Discordant organ xenotransplantation in primates: world experience and current status

Swine models in translational research and medicine

Swine are increasingly studied as animal models of human disease. The anatomy, size, longevity, physiology, immune system, and metabolism of swine are more like humans than traditional rodent models. In addition, the size of swine is preferred for surgical placement and testing of medical devices destined for humans. These features make swine useful for biomedical, pharmacological, and toxicological research. With recent advances in gene-editing technologies, genetic modifications can readily and efficiently be made in swine to study genetic disorders. In addition, gene-edited swine tissues are necessary for studies testing and validating xenotransplantation into humans to meet the critical shortfall of viable organs versus need. Underlying all of these biomedical applications, the knowledge of husbandry, background diseases and lesions, and biosecurity needs are important for productive, efficient, and reproducible research when using swine as a human disease model for basic research, preclinical testing, and translational studies.

Cardiac xenotransplantation: from concept to clinic

For many patients with terminal/advanced cardiac failure, heart transplantation is the most effective, durable treatment option, and offers the best prospects for a high quality of life. The number of potentially life-saving donated human organs is far fewer than the population who could benefit from a new heart, resulting in increasing numbers of patients awaiting replacement of their failing heart, high waitlist mortality, and frequent reliance on interim mechanical support for many of those deemed among the best candidates but who are deteriorating as they wait. Currently, mechanical assist devices supporting left ventricular or biventricular heart function are the only alternative to heart transplant that is in clinical use. Unfortunately, the complication rate with mechanical assistance remains high despite advances in device design and patient selection and management, and the quality of life of the patients even with good outcomes is only moderately improved. Cardiac xenotransplantation from genetically multi-modified (GM) organ-source pigs is an emerging new option as demonstrated by the consistent long-term success of heterotopic (non-life-supporting) abdominal and life-supporting orthotopic porcine heart transplantation in baboons, and by a recent 'compassionate use' transplant of the heart from a GM pig with 10 modifications into a terminally ill patient who survived for 2 months. In this review, we discuss pig heart xenotransplantation as a concept, including pathobiological aspects related to immune rejection, coagulation dysregulation, and detrimental overgrowth of the heart, as well as GM strategies in pigs to prevent or minimize these problems. Additional topics discussed include relevant results of heterotopic and orthotopic heart transplantation experiments in the pig-to-baboon model, microbiological and virologic safety concepts, and efficacy requirements for initiating formal clinical trials. An adequate regulatory and ethical framework as well as stringent criteria for the selection of patients will be critical for the safe clinical development of cardiac xenotransplantation, which we expect will be clinically tested during the next few years.

Advances in Innate Immunity to Overcome Immune Rejection during Xenotransplantation

Transplantation is an effective approach for treating end-stage organ failure. There has been a long-standing interest in xenotransplantation as a means of increasing the number of available organs. In the past decade, there has been tremendous progress in xenotransplantation accelerated by the development of rapid gene-editing tools and immunosuppressive therapy. Recently, the heart and kidney from pigs were transplanted into the recipients, which suggests that xenotransplantation has entered a new era. The genetic discrepancy and molecular incompatibility between pigs and primates results in barriers to xenotransplantation. An increasing body of evidence suggests that innate immune responses play an important role in all aspects of the xenogeneic rejection. Simultaneously, the role of important cellular components like macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, and neutrophils, suggests that the innate immune response in the xenogeneic rejection should not be underestimated. Here, we summarize the current knowledge about the innate immune system in xenotransplantation and highlight the key issues for future investigations. A better understanding of the innate immune responses in xenotransplantation may help to control the xenograft rejection and design optimal combination therapies.

Canine Myocytes Represent a Good Model for Human Ventricular Cells Regarding Their Electrophysiological Properties

Due to the limited availability of healthy human ventricular tissues, the most suitable animal model has to be applied for electrophysiological and pharmacological studies. This can be best identified by studying the properties of ion currents shaping the action potential in the frequently used laboratory animals, such as dogs, rabbits, guinea pigs, or rats, and comparing them to those of human cardiomyocytes. The authors of this article with the experience of three decades of electrophysiological studies, performed in mammalian and human ventricular tissues and isolated cardiomyocytes, summarize their results obtained regarding the major canine and human cardiac ion currents. Accordingly, L-type Ca²⁺ current (I_Ca), late Na⁺ current (I_Na-late), rapid and slow components of the delayed rectifier K⁺ current (I_Kr and I_Ks, respectively), inward rectifier K⁺ current (I_K1), transient outward K⁺ current (I_to1), and Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchange current (I_NCX) were characterized and compared. Importantly, many of these measurements were performed using the action potential voltage clamp technique allowing for visualization of the actual current profiles flowing during the ventricular action potential. Densities and shapes of these ion currents, as well as the action potential configuration, were similar in human and canine ventricular cells, except for the density of I_K1 and the recovery kinetics of I_to. I_K1 displayed a largely four-fold larger density in canine than human myocytes, and I_to recovery from inactivation displayed a somewhat different time course in the two species. On the basis of these results, it is concluded that canine ventricular cells represent a reasonably good model for human myocytes for electrophysiological studies, however, it must be borne in mind that due to their stronger I_K1, the repolarization reserve is more pronounced in canine cells, and moderate differences in the frequency-dependent repolarization patterns can also be anticipated.

What Therapeutic Regimen Will Be Optimal for Initial Clinical Trials of Pig Organ Transplantation?

We discuss what therapeutic regimen might be acceptable/successful in the first clinical trial of genetically engineered pig kidney or heart transplantation. As regimens based on a calcineurin inhibitor or CTLA4-Ig have proved unsuccessful, the regimen we administer to baboons is based on induction therapy with antithymocyte globulin, an anti-CD20 mAb (Rituximab), and cobra venom factor, with maintenance therapy based on blockade of the CD40/CD154 costimulation pathway (with an anti-CD40 mAb), with rapamycin, and a corticosteroid. An anti-inflammatory agent (etanercept) is administered for the first 2 wk, and adjuvant therapy includes prophylaxis against thrombotic complications, anemia, cytomegalovirus, and pneumocystis. Using this regimen, although antibody-mediated rejection certainly can occur, we have documented no definite evidence of an adaptive immune response to the pig xenograft. This regimen could also form the basis for the first clinical trial, except that cobra venom factor will be replaced by a clinically approved agent, for example, a C1-esterase inhibitor. However, none of the agents that block the CD40/CD154 pathway are yet approved for clinical use, and so this hurdle remains to be overcome. The role of anti-inflammatory agents remains unproven. The major difference between this suggested regimen and those used in allotransplantation is the replacement of a calcineurin inhibitor with a costimulation blockade agent, but this does not appear to increase the complications of the regimen.

