Down syndrome: orthopedic issues

Systemic Factors Affecting Healing in Dentistry

Healing process in the oral cavity is influenced by a range of systemic factors. More specifically, patient health status, medications, habits, and nutritional state play crucial roles in dental healing. Additionally, the body's immune response, inflammation, and overall well-being are key determinants in wound repair. Understanding these systemic factors is essential for dental professionals to optimize patient care, minimize complications, and achieve successful healing.

The effects of Kinesio taping on static and dynamic balance in children with down syndrome: a randomized controlled trial

AIM

This study aimed to determine the effects of Kinesio tape applied to the plantar soles on static and dynamic balance in children with Down syndrome (DS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was carried out in children with DS. The participants were grouped as Kinesio Taping (KT) (n = 12, DS) and Sham Taping (ST) (n = 12, DS). The Functional Reach Test (FRT) was used to evaluate functional balance and the Fast-Timed Up and Go (FAST-TUG) test to evaluate functional balance and capacity. The Modified Clinical test of Sensory Interaction on Balance (MCTSIB) was used to evaluate static balance. For both groups, all the assessments were made three times: at baseline (T0), right after the taping application (T1), and 40-45 minutes later (T2).

RESULTS

Baseline FAST-TUG, FRT, and Eyes Open (EO) and Closed (EC) Sway velocity scores of the KT (medians- FAST-TUG:7.75 s, FRT:23.90 cm, EO: 0.70 deg/s, EC: 0.60 deg/s) and ST (medians-FAST-TUG:7.98 s, FRT:24 cm, EO: 0.85 deg/s, EC: 0.95 deg/s) groups were similar (p >0.05). Intragroup comparisons showed that FAST-TUG and FRT scores improved after the taping compared with T0 values in both KT (KT (FAST-TUG:7.75s-FRT:23.90cm)/KT1(FAST-TUG:7.55 s-FRT:28.25cm), KT(FAST-TUG:7.75s-FRT:23.90cm)/KT2(FAST-TUG:6.85s-FRT:27.50cm)) and ST groups (ST(FAST-TUG:7.98s-FRT:24cm)/ST1(FAST-TUG:7,95s-FRT:26.40cm), ST(FAST-TUG:7.98s-FRT:24cm)/ST2(FAST-TUG:7.26s-FRT:26.15cm)) (p < 0.05), while the sway velocity values were similar before and after the taping (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Taping on the plantar soles of children with DS may be affecting the immediate dynamic balance scores while it actually did not affect the static balance scores independent of the technique used. The interpretation of the results of this study should be made with caution. Further studies with long-term evaluations are needed.

The Diagnostic Capacity of Physical Examinations in Diagnosing Musculoskeletal Disorders of the Lower Limbs in Children with Down Syndrome

Background and Objectives: although musculoskeletal alterations are common in patients with Down syndrome (DS), studies investigating this association are scarce, and proposals for diagnostic standardization are limited. We aimed to evaluate the prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders in the lower limbs in a sample of children and adolescents with DS and to investigate the diagnostic capacity of orthopedic clinical examinations performed by orthopedists and pediatricians to diagnose these alterations. Materials and Methods: Twenty-two patients aged between three and ten years with DS were included. Patients and guardians answered a simple questionnaire regarding orthopedic complaints and underwent a systematic orthopedic physical examination, performed twice: once by an orthopedist and again by a pediatrician. Patients underwent a series of radiographs to diagnose anisomelia, hip dysplasia, epiphysiolysis, flatfoot valgus, mechanical axis varus, and mechanical axis valgus. The radiological diagnosis was considered the gold standard, and the diagnostic capacity of the physical examination performed by each physician was determined. Results: The median age was 6.50 years. Only four patients (18.2%) presented with orthopedic complaints. All patients were diagnosed with at least one musculoskeletal disorder. The only musculoskeletal disorder with a good diagnostic capacity was flatfoot valgus. Limited sensitivity values were found for hip dysplasia, mechanical axis varus, and mechanical axis valgus. The agreement between the orthopedic physical examinations performed by the two examiners was weak, poor, or indeterminate for most of the analyzed items. Conclusions: There was a high prevalence of orthopedic alterations in children with DS who did not present with musculoskeletal complaints. The diagnostic capacity of the physical examination was limited. Therefore, all children with DS should undergo a radiological evaluation of the musculoskeletal system and subsequent specialized orthopedic evaluation. Level of Evidence: Level II (Diagnostic Studies).

Post-operative anterior diaphragmatic hernias in children with Trisomy 21 after cardiac surgery

Morgagni hernias account for less than 5% of congenital diaphragmatic hernias. They are characteristically retrosternal and bilateral, with right-sided predominance. An association between Trisomy 21 and diaphragmatic hernias resembling Morgagni hernia has been reported, but the effect of cardiac surgery on its formation has not been investigated. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there is a higher incidence of anterior diaphragmatic hernias in children with Trisomy 21 after cardiac surgery. We compared the prevalence of anterior diaphragmatic hernias in 92 patients with Trisomy 21 who underwent cardiac surgery with its prevalence in 100 children without Trisomy 21 who underwent cardiac surgery. All available CXRs of all children underwent revision for the presence of an anterior diaphragmatic hernia by a pediatric radiologist. Within the study group, four cases of an anterior diaphragmatic hernia were detected, all upon presentation to the emergency room due to breathing difficulties. No cases of an anterior diaphragmatic hernia were found in the control group (P = 0.0094).

CONCLUSIONS

A high index of suspicion for an anterior diaphragmatic hernia should be maintained in children with Trisomy 21 who have undergone cardiac surgery and present with breathing difficulty. If CXR findings are uncertain, UGI series and\or CT should be performed. In light of our findings, the surgical technique has been modified in patients with DS in our medical center.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• Several studies reported an association between Trisomy 21 and diaphragmatic hernia resembling Morgagni hernia, but the effect of cardiac surgery on its formation has not been investigated.

WHAT IS NEW

• There is a higher incidence of anterior diaphragmatic hernia resembling a Morgagni hernia in children with Trisomy 21 after cardiac surgery. • A high index of suspicion for an anterior diaphragmatic hernia should be maintained in children with Trisomy 21 who have undergone cardiac surgery and present with breathing difficulty. If CXR findings are uncertain, UGI series and\or CT should be performed.

Congenital atlanto-occipital dislocation in a patient with Down syndrome: a case report

Down syndrome, also known as trisomy 21, is associated with congenital cervical spine abnormalities, including atlantoaxial instability with or without os odontoideum, atlanto-occipital instability, and hypoplasia of the atlas. Herein, we report a case of Down syndrome complicated by congenital atlanto-occipital dislocation. The patient presented with severe cervical myelopathy at 13 years of age after a 10-year follow-up. Radiography and computed tomography revealed os odontoideum protruding into the foramen magnum and congenital anterior atlanto-occipital dislocation. Additionally, a bifurcated internal occipital crest with a thinned central portion of the occipital bone was noted. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed kyphotic alignment of the spinal cord with severe compression at the foramen magnum level. As the neurological impairment was partially improved by halo vest immobilization, we performed in situ O-C2 fusion with an iliac autograft and decompression of the foramen magnum and posterior arch of C1. An improvement was observed immediately after surgery. Two years after surgery, radiography and computed tomography showed solid O-C2 segment fusion. The accumulation of similar cases is essential for determining the prognosis or optimal treatment for this rare congenital condition.

Ultrasound Imaging of Hip Displacement in Children With Cerebral Palsy

OBJECTIVE

An approach to estimation of hip displacement on ultrasound (US) images is described. Its accuracy is validated through numerical simulation, an in vitro study with 3-D-printed hip phantoms and pilot in vivo data.

