes, the cytotoxicity induced by myristicin and 1'-hydroxymyristicin was deteriorated. It suggested that the N-acetylcysteine adduct resulting from myristicin bioactivation was closely associated with myristicin toxicity. Screening of human recombinant cytochrome P450s (CYPs) and treatment with CYP inhibitors revealed that CYP1A1 was mainly involved in the formation of 1'-hydroxymyristicin. Collectively, this study provided a global view of myristicin metabolism and identified the N-acetylcysteine adduct resulting from myristicin bioactivation, which could be used for understanding the mechanism of myristicin toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Zhu
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming , Yunnan 650201 , People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , People's Republic of China
| | - Yi-Kun Wang
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming , Yunnan 650201 , People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Nan Yang
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming , Yunnan 650201 , People's Republic of China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Medicinal Resources Protection and Genetic Improvement , Guangxi Botanical Garden of Medicinal Plant , Nanning , Guangxi 530023 , People's Republic of China
| | - Xue-Rong Xiao
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming , Yunnan 650201 , People's Republic of China
| | - Ting Zhang
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming , Yunnan 650201 , People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , People's Republic of China
| | - Xiu-Wei Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center , Peking University , Beijing 100191 , People's Republic of China
| | - Hong-Bo Qin
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming , Yunnan 650201 , People's Republic of China
| | - Fei Li
- States Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Kunming , Yunnan 650201 , People's Republic of China
- Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine , Nanchang , Jiangxi 330004 , People's Republic of China
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28
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Martins C, Rueff J, Rodrigues AS. Genotoxic alkenylbenzene flavourings, a contribution to risk assessment. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 118:861-879. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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29
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Abourashed EA, El-Alfy AT. Chemical diversity and pharmacological significance of the secondary metabolites of nutmeg ( Myristica fragrans Houtt.). PHYTOCHEMISTRY REVIEWS : PROCEEDINGS OF THE PHYTOCHEMICAL SOCIETY OF EUROPE 2016; 15:1035-1056. [PMID: 28082856 PMCID: PMC5222521 DOI: 10.1007/s11101-016-9469-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Nutmeg is a valued kitchen spice that has been used for centuries all over the world. In addition to its use in flavoring foods and beverages, nutmeg has been used in traditional remedies for stomach and kidney disorders. The antioxidant, antimicrobial and central nervous system effects of nutmeg have also been reported in literature. Nutmeg is a rich source of fixed and essential oil, triterpenes, and various types of phenolic compounds. Many of the secondary metabolites of nutmeg exhibit biological activities that may support its use in traditional medicine. This article provides an overview of the chemistry of secondary metabolites isolated from nutmeg kernel and mace including common methods for analysis of extracts and pure compounds as well as recent approaches towards total synthesis of some of the major constituents. A summary of the most significant pharmacological investigations of potential drug leads isolated from nutmeg and reported in the last decade is also included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehab A. Abourashed
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Phone: 773-821-2159; Fax: 773-821-2595;
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30
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El-Alfy AT, Joseph S, Brahmbhatt A, Akati S, Abourashed EA. Indirect modulation of the endocannabinoid system by specific fractions of nutmeg total extract. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2016; 54:2933-2938. [PMID: 27296774 DOI: 10.1080/13880209.2016.1194864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Nutmeg [Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Myristicaceae)] has a long-standing reputation of psychoactivity. Anecdotal reports of nutmeg use as a cheap marijuana substitute, coupled to previous studies reporting a cannabimimetic-like action, suggest that nutmeg may interact with the endocannabinoid system. OBJECTIVE The study evaluates nutmeg fractions for binding capacity with various CNS receptors and their potential interaction with the endocannabinoid system. MATERIALS AND METHODS Dichloromethane (DF) and ethyl acetate (EF) fractions were prepared from the methanol extract of powdered whole nutmeg. The HPLC-profiled fractions were assayed by the NIMH Psychoactive Drug Screening Program (PDSP) in a panel of CNS targets at a 10 μg/mL concentration. The fractions were also screened for fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inhibition, initially at a concentration of 500 μg/mL, then by concentration-dependent inhibition studies. RESULTS None of the tested fractions showed significant binding to CNS receptors included in the PDSP panel. However, both fractions exerted significant inhibition of the FAAH and MAGL enzymes. The DF fraction inhibited FAAH and MAGL enzymes at IC50 values of 21.06 ± 3.16 and 15.34 ± 1.61 μg/mL, respectively. Similarly, the EF fraction demonstrated FAAH and MAGL inhibition with IC50 values of 15.42 ± 3.09 and 11.37 ± 6.15 μg/mL, respectively. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The study provides the first piece of evidence that nutmeg interacts with the endocannabinoid system via inhibition of the endocannabinoid catabolizing enzymes. This mechanism provides insight into reported cannabis-like action as well as expands the potential therapeutic utility of nutmeg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abir T El-Alfy
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy , Chicago State University , Chicago , IL , USA
| | - Sharon Joseph
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy , Chicago State University , Chicago , IL , USA
| | - Akshar Brahmbhatt
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy , Chicago State University , Chicago , IL , USA
| | - Setor Akati
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy , Chicago State University , Chicago , IL , USA
| | - Ehab A Abourashed
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy , Chicago State University , Chicago , IL , USA
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31
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Physiologically based kinetic modeling of the bioactivation of myristicin. Arch Toxicol 2016; 91:713-734. [PMID: 27334372 PMCID: PMC5306082 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1752-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The present study describes physiologically based kinetic (PBK) models for the alkenylbenzene myristicin that were developed by extension of the PBK models for the structurally related alkenylbenzene safrole in rat and human. The newly developed myristicin models revealed that the formation of the proximate carcinogenic metabolite 1′-hydroxymyristicin in liver is at most 1.8 fold higher in rat than in human and limited for the ultimate carcinogenic metabolite 1′-sulfoxymyristicin to (2.8–4.0)-fold higher in human. In addition, a comparison was made between the relative importance of bioactivation for myristicin and safrole. Model predictions indicate that for these related compounds, the formation of the 1′-sulfoxy metabolites in rat and human liver is comparable with a difference of <2.2-fold over a wide dose range. The results from this PBK analysis support that risk assessment of myristicin may be based on the BMDL10 derived for safrole of 1.9–5.1 mg/kg bw per day. Using an estimated daily intake of myristicin of 0.0019 mg/kg bw per day resulting from the use of herbs and spices, this results in MOE values for myristicin that amount to 1000–2700, indicating a priority for risk management. The results obtained illustrate that PBK modeling provides insight into possible species differences in the metabolic activation of myristicin. Moreover, they provide an example of how PBK modeling can facilitate a read-across in risk assessment from a compound for which in vivo toxicity studies are available to a related compound for which tumor data are not reported, thus contributing to alternatives in animal testing.
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32
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Alajlouni AM, Al_Malahmeh AJ, Kiwamoto R, Wesseling S, Soffers AE, Al-Subeihi AA, Vervoort J, Rietjens IM. Mode of action based risk assessment of the botanical food-borne alkenylbenzene apiol from parsley using physiologically based kinetic (PBK) modelling and read-across from safrole. Food Chem Toxicol 2016; 89:138-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2016.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Revised: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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33
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Rietjens IMCM, Cohen SM, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Hecht S, Marnett LJ, Smith RL, Adams TB, Bastaki M, Harman CG, Taylor SV. Impact of Structural and Metabolic Variations on the Toxicity and Carcinogenicity of Hydroxy- and Alkoxy-Substituted Allyl- and Propenylbenzenes. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:1092-103. [DOI: 10.1021/tx500109s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I. M. C. M. Rietjens
- Division
of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Tuinlaan 5, 6703 HE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - S. M. Cohen
- Department
of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 4400 Emile Street, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - S. Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research
Center, 2445, Hirasawa, Hadano-shi, Kanagawa 257-0015, Japan