Heart transplantation: the Berlin experience and perspectives

In patients with end-stage heart failure, heart transplants are now an ingrained practice, as they provide satisfying long-term results with good predictability and quality of life. The successful outcome has evolved from the development of effective immunosuppression, recognition of allograft rejection through diagnostic modalities and improvement in donor organ perfusion. Unfortunately, transplant availability is constrained by the shortage of donor organs and is therefore considered a casuistic therapy. The outcome is defined by unwanted effects of immunosuppressants, increased tumor occurrence and chronic transplant angiopathies. In the long term, patients fear primarily the occurrence of renal insufficiency and secondly osteoporosis with its skeletal complications and corresponding pain. Nevertheless, the overall quality of life is not very limited; on the contrary, patients demonstrate a surprisingly meaningful lives 10-20 years after the transplant. Their physical presentation is similar to those with varying co-morbidities. Most of the 20-year surviving patients are physically active and happy with their daily lives. Medical ambition has seen heart transplantation become reality and develop into an influential force regarding heart surgery, immunology, pharmacology, organ logistics and medical ethics. Its development has also molded our definitions of death and has driven public and health care approval of medical advances. It has provided a strong solidarity among politicians, sociologists, physicians and citizens. Problems regarding ethics continue to endure, and will forecast heart transplants as a defining, but temporary era in human medicine. The donor organ shortage has stimulated the use of resuscitated donor hearts and encouraged exploration and advancement of mechanical circulatory support systems and xenotransplantation as alternatives in the management of end-stage heart failure.

Corneal xenotransplantation: Where are we standing?

The search for alternatives to allotransplants is driven by the shortage of corneal donors and is demanding because of the limitations of the alternatives. Indeed, current progress in genetically engineered (GE) pigs, the introduction of gene-editing technology by clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9, and advanced immunosuppressants have made xenotransplantation a possible option for a human trial. Porcine corneal xenotransplantation is considered applicable because the eye is regarded as an immune-privileged site. Furthermore, recent non-human primate studies have shown long-term survival of porcine xenotransplants in keratoplasty. Herein, corneal immune privilege is briefly introduced, and xenogeneic reactions are compared with allogeneic reactions in corneal transplantation. This review describes the current knowledge on special issues of xenotransplantation, xenogeneic rejection mechanisms, current immunosuppressive regimens of corneal xenotransplantation, preclinical efficacy and safety data of corneal xenotransplantation, and updates of the regulatory framework to conduct a clinical trial on corneal xenotransplantation. We also discuss barriers that might prevent xenotransplantation from becoming common practice, such as ethical dilemmas, public concerns on xenotransplantation, and the possible risk of xenozoonosis. Given that the legal definition of decellularized porcine cornea (DPC) lies somewhere between a medical device and a xenotransplant, the preclinical efficacy and clinical trial data using DPC are included. The review finally provides perspectives on the current standpoint of corneal xenotransplantation in the fields of regenerative medicine.

Kidney xenotransplantation: Recent progress in preclinical research

Kidney transplantation is the most effective treatment for end-stage renal disease, but is limited by the increasing shortage of deceased and living human donor kidneys. Xenotransplantation using pig organs provides the possibility to resolve the issue of organ supply shortage and is regarded as the next great medical revolution. In the past five years, there have been sequential advances toward the prolongation of life-supporting pig kidney xenograft survival in non-human primates, with the longest survival being 499 days. This progress is due to the growing availability of pigs with multi-layered genetic modifications to overcome the pathobiological barriers and the application of a costimulation blockade-based immunosuppressive regimen. These encouraging results bring the hope to initiate the clinical trials of pig kidney transplantation in the near future. In this review, we summarized the latest advances regarding pig kidney xenotransplantation in preclinical models to provide a basis for future investigation and potential clinical translation.

Xenotransplantation: Current Status in Preclinical Research

The increasing life expectancy of humans has led to a growing numbers of patients with chronic diseases and end-stage organ failure. Transplantation is an effective approach for the treatment of end-stage organ failure; however, the imbalance between organ supply and the demand for human organs is a bottleneck for clinical transplantation. Therefore, xenotransplantation might be a promising alternative approach to bridge the gap between the supply and demand of organs, tissues, and cells; however, immunological barriers are limiting factors in clinical xenotransplantation. Thanks to advances in gene-editing tools and immunosuppressive therapy as well as the prolonged xenograft survival time in pig-to-non-human primate models, clinical xenotransplantation has become more viable. In this review, we focus on the evolution and current status of xenotransplantation research, including our current understanding of the immunological mechanisms involved in xenograft rejection, genetically modified pigs used for xenotransplantation, and progress that has been made in developing pig-to-pig-to-non-human primate models. Three main types of rejection can occur after xenotransplantation, which we discuss in detail: (1) hyperacute xenograft rejection, (2) acute humoral xenograft rejection, and (3) acute cellular rejection. Furthermore, in studies on immunological rejection, genetically modified pigs have been generated to bridge cross-species molecular incompatibilities; in the last decade, most advances made in the field of xenotransplantation have resulted from the production of genetically engineered pigs; accordingly, we summarize the genetically modified pigs that are currently available for xenotransplantation. Next, we summarize the longest survival time of solid organs in preclinical models in recent years, including heart, liver, kidney, and lung xenotransplantation. Overall, we conclude that recent achievements and the accumulation of experience in xenotransplantation mean that the first-in-human clinical trial could be possible in the near future. Furthermore, we hope that xenotransplantation and various approaches will be able to collectively solve the problem of human organ shortage.