METHODS

A diagnostic index, migration percentage (MP), is defined by the ratio of acetabulum-femoral head distance to femoral head width. The acetabulum-femoral head distance could be measured directly on hip US images, while the femoral head width was estimated from the diameter of a best-fit circle. Simulation was performed to evaluate the accuracy of circle fitting with noiseless and noisy data. Surface roughness was also considered. Nine hip phantoms (three different sizes of femur head × three MP values) and 10 US hip images were used in this study.

RESULTS

The maximum diameter error was 16.1 ± 8.5% when the roughness and noise were 20% of the original radius and 20% of the wavelet peak, respectively. In the phantom study, the percentage errors of MPs between the 3-D-design US and X-ray US were 0.3%-6.6% and 0.0%-5.7%, respectively. From the pilot clinical trial, the mean absolute difference between the X-ray-US MPs was 3.5 ± 2.8% (1%-9%).

CONCLUSION

This study indicates that the US method can be used to evaluate hip displacement in children.

Gait performance and dual-task costs in school-aged children with Down syndrome

OBJECTIVE

This cross-sectional observational study aimed to assess gait performance, its correlation with physical functions, and its dual-task costs in children with Down syndrome (DS), to investigate their gait adaptations.

METHODS

Gait performance with or without movie-watching tasks was evaluated in 17 children with DS (age, 6-12 years) and 51 age- and sex-matched controls, using three-dimensional gait analysis. We compared participants' demographics, physical functions, and gait performance without tasks between the two groups. In the DS group, correlations between physical functions, the intelligence quotient, and gait variables were assessed. Dual-task costs for gait variables were also compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

Children with DS showed poorer balance function and muscle strength and lower gait quality than the control group. In the DS group, there was a significant positive correlation between gait speed, step length, and intelligence quotient. There were no correlations between the balance function, muscle strength, intelligence quotient, and gait quality. Dual-task costs for gait speed, step length, and cadence were greater in the DS group; however, there was no significant difference in dual-task costs for gait quality between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight the importance of providing appropriate interventions for motor functions in school-aged children with DS based on their gait performance in single- and dual-task conditions, as well as on their intelligence quotient.

The effect of a telehealth exercise intervention on balance in adults with Down syndrome

BACKGROUND

People with Down syndrome often present with balance deficits, which compromise safety during daily activity. While evidence shows that exercise can improve balance in the Down syndrome population, it is unclear if a telehealth method will elicit similar benefits. We aimed to examine the effects of a virtual exercise program on balance in adults with Down syndrome.

METHODS

Eighteen low-active participants with Down syndrome completed a 12-week telehealth exercise program based on the Mann Method. Balance testing took place before and after the intervention, which included: TUG, MCTSIB, FICSIT-4, and FRT. This study was registered as a clinical trial on ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT04647851.

RESULTS

Significant improvement was seen in the TUG (p = .043), FICSIT-4 (p = .019) and FRT (p = .019). All participants achieved maximum scores on the MCTSIB in pre- and post-testing.

CONCLUSIONS

Balance in low-active adults with Down syndrome significantly improved following the telehealth exercise program, which we attribute to the tailored exercises that address visual/vestibular deficits and hip muscle weakness.

The Ponseti Method for the Treatment of Clubfeet Associated With Down Syndrome: A Single-institution 18-year Experience

BACKGROUND

Although the Ponseti method has been used with great success in a variety of nonidiopathic clubfoot deformities, the efficacy of this treatment in clubfeet associated with Down syndrome remains unreported. The purpose of this study is, therefore, to compare treatment characteristics and outcomes of clubfoot patients with Down syndrome to those with idiopathic clubfoot treated with the Ponseti method.

METHODS

An Institutional Review Board-approved, retrospective review of prospectively gathered data were performed at a single pediatric hospital over an 18-year period. Patients with either idiopathic clubfeet or clubfeet associated with Down syndrome who were less than 1 year of age at the outset of treatment were treated by the Ponseti method, and had a minimum of 2 year's follow-up were included. Initial Dimeglio score, number of casts, need for heel cord tenotomy, recurrence, and need for further surgery were recorded. Outcomes were classified using the Richards classification system: "good" (plantigrade foot +/- heel cord tenotomy), "fair" (need for a limited procedure), or "poor" (need for a full posteromedial release).

RESULTS

Twenty clubfeet in 13 patients with Down syndrome and 320 idiopathic clubfeet in 215 patients were identified. Average follow-up was 73 months for the Down syndrome cohort and 62 months for the idiopathic cohort. Down syndrome patients presented for treatment at a significantly older age (61 vs. 16 d, P =0.00) and with significantly lower average initial Dimeglio scores than the idiopathic cohort (11.3 vs. 13.4, P =0.02). Heel cord tenotomy was performed in 80% of the Down syndrome cohort and 79% of the idiopathic cohort ( P =1.00). Recurrence rates were higher in the Down syndrome cohort (60%) compared with the idiopathic group (37%), but this difference was not statistically significant ( P =0.06). Need for later surgical procedures was similar between the 2 cohorts, though recurrences in the Down syndrome group were significantly less likely to require intra-articular surgery (8.3% vs. 65.5%, P =0.00). Clinical outcomes were 95% "good," 0% "fair," and 5% "poor" in the Down syndrome cohort and 69% "good," 27% "fair," and 4% "poor" in the idiopathic cohort ( P =0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the milder deformity and an older age at presentation, clubfeet associated with Down syndrome have similar rates of recurrence and may have better clinical outcomes when compared with their idiopathic counterparts. When deformities do relapse in Down syndrome patients, significantly less intra-articular surgery is required than for idiopathic clubfeet.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Outcomes of Posterior Spinal Fusion in Pediatric Patients with Down Syndrome

BACKGROUND

Trisomy 21 or Down syndrome is associated with multiple orthopaedic manifestations. Although cervical instability is the most common spinal condition associated with Down syndrome, the prevalence of scoliosis has been estimated at 4.8% to 8.7%. Very few prior studies have documented the role of spinal fusion in this population, and all have included ≤10 patients.

METHODS

An institutional review board-approved multicenter retrospective analysis of patients with Down syndrome treated with spinal fusion between January 2009 and December 2019 was performed by cross-referencing Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) and International Classification of Diseases, Ninth and Tenth Revisions (ICD-9 and ICD-10) codes. Patients were followed for ≥2 years, with a mean follow-up of 3.77 years. Clinical and radiographic outcomes were collected, and complications were documented using the Clavien-Dindo-Sink (CDS) classification.

RESULTS

A total of 23 patients were included: 96% had ≥1 medical comorbidities, including 16 (70%) with congenital heart disease, of whom 88% had previous cardiac surgery, and 10 (44%) with thyroid disorders. All 23 patients underwent posterior spinal fusion. The mean estimated blood loss was 617 ± 459 mL, the mean length of the surgical procedure was 290 ± 92.7 minutes, and the mean length of hospital stay was 6.03 ± 2.91 days. The major Cobb angle measured 61.7° ± 17.6°, which corrected to 19.4° ± 14.8° (68.6% correction; p < 0.001), with well-maintained correction at 2 years of 22.0° ± 10.3° (64.3% correction; p = 0.158). Thirteen (57%) of 23 patients had a change in curve of >5°. There were no intraoperative complications; however, 12 patients (52%) sustained postoperative complications (e.g., need for reoperation, implant failure, and pulmonary complications), including 6 patients with CDS type 3 or 4 (e.g., wound dehiscence, late superficial abscess, pleural effusion, pseudarthrosis, and readmission for hypoxia). Four patients (17%) required a revision surgical procedure. One patient (4%) required an unplanned intensive care unit admission.

