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Jiang Y, Sleigh J. Consciousness and General Anesthesia: Challenges for Measuring the Depth of Anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2024; 140:313-328. [PMID: 38193734 DOI: 10.1097/aln.0000000000004830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
The optimal consciousness level required for general anesthesia with surgery is unclear, but in existing practice, anesthetic oblivion, may be incomplete. This article discusses the concept of consciousness, how it is altered by anesthetics, the challenges for assessing consciousness, currently used technologies for assessing anesthesia levels, and future research directions. Wakefulness is marked by a subjective experience of existence (consciousness), perception of input from the body or the environment (connectedness), the ability for volitional responsiveness, and a sense of continuity in time. Anesthetic drugs may selectively impair some of these components without complete extinction of the subjective experience of existence. In agreement with Sanders et al. (2012), the authors propose that a state of disconnected consciousness is the optimal level of anesthesia, as it likely avoids both awareness and the possible dangers of oversedation. However, at present, there are no reliably tested indices that can discriminate between connected consciousness, disconnected consciousness, and complete unconsciousness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yandong Jiang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Jamie Sleigh
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Auckland, Hamilton, New Zealand
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2
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Hassanzadeh E, Hornak A, Hassanzadeh M, Warfield SK, Pearl PL, Bolton J, Suarez R, Stone S, Stufflebeam S, Ailion AS. Comparison of fMRI language laterality with and without sedation in pediatric epilepsy. Neuroimage Clin 2023; 38:103448. [PMID: 37285796 PMCID: PMC10250119 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2023.103448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Functional MRI is an essential component of presurgical language mapping. In clinical settings, young children may be sedated for the MRI with the functional stimuli presented passively. Research has found that sedation changes language activation in healthy adults and children. However, there is limited research comparing sedated and unsedated functional MRI in pediatric epilepsy patients. We compared language activation patterns in children with epilepsy who received sedation for functional MRI to the ones who did not. We retrospectively identified the patients with focal epilepsy who underwent presurgical functional MRI including Auditory Descriptive Decision Task at Boston Children's Hospital from 2014 to 2022. Patients were divided into sedated and awake groups, based on their sedation status during functional MRI. Auditory Descriptive Decision Task stimuli were presented passively to the sedated group per clinical protocol. We extracted language activation maps contrasted against a control task (reverse speech) in the Frontal and Temporal language regions and calculated separate language laterality indexes for each region. We considered positive laterality indexes as left dominant, negative laterality indexes as right dominant, and absolute laterality indexes <0.2 as bilateral. We defined 2 language patterns: typical (i.e., primarily left-sided) and atypical. Typical pattern required at least one left dominant region (either frontal or temporal) and no right dominant region. We then compared the language patterns between the sedated and awake groups. Seventy patients met the inclusion criteria, 25 sedated, and 45 awake. Using the Auditory Descriptive Decision Task paradigm, when adjusted for age, handedness, gender, and laterality of lesion in a weighted logistic regression model, the odds of the atypical pattern were 13.2 times higher in the sedated group compared to the awake group (Confidence Interval: 2.55-68.41, p-value < 0.01). Sedation may alter language activation patterns in pediatric epilepsy patients. Language patterns on sedated functional MRI with passive tasks may not represent language networks during wakefulness, sedation may differentially suppress some networks, or require a different task or method of analysis to capture the awake language network. Given the critical surgical implication of these findings, additional studies are needed to better understand how sedation impacts the functional MRI blood oxygenation level-dependent signal. Consistent with current practice, sedated functional MRI should be interpreted with greater caution and requires additional validation as well as research on post-surgical language outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elmira Hassanzadeh
- Neuroradiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02116, USA.