Introduction: The Present Status of Xenotransplantation Research

There is a well-known worldwide shortage of deceased human donor organs for clinical transplantation. The transplantation of organs from genetically engineered pigs may prove an alternative solution. In the past 5 years, there have been sequential advances that have significantly increased pig graft survival in nonhuman primates. This progress has been associated with (1) the availability of increasingly sophisticated genetically engineered pigs; (2) the introduction of novel immunosuppressive agents, particularly those that block the second T-cell signal (costimulation blockade); (3) a better understanding of the inflammatory response to pig xenografts; and (4) increasing experience in the management of nonhuman primates with pig organ or cell grafts. The range of investigations required in experimental studies has increased. The standard immunologic assays are still carried out, but increasingly investigations aimed toward other pathobiologic barriers (e.g., coagulation dysregulation and inflammation) have become more important in determining injury to the graft.Now that prolonged graft survival, extending to months or even years, is increasingly being obtained, the function of the grafts can be more reliably assessed. If the source pigs are bred and housed under biosecure isolation conditions, and weaned early from the sow, most microorganisms can be eradicated from the herd. The potential risk of porcine endogenous retrovirus (PERV) infection remains unknown, but is probably small. Attention is being directed toward the selection of patients for the first clinical trials of xenotransplantation.

Clinical Pig Kidney Xenotransplantation: How Close Are We?

Patients with ESKD who would benefit from a kidney transplant face a critical and continuing shortage of kidneys from deceased human donors. As a result, such patients wait a median of 3.9 years to receive a donor kidney, by which time approximately 35% of transplant candidates have died while waiting or have been removed from the waiting list. Those of blood group B or O may experience a significantly longer waiting period. This problem could be resolved if kidneys from genetically engineered pigs offered an alternative with an acceptable clinical outcome. Attempts to accomplish this have followed two major paths: deletion of pig xenoantigens, as well as insertion of "protective" human transgenes to counter the human immune response. Pigs with up to nine genetic manipulations are now available. In nonhuman primates, administering novel agents that block the CD40/CD154 costimulation pathway, such as an anti-CD40 mAb, suppresses the adaptive immune response, leading to pig kidney graft survival of many months without features of rejection (experiments were terminated for infectious complications). In the absence of innate and adaptive immune responses, the transplanted pig kidneys have generally displayed excellent function. A clinical trial is anticipated within 2 years. We suggest that it would be ethical to offer a pig kidney transplant to selected patients who have a life expectancy shorter than the time it would take for them to obtain a kidney from a deceased human donor. In the future, the pigs will also be genetically engineered to control the adaptive immune response, thus enabling exogenous immunosuppressive therapy to be significantly reduced or eliminated.

Lung tissue bioengineering for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: overcoming the need for lung transplantation from human donors

Introduction: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) affects more than 380 million people, causing more than 3 million deaths annually worldwide. Despite this enormous burden, currently available therapies are largely limited to symptom control. Lung transplant is considered for end-stage disease but is severely limited by the availability of human organs. Furthermore, the pre-transplant course is a complex orchestration of locating and harvesting suitable lungs, and the post-transplant course is complicated by rejection and infection. Lung tissue bioengineering has the potential to relieve the organ shortage and improve the post-transplant course by generating patient-specific lungs for transplant. Additionally, emerging progenitor cell therapies may facilitate in vivo regeneration of pulmonary tissue, obviating the need for transplant. Areas Covered: We review several lung tissue bioengineering approaches including the recellularization of decellularized scaffolds, 3D bioprinting, genetically-engineered xenotransplantation, blastocyst complementation, and direct therapy with progenitor cells. Articles were identified by searching relevant terms (see Key Words) in the PubMed database and selected for inclusion based on novelty and uniqueness of their approach. Expert Opinion: Lung tissue bioengineering research is in the early stages. Of the methods reviewed, only direct cell therapy has been investigated in humans. We anticipate a minimum of 5-10 years before human therapy will be feasible.

Evidence for the important role of inflammation in xenotransplantation

There is increasing evidence of a sustained state of systemic inflammation after pig-to-nonhuman primate (NHP) xenotransplantation (that has been termed systemic inflammation in xenograft recipients [SIXR]). Increases in inflammatory markers, e.g., C-reactive protein, histones, serum amyloid A, D-dimer, cytokines, chemokines, and a decrease in free triiodothyronine, have been demonstrated in the recipient NHPs. The complex interactions between inflammation, coagulation, and the immune response are well-recognized, but the role of inflammation in xenograft recipients is not fully understood. The evidence suggests that inflammation can promote the activation of coagulation and the adaptive immune response, but the exact mechanisms remain uncertain. If prolonged xenograft survival is to be achieved, anti-inflammatory strategies (e.g., the administration of anti-inflammatory agents, and/or the generation of genetically-engineered organ-source pigs that are protected from the effect of inflammation) may be necessary to prevent, control, or negate the effect of the systemic inflammation that develops in xenograft recipients. This may allow for a reduction in the intensity of exogenous immunosuppressive therapy. If immunological tolerance to a xenograft is to be obtained, then control of inflammation may be essential.

Justification of specific genetic modifications in pigs for clinical organ xenotransplantation

Xenotransplantation research has made considerable progress in recent years, largely through the increasing availability of pigs with multiple genetic modifications. We suggest that a pig with nine genetic modifications (ie, currently available) will provide organs (initially kidneys and hearts) that would function for a clinically valuable period of time, for example, >12 months, after transplantation into patients with end-stage organ failure. The national regulatory authorities, however, will likely require evidence, based on in vitro and/or in vivo experimental data, to justify the inclusion of each individual genetic modification in the pig. We provide data both from our own experience and that of others on the advantages of pigs in which (a) all three known carbohydrate xenoantigens have been deleted (triple-knockout pigs), (b) two human complement-regulatory proteins (CD46, CD55) and two human coagulation-regulatory proteins (thrombomodulin, endothelial cell protein C receptor) are expressed, (c) the anti-apoptotic and "anti-inflammatory" molecule, human hemeoxygenase-1 is expressed, and (d) human CD47 is expressed to suppress elements of the macrophage and T-cell responses. Although many alternative genetic modifications could be made to an organ-source pig, we suggest that the genetic manipulations we identify above will all contribute to the success of the initial clinical pig kidney or heart transplants, and that the beneficial contribution of each individual manipulation is supported by considerable experimental evidence.

Diagnosis, Pathophysiology and Experimental Models of Chronic Lung Allograft Rejection

Chronic rejection is the Achilles heel of modern lung transplantation, characterized by a slow, progressive decline in allograft function. Clinically, this manifests as obstructive disease, restrictive disease, or a mixture of the 2 depending on the underlying pathology. The 2 major phenotypes of chronic rejection include bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome and restrictive allograft syndrome. The last decade of research has revealed that each of these phenotypes has a unique underlying pathophysiology which may require a distinct treatment regimen for optimal control. Insights into the intricate alloimmune pathways contributing to chronic rejection have been gained from both large and small animal models, suggesting directions for future research. In this review, we explore the pathological hallmarks of chronic rejection, recent insights gained from both clinical and basic science research, and the current state of animal models of chronic lung rejection.