CONCLUSIONS

Although instrumented spinal fusion can effectively correct spinal deformity in these patients, complications are more frequent than in children with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis, with over half of patients sustaining a complication.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Prognostic Level III . See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Surgical Treatment of Irreducible Dislocation of the Patellae in an 8-Year-Old Girl with Down Syndrome: A Case Report

CONCLUSION

The purpose of this treatment was to correct this disorder and prevent disabling conditions in childhood and adulthood.

Treatment of Chronic Dislocated Patella in a Skeletally Mature Down Syndrome Patient: A Case Report

CASE

A 55-year-old man with Down syndrome (DS) suffered from chronic irreducible right patellar dislocation. Imaging studies showed an attenuated appearance of the medial patellar retinaculum, and the tibial tubercle to trochlear groove distance measured 1.6 cm. Right medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction (MPFLR) and lateral lengthening (LL) with proximalization of the tibial tubercle (PTT) were performed with good surgical outcomes.

CONCLUSION

The combination of MPFLR, LL, and PTT is a viable option for treating a skeletally mature DS patient with patellofemoral instability causing recurrent patellar dislocation.

Otolaryngologic Disease in Down syndrome

As the most common human chromosomal abnormality, Trisomy 21 is a condition that many otolaryngologists and likely all pediatric otolaryngologists will encounter during their careers. There are several considerations regarding airway obstruction, otologic conditions, anesthetic implications, and endocrine disorders that will impact the treatment of these patients. Further, there is increasing literature supporting the use of early instrumental assessment of swallowing, drug-induced sleep endoscopy at the time of first surgical intervention for sleep apnea, consideration of concurrent upper and lower airway evaluation, and early otologic management including potential surgical hearing rehabilitation.

Footprint measurement methods for the assessment and classification of foot types in subjects with Down syndrome: a systematic review

Background

Musculoskeletal disorders, especially in the feet, are common in people with Down syndrome (DS). Evaluation of podiatric footprints is important to prevent and manage orthopedic symptoms. The reliability of a wide variety of footprint measurement methods has been evaluated in healthy people, but few studies have considered the specific morphotype features of the feet in subjects with DS. The aim of this systematic review was to identify the podometric measurement tools used to typologically classify the footprints in the population with DS.

Methods

The following electronic databases were searched for studies describing footprint measurement tools to assess and classify the foot types in patients with DS published from inception to December 2020: PubMed, Web of Science, CINAHL, and Scopus. Articles were initially searched by screening titles and abstracts. Potentially relevant studies were then further screened by reviewing full texts. Studies that met the inclusion criteria were included in the review.

Results

Of the 122 articles identified by the search strategy, 14 full texts were retained to assess for eligibility, of which 11 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included. All the studies used footprint measurement methods to classify the foot types in subjects with DS, but only two studies assessed the reliability of those methods for the population with DS. The footprint measurement tools identified were a podoscope, a pressure-sensitive mat, a PressureStat^TM carbon paper, and a 3D scanner. The Arch Index was the most common footprint measurement analyzed (seven studies). Two studies used the “gold standard” indexes that include Hernández-Corvo Index, Chippaux-Smirak Index, Staheli Index, and Clarke Angle to measure footprints.

Conclusions

There is a need to determine the reliability and validity of the footprint measurement methods used for clinical classification of the foot types in subjects with DS. This can contribute to an early diagnosis of foot abnormalities that would help to reduce mobility impairments, improving the quality of life of patients with DS.

Naturally-derived targeted therapy for wound healing: Beyond classical strategies

This review summarizes the four processes of wound healing in the human body (hemostasis, inflammatory, proliferation, and remodeling) and the most current research on the most important factors affecting cutaneous wound healing and the underlying cellular and/or molecular pathways. Local factors, including temperature, oxygenation, and infection, and systemic factors, such as age, diabetes, sex hormones, genetic components, autoimmune diseases, psychological stress, smoking and obesity are also addressed. A better understanding of the role of these factors in wound repair could result in the development of therapeutics that promote wound healing and resolve affected wounds. Additionally, natural products obtained from plants and animals are critical targets for the discovery of novel biologically significant pharmacophores, such as medicines and agrochemicals. This review outlines the most recent advances in naturally derived targeted treatment for wound healing. These are plant-derived natural products, insect-derived natural products, marine-derived natural products, nanomaterial-based wound-healing therapeutics (metal- and non-metal-based nanoparticles), and natural product-based nanomedicine to improve the future direction of wound healing. Natural products extracted from plants and animals have advanced significantly, particularly in the treatment of wound healing. As a result, the isolation and extraction of bioactive compounds from a variety of sources can continue to advance our understanding of wound healing. Undescribed bioactive compounds or unexplored formulations that could have a role in today's medicinal arsenal may be contained in the abundance of natural products and natural product derivatives.

Posterior occipitocervical instrumented fusion for atlantoaxial instability in a 27-month-old child with Down syndrome: illustrative case

BACKGROUND

Upper cervical spine instability is one of the most serious orthopedic problems in patients with Down syndrome. Despite the recent advancement of instrumentation techniques, occipitocervical fusion remains technically challenging in the very young pediatric population with small and fragile osseous elements.

OBSERVATIONS

A 27-month-old boy with Down syndrome was urgently transported to the authors’ hospital because of difficulty in standing and sitting, weakness in the upper limbs, and respiratory distress. Radiographs showed os odontoideum, irreducible atlantoaxial dislocation, and substantial spinal cord compression. Emergency posterior occipitoaxial fixation was performed using O-arm navigation. Improvement in the motor paralysis of the upper left limb was observed from the early postoperative period, but revision surgery was needed 14 days after surgery because of surgical site infection. The patient showed modest but substantial neurological improvement 1 year after the surgery.

LESSONS

There are several clinical implications of the present case. It warns that Down syndrome in the very young pediatric population may lead to rapid progression of spinal cord injury and life crisis. This 27-month-old patient represents the youngest case of atlantoaxial instability in a patient with Down syndrome. O-arm navigation is useful for inserting screws into very thin pedicles.

Prevalence of Common Disease Conditions in a Large Cohort of Individuals With Down Syndrome in the United States

Purpose

Given the current life expectancy and number of individuals living with Down syndrome (DS), it is important to learn common occurrences of disease conditions across the developmental lifespan. This study analyzed data from a large cohort of individuals with DS in an effort to better understand these disease conditions, inform future screening practices, tailor medical care guidelines, and improve utilization of health care resources.

Methods

This retrospective, descriptive study incorporated up to 28 years of data, compiled from 6078 individuals with DS and 30,326 controls matched on age and sex. Data were abstracted from electronic medical records within a large Midwestern health system.

Results

In general, individuals with DS experienced higher prevalence of testicular cancer, leukemias, moyamoya disease, mental health conditions, bronchitis and pneumonia, gastrointestinal conditions, thyroid disorder, neurological conditions, atlantoaxial subluxation, osteoporosis, dysphagia, diseases of the eyes/adnexa and of the ears/mastoid process, and sleep apnea, relative to matched controls. Individuals with DS experienced lower prevalence of solid tumors, heart disease conditions, sexually transmitted diseases, HIV, influenza, sinusitis, urinary tract infections, and diabetes. Similar rates of prevalence were seen for lymphomas, skin melanomas, stroke, acute myocardial infarction, hepatitis, cellulitis, and osteoarthritis.