| | - N. J. Gooderham
- Department
of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - S. Hecht
- Masonic
Cancer Center and Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, MMC 806, 420 Delaware St. SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - L. J. Marnett
- Department
of Biochemistry, Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 1161 21st Avenue S # T1217, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-0146, United States
| | - R. L. Smith
- Molecular
Toxicology, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - T. B. Adams
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
| | - M. Bastaki
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
| | - C. G. Harman
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
| | - S. V. Taylor
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
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34
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van den Berg SJPL, Punt A, Soffers AEMF, Vervoort J, Ngeleja S, Spenkelink B, Rietjens IMCM. Physiologically based kinetic models for the alkenylbenzene elemicin in rat and human and possible implications for risk assessment. Chem Res Toxicol 2012; 25:2352-67. [PMID: 22992039 DOI: 10.1021/tx300239z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The present study describes physiologically based kinetic (PBK) models for the alkenylbenzene elemicin (3,4,5-trimethoxyallylbenzene) in rat and human, based on the PBK models previously developed for the structurally related alkenylbenzenes estragole, methyleugenol, and safrole. Using the newly developed models, the level of metabolic activation of elemicin in rat and human was predicted to obtain insight in species differences in the bioactivation of elemicin and read across to the other methoxy allylbenzenes, estragole and methyleugenol. Results reveal that the differences between rat and human in the formation of the proximate carcinogenic metabolite 1'-hydroxyelemicin and the ultimate carcinogenic metabolite 1'-sulfoxyelemicin are limited (<3.8-fold). In addition, a comparison was made between the relative importance of bioactivation for elemicin and that of estragole and methyleugenol. Model predictions indicate that compound differences in the formation of the 1'-sulfoxymetabolites are limited (<11-fold) in rat and human liver. The insights thus obtained were used to perform a risk assessment for elemicin using the margin of exposure (MOE) approach and read across to the other methoxy allylbenzene derivatives for which in vivo animal tumor data are available. This reveals that elemicin poses a lower priority for risk management as compared to its structurally related analogues estragole and methyleugenol. Altogether, the results obtained indicate that PBK modeling provides an important insight in the occurrence of species differences in the metabolic activation of elemicin. Moreover, they provide an example of how PBK modeling can facilitate a read across in risk assessment from compounds for which in vivo toxicity studies are available to a compound for which only limited toxicity data have been described, thus contributing to the development of alternatives for animal testing.
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Adjene JO, Nwose EU. Histological effects of long term consumption of nutmeg on the medial geniculate body of adult Wistar rats. NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL SCIENCES 2012; 2:134-7. [PMID: 22624127 PMCID: PMC3354425 DOI: 10.4297/najms.2010.3134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Background: Nutmeg is commonly used as a spice in various dishes, as components of teas and soft drinks or mixed in milk and alcohol. The effect of chronic consumption of nutmeg on the medial geniculate body of adult Wistar rats was carefully studied. Aim: The objective is to observe any possible histological changes. Materials and Methods: Rats of both sexes (n = 24), with average weight of 200g were equally and randomly assigned into two treatment groups [A] and [B]; and untreated Control group [C] of (n = 8) per group. The rats in the treatment groups [A] and [B] were respectively given 1g and 2g of nutmeg thoroughly mixed with the feeds on a daily basis for thirty-two days. The control group received equal amount of feeds daily without nutmeg added for the thirty-two days period. All rats were fed with grower's mash and given water liberally. The rats were sacrificed by cervical dislocation method on day thirty-three of the experiment, medial geniculate body was carefully dissected out from the brain and quickly fixed in 10% formol-saline for histological study. Results: The findings indicate that rats in the treated groups (A & B) showed some cellular degenerative changes like hypertrophy, sparse cellular population, pyknotic nuclei with some microcystic changes, and vacuolation in the stroma of the treated medial geniculate body relative to those in the control group. Conclusion: Long term consumption of nutmeg may have adverse effect on microanatomy of medial geniculate body, which could negatively impact on the auditory sensibilities. Further research, including human observational studies, aimed at corroborating these observations is recommended.