Emerging approaches and technologies in transplantation: the potential game changers

Newly emerging technologies are rapidly changing conventional approaches to organ transplantation. In the modern era, the key challenges to transplantation include (1) how to best individualize and possibly eliminate the need for life-long immunosuppression and (2) how to expand the donor pool suitable for human transplantation. This article aims to provide readers with an updated review of three new technologies that address these challenges. First, single-cell RNA sequencing technology is rapidly evolving and has recently been employed in settings related to transplantation. The new sequencing data indicate an unprecedented cellular heterogeneity within organ transplants, as well as exciting new molecular signatures involved in alloimmune responses. Second, sophisticated nanotechnology platforms provide a means of therapeutically delivering immune modulating reagents to promote transplant tolerance. Tolerogenic nanoparticles with regulatory molecules and donor antigens are capable of targeting host immune responses with tremendous precision, which, in some cases, results in donor-specific tolerance. Third, CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology has the potential to precisely remove immunogenic molecules while inserting desirable regulatory molecules. This technology is particularly useful in generating genetically modified pigs for xenotransplantation to solve the issue of the shortage of human organs. Collectively, these new technologies are positioning the transplant community for major breakthroughs that will significantly advance transplant medicine.

Overcoming Coagulation Dysregulation in Pig Solid Organ Transplantation in Nonhuman Primates: Recent Progress

There has recently been considerable progress in the results of pig organ transplantation in nonhuman primates, largely associated with the availability of (i) pigs genetically engineered to overcome coagulation dysregulation, and (ii) novel immunosuppressive agents. The barriers of thrombotic microangiopathy and/or consumptive coagulation were believed to be associated with (i) activation of the graft vascular endothelial cells by a low level of antipig antibody binding and/or complement deposition and/or innate immune cell activity, and (ii) molecular incompatibilities between the nonhuman primate and pig coagulation-anticoagulation systems. The introduction of a human coagulation-regulatory transgene, for example, thrombomodulin, endothelial protein C receptor, into the pig vascular endothelial cells has contributed to preventing a procoagulant state from developing, resulting in a considerable increase in graft survival. In the heterotopic (non-life-supporting) heart transplant model, graft survival has increased from a maximum of 179 days in 2005 to 945 days. After life-supporting kidney transplantation, survival has been extended from 90 days in 2004 to 499 days. In view of the more complex coagulation dysfunction seen after pig liver and, particularly, lung transplantation, progress has been less dramatic, but the maximum survival of a pig liver has been increased from 7 days in 2010 to 29 days, and of a pig lung from 4 days in 2007 to 9 days. There is a realistic prospect that the transplantation of a kidney or heart, in combination with a conventional immunosuppressive regimen, will enable long-term recipient survival.

Xenotransplantation: past, present, and future

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To review the progress in the field of xenotransplantation with special attention to most recent encouraging findings which will eventually bring xenotransplantation to the clinic in the near future.

RECENT FINDINGS

Starting from early 2000, with the introduction of galactose-α1,3-galactose (Gal)-knockout pigs, prolonged survival especially in heart and kidney xenotransplantation was recorded. However, remaining antibody barriers to non-Gal antigens continue to be the hurdle to overcome. The production of genetically engineered pigs was difficult requiring prolonged time. However, advances in gene editing, such as zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases, and most recently clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) technology made the production of genetically engineered pigs easier and available to more researchers. Today, the survival of pig-to-nonhuman primate heterotopic heart, kidney, and islet xenotransplantation reached more than 900, more than 400, and more than 600 days, respectively. The availability of multiple-gene pigs (five or six genetic modifications) and/or newer costimulation blockade agents significantly contributed to this success. Now, the field is getting ready for clinical trials with an international consensus.

SUMMARY

Clinical trials in cellular or solid organ xenotransplantation are getting closer with convincing preclinical data from many centers. The next decade will show us new achievements and additional barriers in clinical xenotransplantation.

Porcine to Human Heart Transplantation: Is Clinical Application Now Appropriate?

Cardiac xenotransplantation (CXTx) is a promising solution to the chronic shortage of donor hearts. Recent advancements in immune suppression have greatly improved the survival of heterotopic CXTx, now extended beyond 2 years, and life-supporting kidney XTx. Advances in donor genetic modification (B4GALNT2 and CMAH mutations) with proven Gal-deficient donors expressing human complement regulatory protein(s) have also accelerated, reducing donor pig organ antigenicity. These advances can now be combined and tested in life-supporting orthotopic preclinical studies in nonhuman primates and immunologically appropriate models confirming their efficacy and safety for a clinical CXTx program. Preclinical studies should also allow for organ rejection to develop xenospecific assays and therapies to reverse rejection. The complexity of future clinical CXTx presents a substantial and unique set of regulatory challenges which must be addressed to avoid delay; however, dependent on these prospective life-supporting preclinical studies in NHPs, it appears that the scientific path forward is well defined and the era of clinical CXTx is approaching.

Production and Breeding of Transgenic Cloned Pigs Expressing Human CD73

One of the reasons to causing blood coagulation in the tissue of xenografted organs was known to incompatibility of the blood coagulation and anti-coagulation regulatory system between TG pigs and primates. Thus, overexpression of human CD73 (hCD73) in the pig endothelial cells is considered as a method to reduce coagulopathy after pig-to-non-human-primate xenotransplantation. This study was performed to produce and breed transgenic pigs expressing hCD73 for the studies immune rejection responses and could provide a successful application of xenotransplantation. The transgenic cells were constructed an hCD73 expression vector under control porcine Icam2 promoter (pIcam2-hCD73) and established donor cell lines expressing hCD73. The numbers of transferred reconstructed embryos were 127 ± 18.9. The pregnancy and delivery rate of surrogates were 8/18 (44%) and 3/18 (16%). The total number of delivered cloned pigs were 10 (2 alive, 7 mummy, and 1 died after birth). Among them, three live hCD73-pigs were successfully delivered by Caesarean section, but one was dead after birth. The two hCD73 TG cloned pigs had normal reproductive ability. They mated with wild type (WT) MGH (Massachusetts General Hospital) female sows and produced totally 16 piglets. Among them, 5 piglets were identified as hCD73 TG pigs. In conclusion, we successfully generated the hCD73 transgenic cloned pigs and produced their litters by natural mating. It can be possible to use a mate for the production of multiple transgenic pigs such as α-1,3-galactosyltransferase knock-out /hCD46 for xenotransplantation.