Conclusions

While it is challenging to draw a widespread conclusion about comorbidities in individuals with Down syndrome, it is safe to conclude that care for individuals with DS should not automatically mirror screening, prevention, or treatment guidelines for the general U.S. population. Rather, care for those with DS should reflect the unique needs and common comorbidities of this population.

Trisomy 21 impairs PGE2 production in dermal fibroblasts

The triplication of human chromosome 21 results in Down syndrome (DS), the most common genetic form of intellectual disability. This aneuploid condition also results in an enhanced risk of a spectrum of comorbid conditions, such as leukemia, early onset Alzheimer's disease, and diabetes. Individuals with DS also display an increased incidence of wound healing complications and resistance to solid tumor development. Due to this unique phenotype and the involvement of eicosanoids in key comorbidities like poor healing and tumor development, we hypothesized that cells from DS individuals would display altered eicosanoid production. Using age- and sex-matched dermal fibroblasts we interrogated this hypothesis. Briefly, assessment of over 90 metabolites derived from cyclooxygenase (COX), lipoxygenase (LOX), and cytochrome p450 systems revealed a possible deficiency in the COX system. Basal gene expression and Western blotting experiments showed significantly decreased gene expression of COX1 and 2, and COX2 protein abundance in DS fibroblasts compared to euploid controls. Further, using two different stressors, scratch wound or LPS, we found that DS fibroblasts could not upregulate COX2 abundance and prostaglandin E2 production. Together, these findings show that dermal fibroblasts from DS individuals have a deficient COX2 response, which may contribute to wound healing complications and tumor resistance in DS.

Multiorgan involvement and management in children with Down syndrome

AIM

To review multiorgan involvement and management in children with Down syndrome (DS).

METHODS

A literature review of articles from 1980 to 2019 using the MEDLINE interface of PubMed was performed using the following search terms- [Down syndrome] or [Trisomy 21] AND [Cardiology] or [Respiratory] or [neurodevelopment] or [epilepsy] or [musculoskeletal] or [immune system] or [haematological] or [endocrine] or [gastrointestinal] or [ophthalmological] or [Ear Nose Throat] or [dermatology] or [renal].

RESULTS

Congenital heart disease particularly septal defects occur in over 60% of infants with DS and 5%-34% of infants develop persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn irrespective of a diagnosis of congenital heart disease. Early recognition and management of aspiration, obstructive sleep apnoea and recurrent lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) could reduce risk of developing pulmonary hypertension in later childhood. Children with DS have an increased risk of autistic spectrum disorder, attention deficit disorder and epilepsy particularly infantile spasms, which are associated with poor neurodevelopmental outcomes. Congenital anomalies of the gastrointestinal and renal system as well as autoimmune diseases, coeliac disease, arthropathy, thyroid dysfunction fold diabetes mellitus and dermatological conditions are more common. Hearing and visual anomalies are also well recognised association with DS (Table 1).

CONCLUSION

Children with DS are at an increased risk of multiorgan comorbidities. Organ-specific health surveillance may provide holistic care for the children and families with DS throughout childhood.

Use of malleoli as an indicator for flatfoot in patients with Down syndrome: development of a simple and non-invasive evaluation method through medial longitudinal arch

[Purpose] Flatfoot often presents in patients with Down syndrome, and it can be diagnosed using a simple radiograph. Consequently, due to radiograph limitations, alternative non-invasive testing must be determined. Conventionally, arch height ratio can be used for evaluation of the medial longitudinal arch, where the foot is evaluated by detecting the navicular bone on the foot surface. However, detection of the navicular tuberosity is difficult and even though the detection is relatively straightforward for patients without intellectual disability, measuring navicular bone is more difficult in patients with intellectual disability, such as those who have Down syndrome and are uncooperative with a tester. Therefore, we evaluated arch height ratio using the malleoli instead of the navicular bone to determine whether malleoli testing was appropriate for patients with Down syndrome that have an intellectual disability. [Participants and Methods] We conducted a retrospective study of 16 pairs of feet in 16 patients with Down syndrome, diagnosed with flatfoot. The height to the centre of the talo-navicular joint and that of the malleoli from the sole were measured on radiographs using weight-bearing conditions. [Results] The age range was 5.2 to 25.3 years. There was a correlation between the height of the navicular bone and that of the medial and lateral malleoli. [Conclusion] We conclude that the medial and lateral malleoli can substitute navicular bone as a landmark diagnosis test for flatfoot. Considering the close physical distance between the medial malleolus and navicular bone, and the association between the tibia and medial longitudinal arch, the medial malleolus may provide a better landmark in patients with Down syndrome with it being potentially less invasive for uncooperative patients.

Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior Among U.S. Children With and Without Down Syndrome: The National Survey of Children's Health

It is unclear whether children with Down syndrome have differing physical activity and sedentary behavior levels compared to typical children. This study addressed this evidence gap in a national sample. Physical activity/sedentary behavior were ascertained by parental report. Findings highlighted that children with Down syndrome were less likely to engage in regular physical activity compared to typical children and had the lowest likelihood of regular physical activity among all subgroups with developmental disabilities/special healthcare needs. Children with Down syndrome were also more likely to watch high volumes of television compared to typical children, although this was nonsignificant upon adjustment for general health. It was concluded that children with Down syndrome are in urgent need for interventions/programs that promote physical activity.

Physical Activity Levels of Children With Down Syndrome

PURPOSE

This systematic review of literature analyzed accelerometer use to measure physical activity (PA) in individuals 21 years and younger with Down syndrome (DS).

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

Comprehensive search strategy conducted in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Eight articles met inclusion criteria. Six studies reported children with DS are not meeting PA guidelines; 4 studies found intensity levels decline with age. Three studies reported children with DS engage in significantly less vigorous PA than control groups. Determination of intensity levels varied, limiting additional comparisons.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with DS engage in less PA than peers developing typically and are not meeting PA guidelines across age groups, increasing risk for numerous health conditions secondary to decreased activity.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE

Promotion of more appropriate levels of PA and elimination of barriers to participation in PA are important for individuals with DS.

External focus training for reacquisition of knee function in a Down syndrome patient after surgery for recurrent patellar dislocation: a case report

[Purpose] This case study describes the reacquisition of knee joint function in a patient with Down syndrome after surgery for patellar dislocation using external focus training. [Participant and Methods] The patient was a female aged 24 years with Down syndrome and a low Intelligence Quotient, who suffered from right patellar dislocation. The range of motion in the right knee while walking was 2 to 23 degrees at 3 weeks after surgery. A compensatory gait while walking was confirmed, with her right leg fixed in extension. Her range of motion while lying was 0 to 155 degrees. A task in which the patient reached and touched a ball was performed with the lower extremities while lying down, according to simple instructions from a therapist. Instructions were given using a simple directive phrase. The intervention started with a single-joint exercise and progressed to a multi-joint exercise. [Results] The range of motion was 0 to 68 degrees at 9 weeks after surgery. Her compensatory gait disappeared and she was able to walk more than 2 km. [Conclusion] Even though the patient's low cognitive function made it difficult for her to complete some tasks, training based on external focus enabled her to acquire adequate knee joint function. External focus training was found to be effective for a patient with a low Intelligence Quotient.

Combining acetabular and femoral morphology improves our understanding of the down syndrome hip

BACKGROUND

Hip instability is frequent in patients with Down syndrome. Recent studies have suggested that skeletal hip alterations are responsible for this instability; however, there are currently no studies simultaneously assessing femoral and acetabular anatomy in subjects with Down syndrome in the standing position. The aim was to analyze the three-dimensional anatomy of the Down syndrome hip in standing position.