| | - Alena Hornak
- Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02116, USA
| | | | - Simon K Warfield
- Radiology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02116, USA
| | - Phillip L Pearl
- Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02116, USA
| | - Jeffrey Bolton
- Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02116, USA
| | - Ralph Suarez
- Radiology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02116, USA
| | - Scellig Stone
- Neurosurgery, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02116, USA
| | - Steve Stufflebeam
- Neuroradiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02116, USA
| | - Alyssa S Ailion
- Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 02116, USA
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Lawn T, Martins D, O'Daly O, Williams S, Howard M, Dipasquale O. The effects of propofol anaesthesia on molecular-enriched networks during resting-state and naturalistic listening. Neuroimage 2023; 271:120018. [PMID: 36935083 PMCID: PMC10410200 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Placing a patient in a state of anaesthesia is crucial for modern surgical practice. However, the mechanisms by which anaesthetic drugs, such as propofol, impart their effects on consciousness remain poorly understood. Propofol potentiates GABAergic transmission, which purportedly has direct actions on cortex as well as indirect actions via ascending neuromodulatory systems. Functional imaging studies to date have been limited in their ability to unravel how these effects on neurotransmission impact the system-level dynamics of the brain. Here, we leveraged advances in multi-modal imaging, Receptor-Enriched Analysis of functional Connectivity by Targets (REACT), to investigate how different levels of propofol-induced sedation alter neurotransmission-related functional connectivity (FC), both at rest and when individuals are exposed to naturalistic auditory stimulation. Propofol increased GABA-A- and noradrenaline transporter-enriched FC within occipital and somatosensory regions respectively. Additionally, during auditory stimulation, the network related to the dopamine transporter showed reduced FC within bilateral regions of temporal and mid/posterior cingulate cortices, with the right temporal cluster showing an interaction between auditory stimulation and level of consciousness. In bringing together these micro- and macro-scale systems, we provide support for both direct GABAergic and indirect noradrenergic and dopaminergic-related network changes under propofol sedation. Further, we delineate a cognition-related reconfiguration of the dopaminergic network, highlighting the utility of REACT to explore the molecular substrates of consciousness and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Lawn
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's college London, London, UK.
| | - Daniel Martins
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's college London, London, UK
| | - Owen O'Daly
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's college London, London, UK
| | - Steve Williams
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's college London, London, UK
| | - Matthew Howard
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's college London, London, UK
| | - Ottavia Dipasquale
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's college London, London, UK
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4
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Xu M, Bo B, Pei M, Chen Y, Shu CY, Qin Q, Hirschler L, Warnking JM, Barbier EL, Wei Z, Lu H, Herman P, Hyder F, Liu ZJ, Liang Z, Thompson GJ. High-resolution relaxometry-based calibrated fMRI in murine brain: Metabolic differences between awake and anesthetized states. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2022; 42:811-825. [PMID: 34910894 PMCID: PMC9014688 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x211062279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) techniques using the blood-oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal have shown great potential as clinical biomarkers of disease. Thus, using these techniques in preclinical rodent models is an urgent need. Calibrated fMRI is a promising technique that can provide high-resolution mapping of cerebral oxygen metabolism (CMRO2). However, calibrated fMRI is difficult to use in rodent models for several reasons: rodents are anesthetized, stimulation-induced changes are small, and gas challenges induce noisy CMRO2 predictions. We used, in mice, a relaxometry-based calibrated fMRI method which uses cerebral blood flow (CBF) and the BOLD-sensitive magnetic relaxation component, R2', the same parameter derived in the deoxyhemoglobin-dilution model of calibrated fMRI. This method does not use any gas challenges, which we tested on mice in both awake and anesthetized states. As anesthesia induces a whole-brain change, our protocol allowed us to overcome the former limitations of rodent studies using calibrated fMRI. We revealed 1.5-2 times higher CMRO2, dependent upon brain region, in the awake state versus the anesthetized state. Our results agree with alternative measurements of whole-brain CMRO2 in the same mice and previous human anesthesia studies. The use of calibrated fMRI in rodents has much potential for preclinical fMRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyang Xu
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China.,Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Binshi Bo
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Sciences and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Mengchao Pei
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Sciences and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuyan Chen
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Sciences and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Christina Y Shu
- Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.,Magnetic Resonance Research Center (MRRC), Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Qikai Qin
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China.,Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Lydiane Hirschler
- Grenoble Institut des Neurosciences, Inserm, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France.,C.J. Gorter Center for High Field MRI, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jan M Warnking
- Grenoble Institut des Neurosciences, Inserm, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
| | - Emmanuel L Barbier
- Grenoble Institut des Neurosciences, Inserm, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
| | - Zhiliang Wei
- Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,F. M. Kirby Research Center for Functional Brain Imaging, Kennedy Krieger Research Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hanzhang Lu
- Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,F. M. Kirby Research Center for Functional Brain Imaging, Kennedy Krieger Research Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Peter Herman
- Magnetic Resonance Research Center (MRRC), Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.,Quantitative Neuroscience with Magnetic Resonance (QNMR) Core Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.,Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Fahmeed Hyder
- Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.,Magnetic Resonance Research Center (MRRC), Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.,Quantitative Neuroscience with Magnetic Resonance (QNMR) Core Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.,Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Zhi-Jie Liu
- iHuman Institute, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China.,Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhifeng Liang
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Sciences and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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Green S, Karunakaran KD, Labadie R, Kussman B, Mizrahi-Arnaud A, Morad AG, Berry D, Zurakowski D, Micheli L, Peng K, Borsook D. fNIRS brain measures of ongoing nociception during surgical incisions under anesthesia. NEUROPHOTONICS 2022; 9:015002. [PMID: 35111876 PMCID: PMC8794294 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.9.1.015002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Significance: Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) has evaluated pain in awake and anesthetized states. Aim: We evaluated fNIRS signals under general anesthesia in patients undergoing knee surgery for anterior cruciate ligament repair. Approach: Patients were split into groups: those with regional nerve block (NB) and those without (non-NB). Continuous fNIRS measures came from three regions: the primary somatosensory cortex (S1), known to be involved in evaluation of nociception, the lateral prefrontal cortex (BA9), and the polar frontal cortex (BA10), both involved in higher cortical functions (such as cognition and emotion). Results: Our results show three significant differences in fNIRS signals to incision procedures between groups: (1) NB compared with non-NB was associated with a greater net positive hemodynamic response to pain procedures in S1; (2) dynamic correlation between the prefrontal cortex (PreFC) and S1 within 1 min of painful procedures are anticorrelated in NB while positively correlated in non-NB; and (3) hemodynamic measures of activation were similar at two separate time points during surgery (i.e., first and last incisions) in PreFC and S1 but showed significant differences in their overlap. Comparing pain levels immediately after surgery and during discharge from postoperative care revealed no significant differences in the pain levels between NB and non-NB. Conclusion: Our data suggest multiple pain events that occur during surgery using devised algorithms could potentially give a measure of "pain load." This may allow for evaluation of central sensitization (i.e., a heightened state of the nervous system where noxious and non-noxious stimuli is perceived as painful) to postoperative pain levels and the resulting analgesic consumption. This evaluation could potentially predict postsurgical chronic neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Green
- Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, The Center for Pain and the Brain, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Keerthana Deepti Karunakaran
- Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, The Center for Pain and the Brain, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Robert Labadie
- Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, The Center for Pain and the Brain, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Barry Kussman
- Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Division of Cardiac Anesthesia, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Arielle Mizrahi-Arnaud
- Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Division of Perioperative Anesthesia, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Andrea Gomez Morad
- Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Division of Perioperative Anesthesia, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Delany Berry
- Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, The Center for Pain and the Brain, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - David Zurakowski
- Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Division of Biostatistics, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Lyle Micheli
- Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Sports Medicine Division, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Ke Peng
- Université de Montréal, Département en Neuroscience, Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - David Borsook
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Departments of Psychiatry and Radiology, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
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Wang J, Jing B, Liu R, Li D, Wang W, Wang J, Lei J, Xing Y, Yan J, Loh HH, Lu G, Yang X. Characterizing the seizure onset zone and epileptic network using EEG-fMRI in a rat seizure model. Neuroimage 2021; 237:118133. [PMID: 33951515 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Accurate epileptogenic zone (EZ) or seizure onset zone (SOZ) localization is crucial for epilepsy surgery optimization. Previous animal and human studies on epilepsy have reported that changes in blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signals induced by epileptic events could be used as diagnostic markers for EZ or SOZ localization. Simultaneous electroencephalography and functional magnetic resonance imaging (EEG-fMRI) recording is gaining interest as a non-invasive tool for preoperative epilepsy evaluation. However, EEG-fMRI studies have reported inconsistent and ambiguous findings. Therefore, it remains unclear whether BOLD responses can be used for accurate EZ or SOZ localization. In this study, we used simultaneous EEG-fMRI recording in a rat model of 4-aminopyridine-induced acute focal seizures to assess the spatial concordance between individual BOLD responses and the SOZ. This was to determine the optimal use of simultaneous EEG-fMRI recording in the SOZ localization. We observed a high spatial consistency between BOLD responses and the SOZ. Further, dynamic BOLD responses were consistent with the regions where the seizures were propagated. These results suggested that simultaneous EEG-fMRI recording could be used as a noninvasive clinical diagnostic technique for localizing the EZ or SOZ and could be an effective tool for mapping epileptic networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junling Wang
- Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China; Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Beijing, China; Neuroelectrophysiological Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Jing
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ru Liu
- Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China; Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Beijing, China; Neuroelectrophysiological Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Donghong Li
- Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China; Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Beijing, China; Neuroelectrophysiological Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China; Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Beijing, China; Neuroelectrophysiological Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaoyang Wang
- Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China; Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Beijing, China; Neuroelectrophysiological Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jianfeng Lei
- Core Facilities Center, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yue Xing
- Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China; Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Beijing, China; Neuroelectrophysiological Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaqing Yan
- College of Electrical and Control Engineering, North China University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Horace H Loh
- Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guangming Lu
- Department of Medical Imaging, Jinling Hospital, Southern Medical University, Nanjing, China; Department of Medical Imaging, Jinling Hospital, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaofeng Yang
- Bioland Laboratory, Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, China; Laboratory of Brain Disorders, Ministry of Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing Institute of Brain Disorders, Beijing, China; Neuroelectrophysiological Laboratory, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
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Developmental outcomes of early adverse care on amygdala functional connectivity in nonhuman primates. Dev Psychopathol 2021; 32:1579-1596. [PMID: 33427167 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579420001133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Despite the strong link between childhood maltreatment and psychopathology, the underlying neurodevelopmental mechanisms are poorly understood and difficult to disentangle from heritable and prenatal factors. This study used a translational macaque model of infant maltreatment in which the adverse experience occurs in the first months of life, during intense maturation of amygdala circuits important for stress and emotional regulation. Thus, we examined the developmental impact of maltreatment on amygdala functional connectivity (FC) longitudinally, from infancy through the juvenile period. Using resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) we performed amygdala-prefrontal cortex (PFC) region-of-interest and exploratory whole-brain amygdala FC analyses. The latter showed (a) developmental increases in amygdala FC with many regions, likely supporting increased processing of socioemotional-relevant stimuli with age; and (b) maltreatment effects on amygdala coupling with arousal and stress brain regions (locus coeruleus, laterodorsal tegmental area) that emerged with age. Maltreated juveniles showed weaker FC than controls, which was negatively associated with infant hair cortisol concentrations. Findings from the region-of-interest analysis also showed weaker amygdala FC with PFC regions in maltreated animals than controls since infancy, whereas bilateral amygdala FC was stronger in maltreated animals. These effects on amygdala FC development may underlie the poor behavioral outcomes associated with this adverse experience.
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Regular exposure to a Citrus-based sensory functional food ingredient alleviates the BOLD brain responses to acute pharmacological stress in a pig model of psychosocial chronic stress. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0243893. [PMID: 33370353 PMCID: PMC7769264 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychosocial chronic stress is a critical risk factor for the development of mood disorders. However, little is known about the consequences of acute stress in the context of chronic stress, and about the related brain responses. In the present study we examined the physio-behavioural effects of a supplementation with a sensory functional food ingredient (FI) containing Citrus sinensis extract (D11399, Phodé, France) in a pig psychosocial chronic stress model. Female pigs underwent a 5- to 6-week stress protocol while receiving daily the FI (FI, n = 10) or a placebo (Sham, n = 10). We performed pharmacological magnetic resonance imaging (phMRI) to study the brain responses to an acute stress (injection of Synacthen®, a synthetic ACTH-related agonist) and to the FI odour with or without previous chronic supplementation. The olfactory stimulation with the ingredient elicited higher brain responses in FI animals, demonstrating memory retrieval and habituation to the odour. Pharmacological stress with Synacthen injection resulted in an increased activity in several brain regions associated with arousal, associative learning (hippocampus) and cognition (cingulate cortex) in chronically stressed animals. This highlighted the specific impact of acute stress on the brain. These responses were alleviated in animals previously supplemented by the FI during the entire chronic stress exposure. As chronic stress establishes upon the accumulation of acute stress events, any attenuation of the brain responses to acute stress can be interpreted as a beneficial effect, suggesting that FI could be a viable treatment to help individuals coping with repeated stressful events and eventually to reduce chronic stress. This study provides additional evidence on the potential benefits of this FI, of which the long-term consequences in terms of behaviour and physiology need to be further investigated.