Pig Liver Xenotransplantation: A Review of Progress Toward the Clinic

Experience with clinical liver xenotransplantation has largely involved the transplantation of livers from nonhuman primates. Experience with pig livers has been scarce. This brief review will be restricted to assessing the potential therapeutic impact of pig liver xenotransplantation in acute liver failure and the remaining barriers that currently do not justify clinical trials. A relatively new surgical technique of heterotopic pig liver xenotransplantation is described that might play a role in bridging a patient with acute liver failure until either the native liver recovers or a suitable liver allograft is obtained. Other topics discussed include the possible mechanisms for the development of the thrombocytopenis that rapidly occurs after pig liver xenotransplantation in a primate, the impact of pig complement on graft injury, the potential infectious risks, and potential physiologic incompatibilities between pig and human. There is cautious optimism that all of these problems can be overcome by judicious genetic manipulation of the pig. If liver graft survival could be achieved in the absence of thrombocytopenia or rejection for a period of even a few days, there may be a role for pig liver transplantation as a bridge to allotransplantation in carefully selected patients.

Immunological and physiological observations in baboons with life-supporting genetically engineered pig kidney grafts

BACKGROUND

Genetically engineered pigs could provide a source of kidneys for clinical transplantation. The two longest kidney graft survivals reported to date have been 136 and 310 days, but graft survival >30 days has been unusual until recently.

METHODS

Donor pigs (n=4) were on an α1,3-galactosyltransferase gene-knockout (GTKO)/human complement regulatory protein (CD46) background (GTKO/CD46). In addition, the pigs were transgenic for at least one human coagulation regulatory protein. Two baboons received a kidney from a six-gene pig (GroupA) and two from a three-gene pig (GroupB). Immunosuppressive therapy was identical in all four cases and consisted of anti-thymoglobulin (ATG)+anti-CD20mAb (induction) and anti-CD40mAb+rapamycin+corticosteroids (maintenance). Anti-TNF-α and anti-IL-6R mAbs were administered to reduce the inflammatory response. Baboons were followed by clinical/laboratory monitoring of immune/coagulation/inflammatory/physiological parameters. At biopsy or euthanasia, the grafts were examined by microscopy.

RESULTS

The two GroupA baboons remained healthy with normal renal function >7 and >8 months, respectively, but then developed infectious complications. However, no features of a consumptive coagulopathy, eg, thrombocytopenia and reduction of fibrinogen, or of a protein-losing nephropathy were observed. There was no evidence of an elicited anti-pig antibody response, and histology of biopsies taken at approximately 4, 6, and 7 months and at necropsy showed no significant abnormalities. In contrast, both GroupB baboons developed features of a consumptive coagulopathy and required euthanasia on day 12.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of (i) a graft from a specific six-gene genetically modified pig, (ii) an effective immunosuppressive regimen, and (iii) anti-inflammatory therapy prevented immune injury, a protein-losing nephropathy, and coagulation dysfunction for >7 months. Although the number of experiments is very limited, our impression is that expression of human endothelial protein C receptor (±CD55) in the graft is important if coagulation dysregulation is to be avoided.

Renal xenotransplantation: experimental progress and clinical prospects

There are >100,000 patients waiting for kidney transplants in the United States and a vast need worldwide. Xenotransplantation, in the form of the transplantation of kidneys from genetically engineered pigs, offers the possibility of overcoming the chronic shortage of deceased and living human donors. These genetic manipulations can take the form of (i) knockout of pig genes that are responsible for the expression of antigens against which the primate (human or nonhuman primate) has natural "preformed" antibodies that bind and initiate complement-mediated destruction or (ii) the insertion of human transgenes that provide protection against the human complement, coagulation, or inflammatory responses. Between 1989 and 2015, pig kidney graft survival in nonhuman primates increased from 23 days to almost 10 months. There appear to be no clinically significant physiological incompatibilities in renal function between pigs and primates. The organ-source pigs will be housed in a biosecure environment, and thus the risk of transferring an exogenous potentially pathogenic microorganism will be less than that after allotransplantation. Although the risk associated with porcine endogenous retroviruses is considered small, techniques are now available whereby they could potentially be excluded from the pig. The US Food and Drug Administration suggests that xenotransplantation should be restricted to "patients with serious or life-threatening diseases for whom adequately safe and effective alternative therapies are not available." These might include those with (i) a high degree of allosensitization to human leukocyte antigens or (ii) rapid recurrence of primary disease in previous allografts. The potential psychosocial, regulatory, and legal aspects of clinical xenotransplantation are briefly discussed.

Generation of α-1,3-galactosyltransferase knocked-out transgenic cloned pigs with knocked-in five human genes

Recent progress in genetic manipulation of pigs designated for xenotransplantation ha6s shown considerable promise on xenograft survival in primates. However, genetic modification of multiple genes in donor pigs by knock-out and knock-in technologies, aiming to enhance immunological tolerance against transplanted organs in the recipients, has not been evaluated for health issues of donor pigs. We produced transgenic Massachusetts General Hospital piglets by knocking-out the α-1,3-galactosyltransferase (GT) gene and by simultaneously knocking-in an expression cassette containing five different human genes including, DAF, CD39, TFPI, C1 inhibitor (C1-INH), and TNFAIP3 (A20) [GT^{−(DAF/CD39/TFPI/C1-INH/TNFAIP3)/+}] that are connected by 2A peptide cleavage sequences to release individual proteins from a single translational product. All five individual protein products were successfully produced as determined by western blotting of umbilical cords from the newborn transgenic pigs. Although gross observation and histological examination revealed no significant pathological abnormality in transgenic piglets, hematological examination found that the transgenic piglets had abnormally low numbers of platelets and WBCs, including neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and lymphocytes. However, transgenic piglets had similar numbers of RBC and values of parameters related to RBC compared to the control littermate piglets. These data suggest that transgenic expression of those human genes in pigs impaired hematopoiesis except for erythropoiesis. In conclusion, our data suggest that transgenic expression of up to five different genes can be efficiently achieved and provide the basis for determining optimal dosages of transgene expression and combinations of the transgenes to warrant production of transgenic donor pigs without health issues.

