Neurodevelopment of HIV-Exposed Uninfected Infants Born to Women With Perinatally Acquired HIV in the United States

Adults with Perinatally Acquired HIV; Emerging Clinical Outcomes and Data Gaps

In resourced settings, adults living with perinatally acquired HIV are approaching the 5th decade of life. Their clinical and psychological outcomes highlight potential future issues for the much larger number of adolescents growing up with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa, and will inform the development of appropriate healthcare services. Lifelong exposure to HIV, and increasingly to antiretroviral therapy throughout growth and development, contrasts with adults acquiring HIV in later life. This review describes the clinical outcomes for adults living with perinatally acquired HIV including post transition mortality, morbidity and retention in care. Rates of viral suppression, drug resistance and immunological function are explored. Co-morbidities focus on metabolic, cardiovascular, respiratory and bone health with quality-of-life data including neurocognitive functioning and mental health. Sexual and reproductive health including vaccine-preventable disease and the prevention of onward transmission to partners and infants are considered. The data gaps and future research questions to optimise outcomes for this emerging adult cohort are highlighted.

Strengthening the evidence to improve health outcomes of children with perinatal HIV exposure

INTRODUCTION

The number of children exposed to HIV and possibly to antiretroviral therapy (ART) in utero and during breastfeeding and are uninfected (HEU) globally will continue to increase from the estimated 15.9 million in 2021.

DISCUSSION

There are still significant gaps in our understanding of the impact of HIV and/or ART exposure in children who are HEU, in terms of prevalence/incidence and severity on health and wellbeing, and long after exposure has ended. While there have been substantial programmatic efforts to support the elimination of vertical transmission of HIV, additional rigorous research is needed to better understand the biological, (psycho)social and structural factors contributing to optimal health for populations who are HEU. Furthermore, the best approaches to address and study the gaps in understanding also need to be explored. Given the scope of the problem including the large numbers of affected people as well as the often limited and competing in-country resources for populations affected by HIV, novel methodologies, including multi-level approaches and advanced analytics, need to be considered.

CONCLUSIONS

A growing population of children who are HEU are maturing into adolescence and young adulthood. Research to advance understanding of the possible negative long-term effects of HIV and/or ART exposure in these youth is supported by the US National Institutes of Health. Both large epidemiological studies and smaller more comprehensive cohort studies may be required to address the complexity of the issue. Integrating both types of studies could allow the establishment of more reliable and validated predictions of which youth who are HEU are at the highest risk for specific negative health outcomes, such as mental health and neurocognitive disorders, and which interventional approaches may be most successful to address specific deficits both in terms of prevention and treatment. Finally, these goals can be more rapidly achieved with data science efforts, data harmonisation between studies and with sustainable data-sharing practices. It is important to expand the commitment to research to identify biological, social and structural drivers, to develop screening tools, and impactful and contextually appropriate interventions to address the health and wellbeing of children who are HEU from birth through adulthood.

Maternal ART throughout gestation prevents caudate volume reductions in neonates who are HIV exposed but uninfected

Introduction

Successful programmes for prevention of vertical HIV transmission have reduced the risk of infant HIV infection in South Africa from 8% in 2008 to below 1% in 2018/2019, resulting in an increasing population of children exposed to HIV perinatally but who are uninfected (HEU). However, the long-term effects of HIV and antiretroviral treatment (ART) exposure on the developing brain are not well understood. Whereas children who are HEU perform better than their HIV-infected counterparts, they demonstrate greater neurodevelopmental delay than children who are HIV unexposed and uninfected (HUU), especially in resource-poor settings. Here we investigate subcortical volumetric differences related to HIV and ART exposure in neonates.

Methods

We included 120 infants (59 girls; 79 HEU) born to healthy women with and without HIV infection in Cape Town, South Africa, where HIV sero-prevalence approaches 30%. Of the 79 HEU infants, 40 were exposed to ART throughout gestation (i.e., mothers initiated ART pre conception; HEU-pre), and 39 were exposed to ART for part of gestation (i.e., mothers initiated ART post conception; HEU-post). Post-conception mothers had a mean (± SD) gestational age (GA) of 15.4 (± 5.7) weeks at ART initiation. Mothers with HIV received standard care fixed drug combination ART (Tenofovir/Efavirenz/Emtricitabine). Infants were imaged unsedated on a 3T Skyra (Siemens, Erlangen, Germany) at mean GA equivalent of 41.5 (± 1.0) weeks. Selected regions (caudate, putamen, pallidum, thalamus, cerebellar hemispheres and vermis, and corpus callosum) were manually traced on T1-weighted images using Freeview.