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Abstract
Drugs based on herbs have become a common form of therapy as well as for prophylaxis because they are often perceived as being natural and therefore harmless. Today they are one of the hottest trends and most sought after in the field of nutrition or herbal therapeutics. As the use of complementary medicine grows, so does the knowledge that many compounds in common use not only have a significant effect on the body but may also interact with pharmaceuticals and also with other alternative products. Concurrent use of herbs with drugs may mimic, magnify, or oppose the effect of drugs leading to herb-drug interactions. Currently, there is very little information published on herb-herb or herb-drug interactions as compared to the use of herbs which is progressively growing across the world. Many reports of herb-drug interactions are sketchy and lack laboratory analysis of suspect preparations. Health-care practitioners should caution patients against mixing herbs and pharmaceutical drugs. The article reviews the recent literature on the adverse effects of herbal remedies including the most widely sold herbal medicinal products, like liquorice, garlic, ginger, green tea, and turmeric, etc., and reinforce the safety aspect of herbal products, which are considered to be relatively safe by common people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Divya Singh
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Babu Banarasi Das National Institute of Technology and Management, Dr. Akhilesh Das Nagar, Lucknow, India
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Chiang SY, Lee PY, Lai MT, Shen LC, Chung WS, Huang HF, Wu KY, Wu HC. Safrole-2′,3′-oxide induces cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in HepG2 cells and in mice. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2011; 726:234-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2011.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2011] [Revised: 08/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Fang ZZ, Zhang YY, Wang XL, Cao YF, Huo H, Yang L. Bioactivation of herbal constituents: simple alerts in the complex system. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2011; 7:989-1007. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2011.586335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Drugs of abuse screening in urine as part of a metabolite-based LC-MSn screening concept. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 400:3481-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5032-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2011] [Revised: 04/11/2011] [Accepted: 04/15/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Chen XW, Serag ES, Sneed KB, Zhou SF. Herbal bioactivation, molecular targets and the toxicity relevance. Chem Biol Interact 2011; 192:161-76. [PMID: 21459083 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2011.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2011] [Revised: 03/25/2011] [Accepted: 03/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
There have been increasing reports on the adverse reactions associated with herbal consumption. For many of these adverse reactions, the underlying biochemical mechanisms are unknown, but bioactivation of herbal compounds to generate reactive intermediates have been implicated. This minireview updates our knowledge on metabolic activation of herbal compounds, molecular targets and the toxicity relevance. A number of studies have documented that some herbal compounds can be converted to toxic or even carcinogenic metabolites by Phase I [e.g. cytochrome P450s (CYPs)] and less frequently by Phase II enzymes. For example, aristolochic acids (AAs) in Aristolochia spp, which undergo reduction of the nitro group by hepatic CYP1A1/2 or peroxidases in extrahepatic tissues to generate highly reactive cyclic nitrenium ions. The latter can react with macromolecules (DNA and protein), resulting in activation of H-ras and myc oncogenes and gene mutation in renal cells and finally carcinogenesis of the kidneys. Teucrin A and teuchamaedryn A, two diterpenoids found in germander (Teuchrium chamaedrys) used as an adjuvant to slimming herbal supplements that caused severe hepatotoxicity, are converted by CYP3A4 to reactive epoxide which reacts with proteins such as CYP3A and epoxide hydrolase and inactivate them. Some naturally occurring alkenylbenzenes (e.g. safrole, methyleugenol and estragole) and flavonoids (e.g. quercetin) can undergo bioactivation by sequential 1-hydroxylation and sulfation, resulting in reactive intermediates capable of forming DNA adducts. Extensive pulegone metabolism generated p-cresol that is a glutathione depletory. The hepatotoxicity of kava is possibly due to intracellular glutathione depletion and/or quinone formation. Moreover, several herbal compounds including capsaicin from chili peppers, dially sulfone in garlic, methysticin and dihydromethysticin in kava, oleuropein in olive oil, and resveratrol found in grape seeds are mechanism-based (suicide) inhibitors of various CYPs. Together with advances of proteomics, metabolomics and toxicogenomics, an integrated systems toxicological approach may provide deep insights into mechanistic aspects of herb-induced toxicities, and contribute to bridging the relationships between herbal bioactivation, protein/DNA adduct formation and the toxicological consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Wu Chen
- Department of General Surgery, The First People's Hospital of Shunde affiliated to Southern Medical University, Shunde, Foshan, Guangdong, China
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Braune A, Maul R, Schebb NH, Kulling SE, Blaut M. The red clover isoflavone irilone is largely resistant to degradation by the human gut microbiota. Mol Nutr Food Res 2010; 54:929-38. [PMID: 19998384 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200900233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Intestinal bacteria may influence bioavailability and physiological activity of dietary isoflavones. We therefore investigated the ability of human intestinal microbiota to convert irilone and genistein in vitro. In contrast to genistein, irilone was largely resistant to transformation by fecal slurries of ten human subjects. The fecal microbiota converted genistein to dihydrogenistein, 6'-hydroxy-O-desmethylangolensin, and 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propionic acid. However, considerable interindividual differences in the rate of genistein degradation and the pattern of metabolites formed from genistein were observed. Only one metabolite, namely dihydroirilone, was formed from irilone in minor amounts. In further experiments, Eubacterium ramulus, a prevalent flavonoid-degrading species of the human gut, was tested for transformation of irilone. In contrast to genistein, irilone was not converted by E. ramulus. Irilone only differs from genistein by a methylenedioxy group attached to the A-ring of the isoflavone skeleton. This substitution obviously restricts the degradability of irilone by human intestinal bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annett Braune
- Department of Gastrointestinal Microbiology, German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbrücke, 14558 Nuthetal, Germany.