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Godfrey JR, Pincus M, Kovacs-Balint Z, Feczko E, Earl E, Miranda-Dominguez O, Fair DA, Jones SR, Locke J, Sanchez MM, Wilson ME, Michopoulos V. Obesogenic diet-associated C-reactive protein predicts reduced central dopamine and corticostriatal functional connectivity in female rhesus monkeys. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 88:166-173. [PMID: 32240763 PMCID: PMC7416544 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.03.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations in dopamine (DA) signaling and reductions in functional connectivity (FC; a measure of temporal correlations of activity between different brain regions) within dopaminergic reward pathways are implicated in the etiology of psychopathology and have been associated with increased concentrations of inflammatory markers, including C-reactive protein. Peripheral and central inflammatory cytokines that have been shown to disrupt DA signaling and corticostriatal FC are associated with C-reactive protein, an acute phase reactant that is used translationally as a marker of systemic inflammation. One factor that can significantly increase systemic inflammation to produce neuroadaptations in reward pathways is a diet that results in fat mass accumulation (e.g. obesogenic diet). The current study in female rhesus monkeys maintained in a standard laboratory chow (n = 18) or on obesogenic diet (n = 16) for 12-months tested the hypothesis that an obesogenic diet would alter central DA and homovanillic acid (HVA) concentrations, and be associated with increased CRP concentrations and decreased FC between corticostriatal regions at 12-months following dietary intervention. We specifically assessed FC between the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) and two sub-regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) previously associated with CRP concentrations, the ventromedial PFC (vmPFC) and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), which are also involved in emotional and motivational salience assessment, and in goal-directed behavior, impulse control and the salience/value of food, respectively. Results showed that CSF DA concentrations were decreased (p = 0.002), HVA:DA ratios were increased (p = 0.016), and body mass index was increased (p = 0.047) over the 12-months of consuming an obesogenic diet. At 12-months, females maintained in the obesogenic diet exhibited higher CRP concentrations than females consuming chow-only (p = 0.008). Linear regression analyses revealed significant CRP by dietary condition interactions on DA concentrations (β = -5.10; p = 0.017) and HVA:DA ratios (β = 5.14; p = 0.029). Higher CRP concentrations were associated with lower CSF DA concentrations (r = -0.69; p = 0.004) and greater HVA:DA ratios only in females maintained in the obesogenic dietary condition (r = 0.58; p = 0.024). Resting-state magnetic resonance neuroimaging (rs-fMRI) in a subset of females from each diet condition (n = 8) at 12-months showed that higher CRP concentrations were associated decreased FC between the NAcc and subregions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC; p's < 0.05). Decreased FC between the NAcc and PFC subregions were also associated with lower concentrations of DA and greater HVA:DA ratios (p's < 0.05). Overall, these data suggest that increased inflammatory signaling driving heightened CRP levels may mediate the adverse consequences of obesogenic diets on DA neurochemistry and corticostriatal connectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Eric Feczko
- Department Of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Eric Earl
- Department Of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
| | | | - Damien A. Fair
- Department Of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Sara R. Jones
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC
| | - Jason Locke
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC
| | - Mar M. Sanchez
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Mark E. Wilson
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Vasiliki Michopoulos
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States.