METHODS

Down syndrome subjects were age and sex-matched to asymptomatic controls. All subjects underwent full body biplanar X-rays with three-dimensional reconstructions of their pelvises and lower limbs. Parameter means and distributions were compared between the two groups.

FINDINGS

Forty-one Down syndrome and 41 control subjects were recruited. Acetabular abduction (mean = 52° [SD = 9°] vs. mean = 56° [SD = 8°]) and anteversion (mean = 14° [SD = 8°] vs. mean = 17.5° [SD = 5°]) as well as posterior acetabular sector angle (mean = 91° [SD = 7°] vs. mean = 94° [SD = 7°]) were significantly lower in Down syndrome subjects compared to controls (P < 0.01). Anterior acetabular sector angle (mean = 62° [SD = 10°] vs. mean = 59° [SD = 7°]; P < 0.01) was significantly higher in Down syndrome compared to controls. The distributions of acetabular anteversion (P = 0.002;V = 0.325), femoral anteversion (P = 0.004;V = 0.309) and the instability index (P < 0.001;V = 0.383) were significantly different between the two groups, with subjects with Down syndrome having both increased anteversion and retroversion for each of these parameters.

INTERPRETATION

Subjects with Down syndrome were found to have a significantly altered and more heterogeneous anatomy of their proximal hips compared to controls. This heterogeneity suggests that treatment strategies of hip instability in Down syndrome should be subject-specific and should rely on the understanding of the underlying three-dimensional anatomy of each patient.

Knee Deformities in Children With Down Syndrome: A Focus on Knee Malalignment

BACKGROUND

Patellofemoral instability (PFI) has been the most reported knee abnormality in people with Down syndrome. Other reported knee abnormalities have been associated with PFI and different management approaches have been described with variable outcomes. The aim of this study was to describe the anatomic variations of the knee in children with Down syndrome. A comparison between knees with and without PFI was performed and our experience in treating knee abnormalities in Down syndrome was also reported.

METHODS

Records of all children with Down syndrome were reviewed. Two groups were identified (knees with and without PFI). Radiographic measurements included the mechanical and anatomic lateral distal femoral angles, medial proximal tibial angle, angle of depression of medial tibial plateau, lateral tibial translation, and distal femoral physis-joint angle. On the lateral view, Insall-Salvati and Blackburne-Peel ratios were measured. The sulcus angle was measured on the tangential view. Measurements were compared between the 2 groups (with and without PFI).Knees with PFI were divided into 3 subgroups based on their treatment (group A: surgical valgus correction, group B: surgical soft tissue procedures for PFI, and group C: conservative treatment). Preoperative radiographs were used for the surgical group and last available radiographs were used for the conservative group. Clinical and radiographic data were compared between the groups. For groups A and B, clinical and radiographic data were also compared between preoperative and last visits.

RESULTS

Of the 581 children with Down syndrome, 5% (31 children: 22 females, 9 males) had PFI in 56 knees. Mean age at diagnosis was 11.5±3.5 years. Of the remaining 550 children, 75 children had radiographs for 130 knees. Knees with PFI had significantly more valgus and a larger distal femoral physis-joint angle. Depression of the medial tibial plateau and lateral tibial translation were noted in knees with PFI. Insall-Salvati ratio was higher and the sulcus angle was larger in the PFI group.Of the 56 knees with PFI; 10 knees were in group A, 11 knees in group B, 33 knees in group C, and the remaining 2 knees had combined procedures. Preoperative mechanical and anatomic lateral distal femoral angles were smaller in group A than in group B or C. Grades of PFI improved in group B after surgery. This improvement was not noted in group A.

CONCLUSIONS

In children with Down syndrome, different variations of the knee anatomy can be found. Although PFI might be the most evident knee abnormality, other underlying deformities are common. Treatment of the PFI should be planned through a comprehensive anatomic approach that addresses all aspects of knee deformity.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV-prognostic and therapeutic study.

Relationship between the use of lower extremity orthoses and the developmental quotient of The Kyoto Scale of Psychological Development in children with Down syndrome

[Purpose] The Kyoto Scale of Psychological Development is an evaluation scale developed in the field of psychology. The initial aim of this study was to determine whether the quotient of the Postural-Motor area in the scale was correlated with the use of orthosis in patients with Down syndrome. The second aim was to examine a correlation among Postural-Motor, Cognitive-Adaptive, and Language-Social areas in the participants. [Participants and Methods] Patients with Down syndrome who had received a developmental examination, the Kyoto Scale of Psychological Development, were retrospectively investigated. The sample included 78 participants. Data on the participants' calendar ages ranged from 4.1 to 6.0 years, and the mean age was 4.9 at the examination. The investigated parameters were the number of participants who used an orthosis or insole and the mean developmental quotient for the Postural-Motor, Cognitive-Adaptive, and Language-Social areas. [Results] Twenty participants who completed the exam used an orthosis, and 18 of these had an insole as a first orthosis. The mean Postural-Motor quotient was significantly lower in participants who used an orthosis than in those who did not (52.3 ± 14.7). [Conclusion] The mean quotient of the Postural-Motor area was significantly lower in patients with Down syndrome who were prescribed some kind of orthosis than in those who were not. There was a significant correlation among the quotients of the three areas. The use of orthosis was expected to positively influence the Cognitive-Adaptive and Language-Social areas through the future in people with Down syndrome who have some difficulty with posture and movement.

Spinopelvic Alignment in Subjects With Down Syndrome

STUDY DESIGN

This was a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to describe the spinopelvic alignment of subjects with Down syndrome (DS).

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Subjects with DS are known to suffer from a large prevalence of scoliosis. While scoliosis is known to significantly affect postural alignment, there are currently no studies on the spinopelvic alignment of subjects with DS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In total, 41 subjects (28 female subjects and 13 male subjects) with DS, age and sex-matched to 41 asymptomatic subjects, underwent biplanar x-rays with 3-dimensional reconstructions of their spines and pelvises, followed by measurement of commonly used spinopelvic sagittal and coronal alignment parameters. Subjects were then classified into one of Roussouly's 4 types of sagittal alignment. Alignment parameters and prevalence of alignment patterns were compared between the 2 groups.

RESULTS

Subjects with DS were found to be relatively hypokyphotic (T4-T12=-29.0 vs. -37.5 degrees; P<0.001) and hyperlordotic (L1-L5=53.8 vs. 44.3 degrees; P<0.001) with larger pelvic incidence (53.2 vs. 45.1 degrees; P<0.001), sacral slope (47.7 vs. 36.8 degrees; P<0.001), Cobb angle (10.2 vs. 8.0 degrees; P=0.005), and axial rotation of the apical vertebra (6.6 vs. 3.7 degrees; P<0.001) but had smaller pelvic tilt (4.9 vs. 8.1 degrees; P<0.001) compared with control subjects. Roussouly's type 4 was found to be the most frequent pattern in DS subjects (68.3% vs. 14.6%; P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Subjects with DS were found to have a peculiar pattern of hypokyphosis, hyperlordosis, large pelvic incidence, and small pelvic tilt. The altered spinopelvic alignment found in DS could predispose these subjects to hip instability and osteoarthritis.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Foot and ankle deformities in children with Down syndrome

PURPOSE

Foot and ankle deformities are common orthopaedic disorders in children with Down syndrome. However, radiographic measurements of the foot and ankle have not been previously reported. The aim of this study is to describe the foot and ankle deformity in children with Down syndrome.

METHODS

Children who had foot and ankle radiographs in the standing weight-bearing position were selected. Three groups of patients were identified. The relationship of radiographic measurements with age, body mass index and pain is discussed. In all, 41 children (79 feet) had foot radiographs and 60 children (117 ankles) had ankle radiographs, with 15 children overlapping between Groups I and II.