Results

HEU neonates had smaller left putamen volumes than HUU [β (SE) = −90.3 (45.3), p = 0.05] and caudate volume reductions that depended on ART exposure duration in utero. While the HEU-pre group demonstrated no caudate volume reductions compared to HUU, the HEU-post group had smaller caudate volumes bilaterally [β (SE) = −145.5 (45.1), p = 0.002, and −135.7 (49.7), p = 0.008 for left and right caudate, respectively].

Discussion

These findings from the first postnatal month suggest that maternal ART throughout gestation is protective to the caudate nuclei. In contrast, left putamens were smaller across all HEU newborns, despite maternal ART.

Avaliação do desenvolvimento neuropsicomotor de lactentes expostos ao HIV a partir do modelo da CIF

RESUMO Este estudo objetivou sistematizar e construir um checklist com instrumentos de avaliação do desenvolvimento infantil de acordo com o modelo biopsicossocial da Classificação Internacional de Funcionalidade, Incapacidade e Saúde (CIF) de lactentes nas idades entre 4 e 12 meses expostos ao HIV. Trata-se de um estudo observacional, analítico e longitudinal. Foram utilizados na avaliação e descritos de acordo com as categorias dos domínios da CIF a escala Bayley de desenvolvimento infantil III; o questionário Affordances no Ambiente Domiciliar para o Desenvolvimento Motor - Escala Bebê; o critério de classificação econômica Brasil; e a ficha de avaliação com histórico do lactente. Os instrumentos trabalhados neste estudo contemplam os componentes de estrutura e funções corporais; atividades e participação; e fatores ambientais e pessoais. A descrição dos instrumentos de avaliação do desenvolvimento infantil de lactentes expostos ao HIV, por meio dos constructos e domínios da CIF, permitiu construir um raciocínio clínico durante a avaliação, enfatizando a vigilância do desenvolvimento infantil e a funcionalidade no primeiro ano de vida.

Assessment of the neuropsychomotor development of HIV-exposed infants using the ICF model

ABSTRACT This study aimed to systematize and build a checklist with tools to assess child development according to the biopsychosocial model of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) of infants exposed to HIV, aged from 4 to 12 months. This is an observational, analytical, and longitudinal study. Bayley-III Scale of Infant and Toddler Development; Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development-Infant Scale; Brazilian Criteria of Economic Classification; and infant’s history used in the assessment were described according to the ICF domain categories. The tools used in this study include the components of body structure and functions; activities and participation; environmental and personal factors. The description of the assessment tools in the child development of infants exposed to HIV-by the constructs and domains of the ICF-allowed for the construction of clinical reasoning during the assessment, emphasizing the surveillance of child development and functioning in their first year of life.

Neurodevelopmental Outcomes of Young Children Born to HIV-Infected Mothers: A Pilot Study

Introduction: Over 15 million children who were exposed to HIV perinatally but uninfected (HEU) are alive globally, and they are faced with multiple risk factors for poor neurodevelopment. While children who are HIV-infected (HIV+) appear to have worse neurodevelopmental scores compared to children unexposed and uninfected with HIV (HUU), the evidence is mixed in children who are HEU. This small descriptive pilot study aimed to compare neurodevelopmental scores of children who are HIV+, HEU, and HUU in Kenya. Methods: This cross-sectional pilot study included children ages 18-36 months who were HIV+, HEU, or HUU. Neurodevelopment was assessed, along with sociodemographic, lab, and growth data. Statistical analysis included descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, chi-squared, and adjusted linear regression models. Results: One hundred seventy two were included (n = 24 HIV+; n = 74 HEU; n = 74 HUU). Mothers of children who were HEU experienced more depressive symptoms (p < 0.001). The only neurodevelopmental differences were found among groups was that children who were HIV+ had higher receptive language scores (p = 0.007). Lower height-for-age z-scores and being left home alone were associated with worse neurodevelopmental scores. Conclusions: Being stunted, left completely alone for at least an hour within the last week, and having higher sociodemographic status were associated with worse neurodevelopmental scores. The higher levels of depressive symptoms within mothers of children who are HEU warrants further investigation.