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10
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Murris SR, Arsenault JT, Vanduffel W. Frequency- and State-Dependent Network Effects of Electrical Stimulation Targeting the Ventral Tegmental Area in Macaques. Cereb Cortex 2020; 30:4281-4296. [PMID: 32279076 PMCID: PMC7325806 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhaa007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is a midbrain structure at the heart of the dopaminergic system underlying adaptive behavior. Endogenous firing rates of dopamine cells in the VTA vary from fast phasic bursts to slow tonic activity. Artificial perturbations of the VTA, through electrical or optogenetic stimulation methods, generate different and sometimes even contrasting behavioral outcomes depending on stimulation parameters such as frequency, amplitude, and pulse width. Here, we investigate the global functional effects of electrical stimulation frequency (10, 20, 50, and 100 Hz) of the VTA in rhesus monkeys. We stimulated 2 animals with chronic electrodes, either awake or anesthetized, while concurrently acquiring whole-brain functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) signals. In the awake state, activity as a function of stimulation frequency followed an inverted U-shape in many cortical and subcortical structures, with highest activity observed at 20 and 50 Hz and lower activity at 10 and 100 Hz. Under anesthesia, the hemodynamic responses in connected brain areas were slightly positive at 10 Hz stimulation, but decreased linearly as a function of higher stimulation frequencies. A speculative explanation for the remarkable frequency dependence of stimulation-induced fMRI activity is that the VTA makes use of different frequency channels to communicate with different postsynaptic sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sjoerd R Murris
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven 3000, Belgium.,Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - John T Arsenault
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven 3000, Belgium.,Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Wim Vanduffel
- Department of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven 3000, Belgium.,Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium.,Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA.,Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02144, USA
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11
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Kovacs-Balint Z, Feczko E, Pincus M, Earl E, Miranda-Dominguez O, Howell B, Morin E, Maltbie E, LI L, Steele J, Styner M, Bachevalier J, Fair D, Sanchez M. Early Developmental Trajectories of Functional Connectivity Along the Visual Pathways in Rhesus Monkeys. Cereb Cortex 2019; 29:3514-3526. [PMID: 30272135 PMCID: PMC6644858 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhy222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Revised: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Early social interactions shape the development of social behavior, although the critical periods or the underlying neurodevelopmental processes are not completely understood. Here, we studied the developmental changes in neural pathways underlying visual social engagement in the translational rhesus monkey model. Changes in functional connectivity (FC) along the ventral object and motion pathways and the dorsal attention/visuo-spatial pathways were studied longitudinally using resting-state functional MRI in infant rhesus monkeys, from birth through early weaning (3 months), given the socioemotional changes experienced during this period. Our results revealed that (1) maturation along the visual pathways proceeds in a caudo-rostral progression with primary visual areas (V1-V3) showing strong FC as early as 2 weeks of age, whereas higher-order visual and attentional areas (e.g., MT-AST, LIP-FEF) show weak FC; (2) functional changes were pathway-specific (e.g., robust FC increases detected in the most anterior aspect of the object pathway (TE-AMY), but FC remained weak in the other pathways (e.g., AST-AMY)); (3) FC matures similarly in both right and left hemispheres. Our findings suggest that visual pathways in infant macaques undergo selective remodeling during the first 3 months of life, likely regulated by early social interactions and supporting the transition to independence from the mother.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Kovacs-Balint
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - E Feczko
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Medical Informatics & Clinical Epidemiology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland OR, USA
| | - M Pincus
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - E Earl
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - O Miranda-Dominguez
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - B Howell
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - E Morin
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - E Maltbie
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - L LI
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - J Steele
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - M Styner
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - J Bachevalier
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - D Fair
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - M Sanchez
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Science, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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12
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Godfrey JR, Diaz MP, Pincus M, Kovacs-Balint Z, Feczko E, Earl E, Miranda-Dominguez O, Fair D, Sanchez MM, Wilson ME, Michopoulos V. Diet matters: Glucocorticoid-related neuroadaptations associated with calorie intake in female rhesus monkeys. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2018; 91:169-178. [PMID: 29567621 PMCID: PMC5899678 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to psychosocial stressors increases consumption of palatable, calorically dense diets (CDD) and the risk for obesity, especially in females. While consumption of an obesogenic diet and chronic stress have both been shown to decrease dopamine 2 receptor (D2R) binding and alter functional connectivity (FC) within the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), it remains uncertain how social experience and dietary environment interact to affect reward pathways critical for the regulation of motivated behavior. Using positron emission tomography (PET) and resting state functional connectivity magnetic resonance neuroimaging (rs-fMRI), in female rhesus monkeys maintained in a low calorie chow (n = 18) or a dietary choice condition (chow and a CDD; n = 16) for 12 months, the current study tested the overarching hypothesis that the adverse social experience resulting from subordinate social status would interact with consumption of an obesogenic diet to increase caloric intake that would be predicted by greater cortisol, lower prefrontal D2R binding potential (D2R-BP) and lower PFC-NAcc FC. Results showed that the consequences of adverse social experience imposed by chronic social subordination vary significantly depending on the dietary environment and are associated with alterations in prefrontal D2R-BP and FC in NAcc-PFC sub-regions that predict differences in caloric intake, body weight gain, and fat accumulation. Higher levels of cortisol in the chow-only condition were associated with mild inappetence, as well as increased orbitofrontal (OFC) D2R-BP and greater FC between the NAcc and the dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC) and ventromedial PFC (vmPFC). However, increased cortisol release in females in the dietary choice condition was associated with reduced prefrontal D2R-BP, and opposite FC between the NAcc and the vmPFC and dlPFC observed in the chow-only females. Importantly, the degree of these glucocorticoid-related neuroadaptations predicted significantly more total calorie intake as well as more consumption of the CDD for females having a dietary choice, but had no relation to calorie intake in the chow-only condition. Overall, the current findings suggest that dietary environment modifies the consequences of adverse social experience on reward pathways and appetite regulation and, in an obesogenic dietary environment, may reflect impaired cognitive control of food intake.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Melanie Pincus
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | - Eric Feczko
- Department Of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Eric Earl
- Department Of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
| | | | - Damien Fair
- Department Of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Mar M. Sanchez
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Mark E. Wilson
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Vasiliki Michopoulos
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States.