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Identification of compounds in the essential oil of nutmeg seeds (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) that inhibit locomotor activity in mice. Int J Mol Sci 2010; 11:4771-81. [PMID: 21151471 PMCID: PMC3000115 DOI: 10.3390/ijms11114771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2010] [Revised: 11/08/2010] [Accepted: 11/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study was designed to evaluate the inhibitory effect of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) seed essential oil on the locomotor activity of mice in a wheel cage. Active compounds in the essential oil were identified by off-line solid phase extraction (SPE-C18) and GC/MS analysis. The essential oil was administered by inhalation at doses of 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 mL/cage. The results showed that inhalation of nutmeg seed essential oil at a dose of 0.5 mL/cage decreased locomotion by 68.62%; and inhalation of 0.1 and 0.3 mL/cage inhibited locomotion by 62.81% and 65.33%, respectively. Generally, larger doses and longer administrations of nutmeg seed essential oil exhibited greater locomotor inhibition. Subsequently, the plasma concentrations of essential oil compounds were measured. The most concentrated compound in the plasma was myristicin. Half an hour after the addition of 1 mL/cage of nutmeg seed oil, the plasma concentration of myristicin was 3.7 μg/mL; one and two hours after the addition, the blood levels of myristicin were 5.2 μg/mL and 7.1 μg/mL, respectively. Other essential oil compounds identified in plasma were safrole (two-hour inhalation: 1.28 μg/mL), 4-terpineol (half-hour inhalation: 1.49 μg/mL, one-hour inhalation: 2.95 μg/mL, two-hour inhalation: 6.28 μg/mL) and fatty esters. The concentrations of the essential oil compounds in the blood plasma were relatively low (μg/mL or ppm). In conclusion, the volatile compounds of nutmeg seed essential oil identified in the blood plasma may correlate with the locomotor-inhibiting properties of the oil when administered by inhalation.
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El-Alfy AT, Wilson L, ElSohly MA, Abourashed EA. Towards a better understanding of the psychopharmacology of nutmeg: Activities in the mouse tetrad assay. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2009; 126:280-6. [PMID: 19703539 PMCID: PMC2783227 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2009.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2009] [Revised: 08/12/2009] [Accepted: 08/15/2009] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Nutmeg, the seeds of Myritica fragrans (family Myristicaceae), is a well known kitchen spice with a long-standing reputation as a psychoactive herb. Nutmeg at high doses is considered a cheap substitute to several drugs of abuse. Earlier reports have attributed amphetamine-like activities to nutmeg. AIM OF THE STUDY To characterize the neuropharmacological effects of different nutmeg extracts, administered orally and intraperitoneally, in comparison to Delta(9)-terahydrocannabinol, amphetamine, and morphine. MATERIALS AND METHODS Methanolic (ME), dichloromethane (DE), and hexane (HE) extracts were obtained from a chromatographically fingerprinted batch of nutmeg. Biological evaluation was conducted in sets of 6-8 mice in the tetrad assay at doses ranging from 100 to 500 and 500 to 1000 mg/kg for i.p. and oral administration, respectively. RESULTS While oral administration of all the nutmeg extracts at 500 mg/kg caused a significant increase in locomotor activity, the i.p. administration of DE showed significant reduction in rectal temperature along with a significant increase in tail flick latency at 300 mg/kg. A significant decrease in core body temperature was observed with HE at 100 mg/kg, while higher doses caused significant increases in hot plate latency. CONCLUSION Different behavioral effects were observed that varied by the type of extract as well as by the route of administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abir T El-Alfy
- Pharmacology Department, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, MS 38677, United States.