RESULTS

In Group I, hallux valgus deformity was seen before ten years of age and hallux valgus angle increased afterwards. Metatarsus adductus angle showed a significant increase (p = 0.006) with obesity and was higher in patients who had foot pain (p = 0.05). In Group II, none of the ankle measurements showed a significant difference with age or body mass index percentiles. Tibiotalar angle (TTA) and medial distal tibial angle (MDTA) were higher in patients who had ankle pain. In Group III, correlation analysis was performed between the different measurements with the strongest correlations found between TTA and MDTA.

CONCLUSION

In children with Down syndrome, radiographic evaluation of the foot and ankle reveals higher prevalence of deformities than clinical examination. However, foot and ankle radiographs are needed only for symptomatic children with pain and gait changes.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV - Prognostic Study.

The prevalence of the flat foot condition and insole prescription in people with Down's syndrome: a retrospective population-based study

[Purpose] The general approach for flat foot (FF) treatment in people with Down's syndrome (DS) is the use of insoles. However, the appropriate timing of the first insole prescription remains unclear. An aim of this present research was to investigate the status of prevalence of FF and orthosis prescription in the DS population. [Subjects and Methods] Two hundred fifteen subjects with DS who were seen at our hospital were retrospectively investigated. Investigated parameters were: prevalence of FF and other foot diseases, ratio and timing of orthopaedic consultation, ratio and timing of orthoses prescription, and mean age at the time of orthosis prescription. [Results] The prevalence of FF was 27.0% (58 subjects), and 50 subjects (23.3%) consulted an orthopaedic surgeon. An orthosis was prescribed for 54 subjects; 88.9% of these orthoses were insoles. Foot and leg orthoses other than insoles were prescribed significantly more frequently for females than males. The mean ages at the time of the first prescription of all types of orthoses and an insole were 7.3 years and 6.4 years, respectively. [Conclusion] The prevalence of FF was low, and the age at which subjects with DS were prescribed an orthosis was relatively high at our institution compared to previous reports. Since physical therapists see patients who could potentially have FF, those with suspected FF should then be referred to an orthopaedic doctor, which would enable the earlier orthosis prescription.

Scoliosis in Down's syndrome

This study reports the recent experience in the management of scoliosis in Down's syndrome. Curve patterns, progression in brace, and surgical outcomes were recorded. Cardiac surgery history was compared between children with and without scoliosis. Out of 581 children with Down's syndrome, 62 children had scoliosis. The mean age of the children was 13.8 years. The mean magnitude was 31°. Bracing was successful in five of seven patients. Ten children had posterior spinal fusion with follow-up of 2.6 years (1-7.3). One deep wound infection was recorded with no revision. No difference was found in cardiac surgery history between children with and without scoliosis.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Type IV - prognostic and therapeutic study.

Hip Instability in Down Syndrome: A Focus on Acetabular Retroversion

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study is to compare acetabular anteversion between children with Down syndrome with or without hip instability. The second aim is to report the surgical experience at our institution in treating unstable hips for this population.

METHODS

All children with Down syndrome who were seen at our institution between 2004 and 2014 were reviewed, and those who had pelvic axial computed tomographic or magnetic resonance imaging scans were identified. Acetabular anteversion was compared between 2 groups: those with hip instability as a single hip pathology and those without hip instability. For patients who had surgery for their unstable hips, demographic, clinical, and surgical data were recorded. Preoperative and last visit radiographs were reviewed. Extrusion index and Tonnis, Sharp, lateral center edge, and neck shaft angles were measured. Presence of Shenton's line disruption, crossover, and posterior wall signs were recorded. Independent and paired t test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and χ test were used with a significance level at 0.05.

RESULTS

Out of 308 children with Down syndrome, there were 10 patients with 13 unstable hips and 13 patients with 26 stable hips who had computed tomographic or magnetic resonance imaging scans. Age and sex distributions were similar (P>0.3) with no difference in acetabular anteversion (P=0.926) between them. Twelve patients (6 boys and 6 girls) had reconstruction for 17 hips. The mean age was 9 years (3 to 15 y) and the mean follow-up was 7 years (1.2 to 17.6 y). Five hips were painful preoperatively and 1 hip was painful at last visit. Radiographic measurements improved significantly (P<0.05). Shenton's line disruption was found in fewer hips (P=0.001) at last visit with no difference in the crossover and posterior wall signs (P=0.177).

CONCLUSIONS

This report suggests that a wide range of acetabular anteversion measurements exist in children with Down syndrome. After detailed anatomic study of the hip, good results with a low complication rate can be expected over the intermediate term after hip reconstruction.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV-prognostic and therapeutic study.

Impaired wound healing: facts and hypotheses for multi-professional considerations in predictive, preventive and personalised medicine

Whereas the physiologic wound healing (WH) successfully proceeds through the clearly defined sequence of the individual phases of wound healing, chronic non-healing wounds/ulcers fail to complete the individual stages and the entire healing process. There are many risk factors both modifiable (such as stress, smoking, inappropriate alcohol consumption, malnutrition, obesity, diabetes, cardio-vascular disease, etc.) and non-modifiable (such as genetic diseases and ageing) strongly contributing to the impaired WH. Current statistics demonstrate that both categories are increasingly presented in the populations, which causes dramatic socio-economic burden to the healthcare sector and society at large. Consequently, innovative concepts by predictive, preventive and personalised medicine are crucial to be implemented in the area. Individual risk factors, causality, functional interrelationships, molecular signature, predictive diagnosis, and primary and secondary prevention are thoroughly analysed followed by the expert recommendations in this paper.

A podoscopic and descriptive study of foot deformities in patients with Down syndrome

INTRODUCTION

Subjects with Down syndrome (DS) are known to be affected by various foot deformities. Despite the fact that some of these deformities have been reported in the literature, a more comprehensive description would be of benefit. The aim of this study is to investigate the prevalence of known foot deformities in patients with DS and of other previously non-described foot anomalies in this population.

HYPOTHESIS

Subjects with DS have an increased prevalence of foot deformities compared to control subjects.

METHODS

Fifty-five subjects with DS (age: 14.6±7.4 years) had undergone podiatric clinical and podoscopic examinations to study their main foot deformities and their footprints, respectively. The results of these examinations were compared to those of an age-matched asymptomatic control group of fifty-three subjects (age: 13.4±11.2 years).

RESULTS

Significantly more prevalent foot deformities were found in the DS group: hallux valgus (36.4%), syndactyly between the 2nd and 3rd toes (9.1%), grade II pes planus (39.1%) and grade III pes planus (30%). Moreover, joint laxity (43.6%) was significantly more prevalent in the DS group. Furthermore, the presence of an increased space between the 1st and 2nd toes in patients with DS and its prevalence (73.6%) were described for the first time. A multivariate analysis revealed a significant relationship between the presence of joint laxity and flatfoot in only the control but not the DS group. Other foot deformities were found to be consistently more frequent in the DS population but not significantly higher than the control group.

DISCUSSION

Although subjects with DS had significantly greater joint laxity and BMI compared to the control group, neither of these factors was found to be related to the increased prevalence of flatfoot in DS patients.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV-retrospective study.