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13
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Mavigner M, Raper J, Kovacs-Balint Z, Gumber S, O'Neal JT, Bhaumik SK, Zhang X, Habib J, Mattingly C, McDonald CE, Avanzato V, Burke MW, Magnani DM, Bailey VK, Watkins DI, Vanderford TH, Fair D, Earl E, Feczko E, Styner M, Jean SM, Cohen JK, Silvestri G, Johnson RP, O'Connor DH, Wrammert J, Suthar MS, Sanchez MM, Alvarado MC, Chahroudi A. Postnatal Zika virus infection is associated with persistent abnormalities in brain structure, function, and behavior in infant macaques. Sci Transl Med 2018; 10:eaao6975. [PMID: 29618564 PMCID: PMC6186170 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aao6975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The Zika virus (ZIKV) epidemic is associated with fetal brain lesions and other serious birth defects classified as congenital ZIKV syndrome. Postnatal ZIKV infection in infants and children has been reported; however, data on brain anatomy, function, and behavioral outcomes following infection are absent. We show that postnatal ZIKV infection of infant rhesus macaques (RMs) results in persistent structural and functional alterations of the central nervous system compared to age-matched controls. We demonstrate ZIKV lymphoid tropism and neurotropism in infant RMs and histopathologic abnormalities in the peripheral and central nervous systems including inflammatory infiltrates, astrogliosis, and Wallerian degeneration. Structural and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI/rs-fMRI) show persistent enlargement of lateral ventricles, maturational changes in specific brain regions, and altered functional connectivity (FC) between brain areas involved in emotional behavior and arousal functions, including weakened amygdala-hippocampal connectivity in two of two ZIKV-infected infant RMs several months after clearance of ZIKV RNA from peripheral blood. ZIKV infection also results in distinct alterations in the species-typical emotional reactivity to acute stress, which were predicted by the weak amygdala-hippocampal FC. We demonstrate that postnatal ZIKV infection of infants in this model affects neurodevelopment, suggesting that long-term clinical monitoring of pediatric cases is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maud Mavigner
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Jessica Raper
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Zsofia Kovacs-Balint
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Sanjeev Gumber
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | | | - Siddhartha K Bhaumik
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Xiaodong Zhang
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Jakob Habib
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Cameron Mattingly
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | | | - Victoria Avanzato
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Mark W Burke
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Howard University, Washington, DC 20060, USA
| | - Diogo M Magnani
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33146, USA
| | - Varian K Bailey
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33146, USA
| | - David I Watkins
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33146, USA
| | - Thomas H Vanderford
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Damien Fair
- Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Eric Earl
- Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Eric Feczko
- Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Martin Styner
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Sherrie M Jean
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Joyce K Cohen
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Guido Silvestri
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - R Paul Johnson
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - David H O'Connor
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53715, USA
| | - Jens Wrammert
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Mehul S Suthar
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Emory Vaccine Center, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Mar M Sanchez
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Maria C Alvarado
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Ann Chahroudi
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
- Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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14
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Anesthesia, brain changes, and behavior: Insights from neural systems biology. Prog Neurobiol 2017; 153:121-160. [PMID: 28189740 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Revised: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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