Technical Aspects and Benefits of Experimental Mouse Lung Transplantation

In recent years, the number of lung transplantations performed as the last option for many respiratory diseases has grown considerably, both in adults and children. However, the causes for the relatively short survival of lungs compared to other organ transplants still need to be studied. Techniques have improved since the 1950s when experimental lung transplantation began, and the different animal species used now include rodents. The advantage of using these small species is that the surgical model has been expanded and standardized, and different respiratory problems can be studied. In this review we examine the different technical strategies used in experimental transplantation in rats and mice, focusing on surgical techniques and anesthesia and monitoring methods, and highlighting the major contributions of mouse lung transplantation to the field.

The pathobiology of pig-to-primate xenotransplantation: a historical review

The immunologic barriers to successful xenotransplantation are related to the presence of natural anti-pig antibodies in humans and non-human primates that bind to antigens expressed on the transplanted pig organ (the most important of which is galactose-α1,3-galactose [Gal]), and activate the complement cascade, which results in rapid destruction of the graft, a process known as hyperacute rejection. High levels of elicited anti-pig IgG may develop if the adaptive immune response is not prevented by adequate immunosuppressive therapy, resulting in activation and injury of the vascular endothelium. The transplantation of organs and cells from pigs that do not express the important Gal antigen (α1,3-galactosyltransferase gene-knockout [GTKO] pigs) and express one or more human complement-regulatory proteins (hCRP, e.g., CD46, CD55), when combined with an effective costimulation blockade-based immunosuppressive regimen, prevents early antibody-mediated and cellular rejection. However, low levels of anti-non-Gal antibody and innate immune cells and/or platelets may initiate the development of a thrombotic microangiopathy in the graft that may be associated with a consumptive coagulopathy in the recipient. This pathogenic process is accentuated by the dysregulation of the coagulation-anticoagulation systems between pigs and primates. The expression in GTKO/hCRP pigs of a human coagulation-regulatory protein, for example, thrombomodulin, is increasingly being associated with prolonged pig graft survival in non-human primates. Initial clinical trials of islet and corneal xenotransplantation are already underway, and trials of pig kidney or heart transplantation are anticipated within the next few years.

The role of genetically engineered pigs in xenotransplantation research

There is a critical shortage in the number of deceased human organs that become available for the purposes of clinical transplantation. This problem might be resolved by the transplantation of organs from pigs genetically engineered to protect them from the human immune response. The pathobiological barriers to successful pig organ transplantation in primates include activation of the innate and adaptive immune systems, coagulation dysregulation and inflammation. Genetic engineering of the pig as an organ source has increased the survival of the transplanted pig heart, kidney, islet and corneal graft in non-human primates (NHPs) from minutes to months or occasionally years. Genetic engineering may also contribute to any physiological barriers that might be identified, as well as to reducing the risks of transfer of a potentially infectious micro-organism with the organ. There are now an estimated 40 or more genetic alterations that have been carried out in pigs, with some pigs expressing five or six manipulations. With the new technology now available, it will become increasingly common for a pig to express even more genetic manipulations, and these could be tested in the pig-to-NHP models to assess their efficacy and benefit. It is therefore likely that clinical trials of pig kidney, heart and islet transplantation will become feasible in the near future.

Current status of pig kidney xenotransplantation

Significant progress in life-supporting kidney xenograft survival in nonhuman primates (NHPs) has been associated largely with the increasing availability of pigs with genetic modifications that protect the pig tissues from the primate immune response and/or correct molecular incompatibilities between pig and primate. Blockade of the CD40/CD154 costimulation pathway with anti-CD154 mAb therapy has contributed to prolongation of kidney xenograft survival, although this agent may not be clinically available. An anti-CD40 mAb-based regimen is proving equally successful, but blockade of the CD28/B7 pathway is inadequate. Severe proteinuria were uniformly documented in the early studies of pig kidney xenotransplantation, but whether this resulted from immune injury or from physiological incompatibilities between the species, or both, remained uncertain. Recent experiments suggest it was related to a continuing immune response. Before 2014, the longest survival of a pig kidney graft in a NHP was 90 days, though graft survival >30 days was unusual. Recently this has been extended to >125 days, without features of a consumptive coagulopathy or a protein-losing nephropathy. In conclusion, overcoming the immune, coagulation, and inflammatory responses by the development of precise genetic modifications in donor pigs, along with effective immunosuppressive and anticoagulant/anti-inflammatory therapy is advancing the field towards clinical trials.

Immunobiological barriers to xenotransplantation

Binding of natural anti-pig antibodies in humans and nonhuman primates to carbohydrate antigens expressed on the transplanted pig organ, the most important of which is galactose-α1,3-galactose (Gal), activate the complement cascade, which results in destruction of the graft within minutes or hours, known as hyperacute rejection. Even if antibody is removed from the recipient's blood by plasmapheresis, recovery of antibody is associated with acute humoral xenograft rejection. If immunosuppressive therapy is inadequate, the development of high levels of T cell-dependent elicited anti-pig IgG similarly results in graft destruction, though classical acute cellular rejection is rarely seen. Vascular endothelial activation by low levels of anti-nonGal antibody, coupled with dysregulation of the coagulation-anticoagulation systems between pigs and primates, leads to a thrombotic microangiopathy in the graft that may be associated with a consumptive coagulopathy in the recipient. The most successful approach to overcoming these barriers is by genetically-engineering the pig to provide it with resistance to the human humoral and cellular immune responses and to correct the coagulation discrepancies between the two species. Organs and cells from pigs that (i) do not express the important Gal antigen, (ii) express a human complement-regulatory protein, and (iii) express a human coagulation-regulatory protein, when combined with an effective immunosuppressive regimen, have been associated with prolonged pig graft survival in nonhuman primates.

Recent advances in understanding xenotransplantation: implications for the clinic

The results of organ and cell allotransplantation continue to improve, but the field remains limited by a lack of deceased donor organs. Xenotransplantation, for example, between pig and human, offers unlimited organs and cells for clinical transplantation. The immune barriers include a strong innate immune response in addition to the adaptive T-cell response. The innate response has largely been overcome by the transplantation of organs from pigs with genetic modifications that protect their tissues from this response. T-cell-mediated rejection can be controlled by immunosuppressive agents that inhibit costimulation. Coagulation dysfunction between the pig and primate remains problematic but is being overcome by the transplantation of organs from pigs that express human coagulation-regulatory proteins. The remaining barriers will be resolved by the introduction of novel genetically-engineered pigs. Limited clinical trials of pig islet and corneal transplantation are already underway.