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Björnstad K, Hultén P, Beck O, Helander A. Bioanalytical and clinical evaluation of 103 suspected cases of intoxications with psychoactive plant materials. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2009; 47:566-72. [DOI: 10.1080/15563650903037181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald G Barceloux
- Emergency Department, Pomona Valley Hospital Medical Center, Pomona, California, USA
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Sauer C, Peters FT, Haas C, Meyer MR, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. New designer drug alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (PVP): studies on its metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2009; 44:952-964. [PMID: 19241365 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to identify the metabolites of the new designer drug alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (PVP) in rat urine using GC/MS techniques. Eleven metabolites of PVP could be identified suggesting the following metabolic steps: hydroxylation of the side chain followed by dehydrogenation to the corresponding ketone; hydroxylation of the 2''-position of the pyrrolidine ring followed by dehydrogenation to the corresponding lactam or followed by ring opening to the respective aliphatic aldehyde and further oxidation to the respective carboxylic acid; degradation of the pyrrolidine ring to the corresponding primary amine; and hydroxylation of the phenyl ring, most probably in the 4'-position. The authors' screening procedure for pyrrolidinophenones allowed the detection of PVP metabolites after application of a dose corresponding to a presumed user's dose. In addition, the involvement of nine different human cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoenzymes in the side chain hydroxylation of PVP was investigated and CYP 2B6, 2C19, 2D6, and 3A4 were found to catalyze this reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Sauer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Sauer C, Peters FT, Staack RF, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. Metabolism and toxicological detection of the designer drug N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-3-methoxypropanamine (PCMPA) in rat urine using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Forensic Sci Int 2008; 181:47-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2008] [Revised: 08/05/2008] [Accepted: 09/02/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Mao W, Zangerl AR, Berenbaum MR, Schuler MA. Metabolism of myristicin by Depressaria pastinacella CYP6AB3v2 and inhibition by its metabolite. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 38:645-651. [PMID: 18510976 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2008.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2007] [Revised: 03/27/2008] [Accepted: 03/31/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Although methylenedioxyphenyl (MDP) compounds, such as myristicin, are useful in the management of insecticide-resistant insects, the molecular mechanisms for their action in mammals and insects have not been elucidated. In this study, GC-MS analyses of methanol extracts of foliage of wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) have identified myristicin as a substrate for CYP6AB3v2, an imperatorin-metabolizing cytochrome P450 monooxygenase from Depressaria pastinacella (parsnip webworm). In contrast with its strong inhibitory effects on many mammalian P450s, myristicin is effectively metabolized by CYP6AB3v2 (V(max) and K(m) of 97.9 pmol/min/pmol P450 and 17.9 microM, respectively) at a rate exceeding that recorded previously for imperatorin, the only other known substrate for this highly specialized enzyme. The myristicin metabolite of CYP6AB3v2 is 1-(3',4'-methylenedioxy-5'-methoxyphenyl)-2,3-epoxypropane. Molecular dockings have indicated that, unlike other epoxide metabolites of furanocoumarins, this epoxide metabolite is likely to remain in the CYP6AB3v2 catalytic site due to its low binding energy (-31.0 kcal/mol). Inhibition assays indicate that myristicin acts as a mixed inhibitor of this insect P450 and suggest that the epoxide metabolite may be an intermediate involved in the formation of P450-methylenedioxyphenyl complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenfu Mao
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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Ewald AH, Ehlers D, Maurer HH. Metabolism and toxicological detection of the designer drug 4-chloro-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine in rat urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2008; 390:1837-42. [PMID: 18259731 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-008-1917-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2007] [Revised: 01/21/2008] [Accepted: 01/23/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Studies are described on the metabolism and the toxicological analysis of the amphetamine-derived designer drug 4-chloro-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOC) in rat urine using gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric techniques. The metabolites identified indicated that DOC was metabolized by O-demethylation at position 2 or 5 of the phenyl ring partly followed by glucuronidation and/or sulfation. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis procedure using full-scan gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection of an intake of a dose of DOC in rat urine that corresponds to a common drug user's dose. Assuming similar metabolism, the STA procedure described should be suitable as proof of an intake of DOC in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas H Ewald
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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