Effects of hippotherapy on posture in individuals with Down Syndrome

Abstract Introduction: Individuals with Down syndrome (DS) have alterations that affect the musculoskeletal system, causing abnormal patterns, and alter the morphological anatomical and mechanical axes that provide intrinsic stability to the skeleton, and can trigger misalignments and orthopedic disorders in adulthood. Objective: The objective of student to evaluate posture and postural alignment before and after the hippotherapyin individuals with DS. Methods: Posture of five individuals with DS was evaluated by the software SAPO before and after 27 sessions the hippotherapy. Data were subjected to qualitative descriptive analysis using cluster and statistical analysis with the aid of the software Sigma Stat 2.0, considering differences as statistically significant at p-value < 5%. Results: Improvements were achieved for the alignment of shoulder, head, hip, and lower limbs, in addition to decrease in kyphosis and head protrusion. Conclusion: Patients with DS demonstrated satisfactory changes in motor behavior reflected in improved static posture after treatment with hippotherapy.

Reliability and Validity of the Footprint Assessment Method Using Photoshop CS5 Software in Young People with Down Syndrome

BACKGROUND

People with Down syndrome present skeletal abnormalities in their feet that can be analyzed by commonly used gold standard indices (the Hernández-Corvo index, the Chippaux-Smirak index, the Staheli arch index, and the Clarke angle) based on footprint measurements. The use of Photoshop CS5 software (Adobe Systems Software Ireland Ltd, Dublin, Ireland) to measure footprints has been validated in the general population. The present study aimed to assess the reliability and validity of this footprint assessment technique in the population with Down syndrome.

METHODS

Using optical podography and photography, 44 footprints from 22 patients with Down syndrome (11 men [mean ± SD age, 23.82 ± 3.12 years] and 11 women [mean ± SD age, 24.82 ± 6.81 years]) were recorded in a static bipedal standing position. A blinded observer performed the measurements using a validated manual method three times during the 4-month study, with 2 months between measurements. Test-retest was used to check the reliability of the Photoshop CS5 software measurements. Validity and reliability were obtained by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC).

RESULTS

The reliability test for all of the indices showed very good values for the Photoshop CS5 method (ICC, 0.982-0.995). Validity testing also found no differences between the techniques (ICC, 0.988-0.999).

CONCLUSIONS

The Photoshop CS5 software method is reliable and valid for the study of footprints in young people with Down syndrome.

Extracellular Matrix and Dermal Fibroblast Function in the Healing Wound

Significance: Fibroblasts play a critical role in normal wound healing. Various extracellular matrix (ECM) components, including collagens, fibrin, fibronectin, proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans, and matricellular proteins, can be considered potent protagonists of fibroblast survival, migration, and metabolism. Recent Advances: Advances in tissue culture, tissue engineering, and ex vivo models have made the examination and precise measurements of ECM components in wound healing possible. Likewise, the development of specific transgenic animal models has created the opportunity to characterize the role of various ECM molecules in healing wounds. In addition, the recent characterization of new ECM molecules, including matricellular proteins, dermatopontin, and FACIT collagens (Fibril-Associated Collagens with Interrupted Triple helices), further demonstrates our cursory knowledge of the ECM in coordinated wound healing. Critical Issues: The manipulation and augmentation of ECM components in the healing wound is emerging in patient care, as demonstrated by the use of acellular dermal matrices, tissue scaffolds, and wound dressings or topical products bearing ECM proteins such as collagen, hyaluronan (HA), or elastin. Once thought of as neutral structural proteins, these molecules are now known to directly influence many aspects of cellular wound healing. Future Directions: The role that ECM molecules, such as CCN2, osteopontin, and secreted protein, acidic and rich in cysteine, play in signaling homing of fibroblast progenitor cells to sites of injury invites future research as we continue investigating the heterotopic origin of certain populations of fibroblasts in a healing wound. Likewise, research into differently sized fragments of the same polymeric ECM molecule is warranted as we learn that fragments of molecules such as HA and tenascin-C can have opposing effects on dermal fibroblasts.

The association of foot structure and footwear fit with disability in children and adolescents with Down syndrome

Background

Foot deformity, flat feet, and the use of ill-fitting footwear are common in children and adolescents with Down syndrome (DS). The aim of this study was to determine whether these observations are associated with foot-specific disability in this group.

Methods

A cross-sectional study design. Foot structure (foot posture determined using the Arch Index, presence of hallux valgus and lesser toe deformities) and footwear fit (determined by length and width percentage differences between the participant’s foot and footwear) were assessed in 50 participants with DS (22 females, 28 males) aged five to 18 with a mean (SD) age of 10.6 (3.9) years. Foot-specific disability was determined using the parent-reported Oxford Ankle Foot Questionnaire for Children (OxAFQ-C). Associations between foot structure and footwear fit with the four domains (Physical, School and play, Emotional and Footwear) of the OxAFQ-C were determined using multivariate regression modelling.

Results

The mean (SD) Arch Index was 0.29 (0.08), and the prevalence of flat feet, hallux valgus and lesser toe deformities was 76%, 10% and 12% respectively. Few participants wore footwear that was too short (10%), but the use of footwear that was too narrow was common (58%). The presence of hallux valgus was significantly associated with increased disability for the OxAFQ-C School and play domain scores. The use of narrow-fitting footwear was significantly associated with increased levels of disability for the OxAFQ-C Physical, School and play, and Emotional domains. However, these variables only explained between 10% to 14% of the variance in the OxAFQ-C domain scores. There were no significant associations between foot structure and footwear fit with the OxAFQ-C Footwear domain scores.

Conclusions

Flatter feet and lesser toe deformities are not associated with foot-specific disability in children and adolescents with DS. Hallux valgus is associated with foot-specific disability during school and play activities. Ill-fitting footwear (too narrow) is common and is associated with foot-specific disability. Further research is required to identify if the relationship between narrow-fitting footwear and foot-specific disability is causal, and to identify other factors associated with foot-specific disability in children and adolescents with DS.

The effects of low arched feet on foot rotation during gait in children with Down syndrome

BACKGROUND

In children with Down syndrome (DS) hypotonia and ligament laxity are characteristic features which cause a number of orthopaedic issues, such as flat foot. The aim of this study was to determine if children with flat foot are characterised by an accentuated external foot rotation during walking.

METHOD

Fifty-five children with DS and 15 typically developing children recruited as control group were assessed using three-dimensional gait analysis, using an optoelectronic system, force platforms and video recording. Parameters related to foot rotation were identified and calculated and the participants' foot morphology was assessed using the arch index.

RESULTS

Data obtained in this study showed that while DS children without flat foot displayed the foot position on the transverse plane globally close to controls during the whole gait cycle, the DS children with flat foot were characterised by higher extra-rotation of the foot in comparison with those without flat foot and controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that the presence of flatfoot lead the children with DS to extra-rotate their feet more than the children without flat foot. From a clinical point of view, these results could enhance the rehabilitative programmes in DS.

Imaging findings in Down syndrome

Down syndrome, or trisomy 21, is the most common chromosomal anomaly and is characterized by intellectual disability and a typical facies. People with Down syndrome can have abnormalities of multiple organ systems. Cardiac and respiratory system involvement is the most common cause of morbidity and mortality, although every organ system can be affected. Patients may present prenatally with findings on screening sonography. If the diagnosis is not made prenatally, it is apparent at birth because of the characteristic facial features and musculoskeletal findings. Children with Down syndrome present to the radiology department at various ages depending on the severity of the specific finding. The purpose of this paper is to review the most common antenatal and postnatal imaging findings of Down syndrome as they manifest throughout the body.

Successful closed reduction after adductor tenotomy in a 14-year-old boy with chronic hip dislocation in Down syndrome

Dislocation or subluxation of the hip is considered as the most common hip problem in patients with Down syndrome. Recommended treatment of chronic dislocation treatment is open reduction combined with femoral and/or pelvis osteotomies. We report a Down syndrome child with chronic hip dislocation who was successfully treated with adductor tenotomy and closed reduction, which has not been reported previously.