Pig kidney graft survival in a baboon for 136 days: longest life-supporting organ graft survival to date

The longest survival of a non-human primate with a life-supporting kidney graft to date has been 90 days, although graft survival > 30 days has been unusual. A baboon received a kidney graft from an α-1,3-galactosyltransferase gene-knockout pig transgenic for two human complement-regulatory proteins and three human coagulation-regulatory proteins (although only one was expressed in the kidney). Immunosuppressive therapy was with ATG+anti-CD20mAb (induction) and anti-CD40mAb+rapamycin+corticosteroids (maintenance). Anti-TNF-α and anti-IL-6R were administered. The baboon survived 136 days with a generally stable serum creatinine (0.6 to 1.6 mg/dl) until termination. No features of a consumptive coagulopathy (e.g., thrombocytopenia, decreased fibrinogen) or of a protein-losing nephropathy were observed. There was no evidence of an elicited anti-pig antibody response. Death was from septic shock (Myroides spp). Histology of a biopsy on day 103 was normal, but by day 136, the kidney showed features of glomerular enlargement, thrombi, and mesangial expansion. The combination of (i) a graft from a specific genetically engineered pig, (ii) an effective immunosuppressive regimen, and (iii) anti-inflammatory agents prevented immune injury and a protein-losing nephropathy, and delayed coagulation dysfunction. This outcome encourages us that clinical renal xenotransplantation may become a reality.

MYROIDES INFECTION IN A BABOON AFTER PROLONGED PIG KIDNEY GRAFT SURVIVAL

BACKGROUND

Immunosuppressed patients and experimental nonhuman primates are at risk of opportunistic infection. We report a Myroides spp infection in an immunosuppressed baboon that had received a life-supporting kidney from a genetically-engineered pig.

CASE REPORT

The baboon received a costimulation blockade-based immunosuppressive regimen as well as two anti-inflammatory agents (tocilizumab and etanercept). Although the pig kidney functioned well, approximately four months after the transplant the baboon became less active and ate and drank poorly. On day 136, it collapsed and died despite inotropic and fluid support. A blood culture drawn before death grew Myroides spp.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, Myroides spp has not been reported as a cause of opportunistic infection in either patients with organ allotransplants or experimental animals. We summarize what is known about this rare organism, and suggest it should be considered in any immunocompromised patient or animal. In the present case, we suggest the baboon died of circulatory shock following infection through an indwelling intravenous catheter.

Biological Risks and Laboratory-Acquired Infections: A Reality That Cannot be Ignored in Health Biotechnology

Advances and research in biotechnology have applications over a wide range of areas, such as microbiology, medicine, the food industry, agriculture, genetically modified organisms, and nanotechnology, among others. However, research with pathogenic agents, such as virus, parasites, fungi, rickettsia, bacterial microorganisms, or genetic modified organisms, has generated concern because of their potential biological risk - not only for people, but also for the environment due to their unpredictable behavior. In addition, concern for biosafety is associated with the emergence of new diseases or re-emergence of diseases that were already under control. Biotechnology laboratories require biosafety measures designed to protect their staff, the population, and the environment, which may be exposed to hazardous organisms and materials. Laboratory staff training and education is essential, not only to acquire a good understanding about the direct handling of hazardous biological agents but also knowledge of the epidemiology, pathogenicity, and human susceptibility to the biological materials used in research. Biological risk can be reduced and controlled by the correct application of internationally recognized procedures such as proper microbiological techniques, proper containment apparatus, adequate facilities, protective barriers, and special training and education of laboratory workers. To avoid occupational infections, knowledge about standardized microbiological procedures and techniques and the use of containment devices, facilities, and protective barriers is necessary. Training and education about the epidemiology, pathogenicity, and biohazards of the microorganisms involved may prevent or decrease the risk. In this way, the scientific community may benefit from the lessons learned in the past to anticipate future problems.

Role of xenotransplantation in cardiac transplantation

This review will discuss the history and development of the field of genetic modification, up to the most recent scientific discoveries, and will also consider the current uses of genetic therapy.

Progress in pig-to-non-human primate transplantation models (1998-2013): a comprehensive review of the literature

BACKGROUND

The pig-to-non-human primate model is the standard choice for in vivo studies of organ and cell xenotransplantation. In 1998, Lambrigts and his colleagues surveyed the entire world literature and reported all experimental studies in this model. With the increasing number of genetically engineered pigs that have become available during the past few years, this model is being utilized ever more frequently.

METHODS

We have now reviewed the literature again and have compiled the data we have been able to find for the period January 1, 1998 to December 31, 2013, a period of 16 yr.

RESULTS

The data are presented for transplants of the heart (heterotopic and orthotopic), kidney, liver, lung, islets, neuronal cells, hepatocytes, corneas, artery patches, and skin. Heart, kidney, and, particularly, islet xenograft survival have increased significantly since 1998.

DISCUSSION

The reasons for this are briefly discussed. A comment on the limitations of the model has been made, particularly with regard to those that will affect progression of xenotransplantation toward the clinic.

The role of platelets in coagulation dysfunction in xenotransplantation, and therapeutic options

Xenotransplantation could resolve the increasing discrepancy between the availability of deceased human donor organs and the demand for transplantation. Most advances in this field have resulted from the introduction of genetically engineered pigs, e.g., α1,3-galactosyltransferase gene-knockout (GTKO) pigs transgenic for one or more human complement-regulatory proteins (e.g., CD55, CD46, CD59). Failure of these grafts has not been associated with the classical features of acute humoral xenograft rejection, but with the development of thrombotic microangiopathy in the graft and/or consumptive coagulopathy in the recipient. Although the precise mechanisms of coagulation dysregulation remain unclear, molecular incompatibilities between primate coagulation factors and pig natural anticoagulants exacerbate the thrombotic state within the xenograft vasculature. Platelets play a crucial role in thrombosis and contribute to the coagulation disorder in xenotransplantation. They are therefore important targets if this barrier is to be overcome. Further genetic manipulation of the organ-source pigs, such as pigs that express one or more coagulation-regulatory genes (e.g., thrombomodulin, endothelial protein C receptor, tissue factor pathway inhibitor, CD39), is anticipated to inhibit platelet activation and the generation of thrombus. In addition, adjunctive pharmacologic anti-platelet therapy may be required. The genetic manipulations that are currently being tested are reviewed, as are the potential pharmacologic agents that may prove beneficial.