Relationship between flat foot condition and gait pattern alterations in children with Down syndrome

BACKGROUND

In patients with Down syndrome (DS) one of the most common abnormalities is flat foot which can interfere significantly with normal daily activities, such as gait. The aim of this study was to quantitatively assess the relationship between the flat foot and the gait alterations in DS children.

METHOD

Twenty-nine patients with DS and 15 non-affected subjects were assessed using 3D Gait Analysis, using an optoelectronic system, force platforms and video recording. The degree of flat foot was assessed using the arch index and kinematic and kinetic parameters were identified and calculated from 3D Gait Analysis for each study participant.

RESULTS

Data showed that ankle plantarflexion moment and ankle power during terminal stance were significant to differentiate the patients with and without flat feet: their peak values were significantly lower for the patients with flat foot. In addition, the research for correlation demonstrated that the higher the arch index value, the lower the peak of ankle moment and of the generated ankle power during terminal stance and the minimum of absorbed ankle power.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with flat foot displayed a less functional gait pattern in terms of ankle kinetics than children without flat foot, suggesting that the presence of flat foot may lead to a weaker efficient walking. Then, the increasing flat foot tended to result in lower push-off ability, leading to a less functional walking.

Surgical challenges and clinical outcomes of total hip replacement in patients with Down’s syndrome

Down’s syndrome is associated with a number of musculoskeletal abnormalities, some of which predispose patients to early symptomatic arthritis of the hip. The purpose of the present study was to review the general and hip-specific factors potentially compromising total hip replacement (THR) in patients with Down’s syndrome, as well as to summarise both the surgical techniques that may anticipate the potential adverse impact of these factors and the clinical results reported to date. A search of the literature was performed, and the findings further informed by the authors’ clinical experience, as well as that of the hip replacement in Down Syndrome study group. The general factors identified include a high incidence of ligamentous laxity, as well as associated muscle hypotonia and gait abnormalities. Hip-specific factors include: a high incidence of hip dysplasia, as well as a number of other acetabular, femoral and combined femoroacetabular anatomical variations. Four studies encompassing 42 hips, which reported the clinical outcomes of THR in patients with Down’s syndrome, were identified. All patients were successfully treated with standard acetabular and femoral components. The use of supplementary acetabular screw fixation to enhance component stability was frequently reported. The use of constrained liners to treat intra-operative instability occurred in eight hips. Survival rates of between 81% and 100% at a mean follow-up of 105 months (6 to 292) are encouraging. Overall, while THR in patients with Down’s syndrome does present some unique challenges, the overall clinical results are good, providing these patients with reliable pain relief and good function.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B, Supple A:41–5.

Lumbar Spondylolysis and Spondylolisthesis in Down Syndrome: A Cross-sectional Study at One Institution

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES

To describe lumbar spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis and establish their prevalence in individuals with Down syndrome.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Orthopedic problems in Down syndrome are variable and numerous. Lumbar spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis may be common conditions in Down syndrome. However, there has been a paucity of data on the association of these conditions in the published literature.

METHODS

A retrospective review of 110 patients with Down syndrome seen at a single institution from 2000 through 2012 was performed. Medical records, X-rays, and physician dictations were carefully reviewed to establish a detailed database of the study population.

RESULTS

Of the 110 patients in the study, 20 exhibited spondylolysis (unilateral, n = 11; bilateral, n = 9), whereas 38 had lumbar spondylolisthesis (isthmic, n = 9; dysplastic, n = 2; degenerative, n = 27). No gender difference was noted (p ≥ .7732). Fifteen patients reported low back pain (LBP) and/or leg pain. There was no significant association between LBP, leg pain, and spondylolysis (p = .9232). Both of these symptoms were highly predictive of lumbar spondylolisthesis, however (p = .0006). No significant findings were noted in pelvic parameters (pelvic incidence, sacral slope, pelvic tilt, or lumbar lordosis) in this study.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis in individuals with Down syndrome may be as high as 18.7% and 32.7%, respectively, significantly higher than in the non-Downs population. Etiopathogenesis of these conditions in Down syndrome does not appear to be related to pelvic parameters. Low back pain and leg pain may be more predictive of spondylolisthesis in Down syndrome than in the general population. Therefore, it is recommended that individuals with Down syndrome and LBP and/or leg pain be evaluated for lumbar spondylolisthesis.

Posterior occipito-axial fixation applied C2 laminar screws for pediatric atlantoaxial instability caused by Down syndrome: Report of 2 cases

Background

Upper cervical spine instability is one of the most critical orthopedic problems in patients with Down syndrome. However, arthrodesis of the upper cervical spine in these patients can be very difficult to achieve and has a high complication rate because of mental retardation and accompanying various medical conditions of the vital organs. Even now, surgeries in such patients, especially pediatric cases, are challenging and the optimal operative procedure remains unsettled. The purpose of this study was to report 2 cases of pediatric atlantoaxial instability due to Down syndrome in which posterior occipito-axial fixation with C2 laminar screws was performed.

Methods

Case 1 was a girl aged 6 years 10 months who had atlantoaxial rotatory fixation with os odontoideum. Atlantoaxial rotatory fixation was incompletely reduced by halo traction, and it was not maintained without halo-ring and -vest fixation. Posterior occipito-axial fixation with bilateral C2 laminar screws was then performed. Case 2 was a boy aged 10 years 7 months who had atlantoaxial subluxation with os odontoideum. He also had incomplete quadriplegia, so he could neither walk nor have a meal by himself. Posterior occipito-axial fixation with right C2 pedicle and left C2 laminar screws was then carried out.

Results

In case 1 bone union was obtained at 3 months after surgery and the patient's symptoms were resolved. In case 2 bone union was obtained at 3 months after surgery and the paralysis was improved.

Conclusions/level of evidence

In cases of atlantoaxial instability due to Down syndrome, symptomatic patients often present between ages 5 and 15 years and mental retardation interferes with postoperative cervical immobilization. C2 laminar screws can be safely applied for the pediatric axis and biomechanically accomplished rigid fixation. The C2 laminar screw is one of the most useful options to achieve stability of the pediatric atlantoaxial complex without the risk of vertebral artery injuries (level IV case series).

Foot-ground interaction during upright standing in children with Down syndrome

This study aimed to quantitatively characterize the main foot-ground contact parameters during static upright standing and to assess foot evolution with increasing age in young individuals affected by Down syndrome (DS). To this end, 99 children with DS of mean age 9.7 (1.7) were tested using a pressure sensitive mat, and the raw data were processed to extract information about overall and rearfoot, midfoot and forefoot contact area, Arch Index (AI) and average contact pressure. The values obtained were then compared with those calculated from a sample of age- and gender-matched participants (control group, CG). Children with DS exhibited larger midfoot and reduced forefoot contact areas with respect to CG participants (+53% and -35% respectively, p<0.001), increased AI values (DS 0.31, CG 0.20, p<0.001) and increased average contact pressures in the midfoot and forefoot. The overall foot development for the two groups followed a similar trend, although in individuals with DS a curve that relates increases in midfoot contact area with age is characterized by a steeper gradient, and the forefoot contact area appeared systematically smaller regardless of age. The large prevalence of the flatfoot type in children with DS (which is known to be originated by hypotonia and ligamentous laxity) associated with the presence of higher average contact pressure in midfoot and forefoot justify the need for careful podiatric surveillance throughout childhood to reduce balance and gait impairment which are likely to affect untreated subjects when they reach adulthood.