New concepts of immune modulation in xenotransplantation

The shortage of human organs for transplantation has focused research on the possibility of transplanting pig organs into humans. Many factors contribute to the failure of a pig organ graft in a primate. A rapid innate immune response (natural anti-pig antibody, complement activation, and an innate cellular response; e.g., neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and natural killer cells) is followed by an adaptive immune response, although T-cell infiltration of the graft has rarely been reported. Other factors (e.g., coagulation dysregulation and inflammation) appear to play a significantly greater role than in allotransplantation. The immune responses to a pig xenograft cannot therefore be controlled simply by suppression of T-cell activity. Before xenotransplantation can be introduced successfully into the clinic, the problems of the innate, coagulopathic, and inflammatory responses will have to be overcome, most likely by the transplantation of organs from genetically engineered pigs. Many of the genetic manipulations aimed at protecting against these responses also reduce the adaptive response. The T-cell and elicited antibody responses can be prevented by the biological and/or pharmacologic agents currently available, in particular, by costimulation blockade-based regimens. The exogenous immunosuppressive regimen may be significantly reduced by the presence of a graft from a pig transgenic for a mutant (human) class II transactivator gene, resulting in down-regulation of swine leukocyte antigen class II expression, or from a pig with "local" vascular endothelial cell expression of an immunosuppressive gene (e.g., CTLA4-Ig). The immunomodulatory efficacy of regulatory T cells or mesenchymal stromal cells has been demonstrated in vitro but not yet in vivo.

The potential of genetically-engineered pigs in providing an alternative source of organs and cells for transplantation

There is a critical shortage of organs, cells, and corneas from deceased human donors worldwide. There are also shortages of human blood for transfusion. A potential solution to all of these problems is the transplantation of organs, cells, and corneas from a readily available animal species, such as the pig, and the transfusion of red blood cells from pigs into humans. However, to achieve these ends, major immunologic and other barriers have to be overcome. Considerable progress has been made in this respect by the genetic modification of pigs to protect their tissues from the primate immune response and to correct several molecular incompatibilities that exist between pig and primate. These have included knockout of genes responsible for the expression of major antigenic targets for primate natural anti-pig antibodies, insertion of human complement- and coagulation-regulatory transgenes, and knockdown of swine leukocyte antigens that stimulate the primate's adaptive immune response. As a result of these manipulations, the administration of novel immunosuppressive agents, and other innovations, pig hearts have now functioned in baboons for 6-8 months, pig islets have maintained normoglycemia in diabetic monkeys for > 1 year, and pig corneas have maintained transparency for several months. Clinical trials of pig islet transplantation are already in progress. Future developments will involve further genetic manipulations of the organ-source pig, with most of the genes that are likely to be beneficial already identified.

Pathologic characteristics of transplanted kidney xenografts

For xenotransplantation to become a clinical reality, we need to better understand the mechanisms of graft rejection or acceptance. We examined pathologic changes in α1,3-galactosyltransferase gene-knockout pig kidneys transplanted into baboons that were treated with a protocol designed to induce immunotolerance through thymic transplantation (n=4) or were treated with long-term immunosuppressants (n=3). Hyperacute rejection did not occur in α1,3-galactosyltransferase gene-knockout kidney xenografts. By 34 days, acute humoral rejection led to xenograft loss in all three xenografts in the long-term immunosuppression group. The failing grafts exhibited thrombotic microangiopathic glomerulopathy with multiple platelet-fibrin microthrombi, focal interstitial hemorrhage, and acute cellular xenograft rejection. Damaged glomeruli showed IgM, IgG, C4d, and C5b-9 deposition. They also demonstrated endothelial cell death, diffuse endothelial procoagulant activation with high expression of tissue factor and vWF, and low expression of the ectonucleotidase CD39. In contrast, in the immunotolerance group, two of four grafts had normal graft function and no pathologic findings of acute or chronic rejection at 56 and 83 days. One of the remaining kidneys had mild but transient graft dysfunction with reversible, mild microangiopathic glomerulopathy, probably associated with preformed antibodies. The other kidney in the immunotolerance group developed unstable graft function at 81 days and developed chronic xenograft glomerulopathy. In summary, the success of pig-to-primate xenotransplantation may necessitate immune tolerance to inhibit acute humoral and cellular xenograft rejection.

Histopathology of xenografts in pig to non-human primate discordant xenotransplantation

Xenotransplantation could provide a solution to the critical shortage of organs for transplantation in humans. Swine have been proposed as a suitable donor species. Swine organs, however, when transplanted to primates, are rapidly rejected by hyperacute rejection (HAR) and acute humoral xenograft rejection (AHXR). Both HAR and AHXR are triggered by xenoreactive natural antibodies directed against a specific epitope (galactose alpha1-3 galactose: Gal) on porcine vascular endothelium. In attempt to prevent HAR and AHXR, alpha1,3-galactosyltransferase gene knockout (GalT-KO) pigs have been produced. GalT-KO pig organs do not express the Gal epitope (antigen), and it therefore can eliminate the anti-Gal antibody--Gal antigen immunoreaction in xenotransplantation. We reported our initial study of kidney transplantation from GalT-KO miniature swine to baboons with either immunosuppression protocol or with a tolerance inducing protocol. Here, we discussed the pathology of xenografts in GalT-KO pig to non-human primate kidney transplantation.

64-channel multi-detector row CT angiographic evaluation of the micropigs for potential living donor lung transplantation

Micropigs are the most likely source animals for xenotransplantation. However, an appropriate method for evaluating the lung of micropigs had not been established. Therefore, this study was performed to evaluate the feasibility of 64-channel multi-detector row computed tomography (MDCT) to measure the diameter of the pulmonary arteries and the lung volume in micropigs. The mean diameters of the trachea, and left and right bronchi were 1.6 ± 0.17, 1.18 ± 0.14, and 1.1 ± 0.11 cm, respectively. The mean diameters of the main, right, and left pulmonary arteries were 1.38 ± 0.09, 1.07 ± 0.26, and 0.98 ± 0.13 cm and the diameters of right, left, and common inferior pulmonary veins were 0.97 ± 0.20, 0.76 ± 0.20, and 1.99 ± 0.26 cm, respectively. The mean lung volume was 820.3 ± 77.11 mL. The data presented in this study suggest that the MDCT may be a noninvasive, rapid, and accurate investigational method for pulmonary anatomy in living lung donors.