Progress, challenges, and new opportunities for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV under the US President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief

Factors associated with late initiation of antiretroviral therapy in Iran's HIV/AIDS surveillance data

Early initiation of Antiretroviral Treatment (ART) in HIV patients is essential for effectively suppressing the viral load and prognosis. This study utilized National HIV/AIDS Surveillance Data in Iran to identify factors associated factors with the duration to initiate ART. This hybrid cross-sectional historical cohort study was conducted on Iran's National HIV/AIDS Surveillance Data from 2001 to 2019. Sociodemographic characteristics, route of transmission, HIV diagnosis date, and ART initiation date were collected. Multivariable linear and quantile regression models were employed to analyze the duration to initiate ART by considering predictor variables. This study included 17,062 patients (mean age 34.14 ± 10.77 years, 69.49% males). Multivariate quantile regression coefficients varied across different distributions of the dependent variable (i.e., duration to initiate ART) for several independent variables. Generally, male gender, injecting drug use (IDU), and having an HIV-positive spouse were significantly associated with an increased duration to initiate ART (p < 0.05). However, a significant decrease was observed in older patients, those with a university level education, men who had sex with men (MSM), and patients diagnosed after 2016 (p < 0.05). Despite improvements in the duration to initiate ART after implementing the WHO's 2016 program in Iran, various sociodemographic groups were still vulnerable to delayed ART initiation in the region. Therefore, programs including early testing, early ART initiation, active care, educational and cultural interventions, and appropriate incentives are required for these groups.

Combination adherence strategy to support HIV antiretroviral therapy and pre-exposure prophylaxis adherence during pregnancy and breastfeeding: protocol for a pair of pilot randomised trials

INTRODUCTION

To realise the expected gains from prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission initiatives, adherence to preventative and therapeutic antiretroviral regimens is critical and interventions deployable in busy programmatic settings with a high HIV burden are needed. Based on formative research, we developed an approach that integrates patient-centred counselling and engagement of an adherence supporter for pregnant and breastfeeding women initiating HIV treatment (ie, antiretroviral therapy (ART)) or biomedical HIV prevention (ie, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP)).

METHODS

Tonse Pamodzi 2 is a pilot study designed to provide acceptability, fidelity and clinical outcomes data on a set of behavioural interventions for adherence support. The study comprises two parallel randomised trials, enrolling HIV-positive pregnant women initiating ART (Trial 1, n=100) and HIV-negative pregnant women with risk of HIV acquisition and willing to initiate PrEP (Trial 2, n=200). Within each trial, participants are randomised 1:1 to either the intervention or control group. The Tonse Pamodzi adherence intervention comprises patient-centred counselling (adapted Integrated Next Step Counseling(iNSC)) and external adherence support tailored to the clinical context (ie, for ART or PrEP). Participants randomly assigned to the control group receive standard counselling based on local HIV guidelines. Participants are followed for 6 months. To assess intervention acceptability, we will employ a mixed method approach to describe participant engagement, satisfaction, and discussion content. We will audit and score recorded counselling sessions to evaluate the implementation fidelity of iNSC sessions. We will also assess clinical outcomes at 3 and 6 months for both Trial 1 (retention in care and viral suppression of HIV) and Trial 2 (retention in care, and plasma and intracellular tenofovir drug concentrations).

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The study protocol was approved by the Malawi National Health Science Research Committee (19/05/2334) and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Institutional Review Board (19-1060).

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT04330989.

Tonse Pamodzi: Developing a combination strategy to support adherence to antiretroviral therapy and HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis during pregnancy and breastfeeding

To eliminate mother-to-child transmission of HIV (EMTCT), scalable strategies to enhance antiretroviral adherence for both antiretroviral therapy (ART) and pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) are needed as part of integrated HIV and maternal-child health services. We developed Tonse Pamodzi ("all of us together"), an adaptable intervention integrating biomedical and behavioral components to support HIV treatment and prevention. We describe our intervention development process, which comprised formative qualitative research, a review of the literature, and technical input from stakeholders representing the community, health systems, and policymakers. The resulting intervention, described herein, integrates patient-centered counseling and engagement of a patient-selected adherence supporter for pregnant and breastfeeding women initiating ART or PrEP. Patients receiving the intervention engage in Integrated Next Step Counseling (iNSC) sessions delivered by trained counselors to build and maintain adherence skills. Each patient also has the option of selecting an adherence supporter (partner, family member, or friend) who may participate in iNSC sessions and provide adherence support outside of these sessions. This flexible intervention is adaptable not only to ART or PrEP use, but also to the needs and preferences of each woman and the clinical context. If shown to be acceptable and feasible, the Tonse Pamodzi intervention may be an important tool in continuing efforts for EMTCT.

Exploring narratives and advocating support and peer mentorship to improve HIV-positive adolescent mothers' lives in South Africa

Research on adolescent sexuality, health and parenting has gained much attention in recent years. This growing body of research, however, has arguably limited qualitative outputs on HIV-positive adolescent mothers' sexual and reproductive health choices, needs, and rights in South Africa that could lead to informed policymaking. Through in-depth interviews conducted with a select group of ten HIV-positive adolescents and three key informants, the article explores the sexual, motherhood, risk discourses and reproductive health issues and rights of HIV-positive adolescent mothers as they come to terms with choices they have made and the challenges ahead. The findings highlight the dominant narratives on what are deemed to be the forces that shape these adolescent mothers' new social realities. With existing policies in place for adolescents, it is argued that a "one-size-fits-all" policy approach does not work, especially for HIV-positive adolescent mothers. Drawing on this identified gap and the tensions between individual needs, and the public welfare provision, the article highlights the need for tailored policy that will accommodate and promote the overall well-being of HIV-positive adolescent mothers and their children.

Fertility among women living with HIV in western Ethiopia and : a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to examine fertility (live births) in the last 3 years and its associated factors among women living with HIV (WLHIV) in western Ethiopia .

DESIGN

Participants were recruited into a cross-sectional survey using systematic sampling.

SETTINGS

Four healthcare facilities in western Ethiopia were included.

PARTICIPANTS

Eligible participants were WLHIV of reproductive age (15-49 years) from western Ethiopia who found out about their HIV-positive status more than 3 years ago (N=866).

PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES

The fertility (live births) of HIV-positive women in the last 3 years was surveyed using face-to-face interviews (March-June 2018). Logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine factors influencing fertility in the last 3 years.

RESULTS

A total of 108 (12.5%) HIV-positive women gave birth to 121 live children in the last 3 years. Of these births, 18.2% were reported as mistimed at conception, while 26.4% were reported as unwanted. Of the live births, 8.3% ended in death. Of the 76 (62.8%) children with known HIV status born to HIV-positive women in the last 3 years, 7.9% were HIV-positive. In terms of predictors of fertility, women aged 15-24 years (adjusted OR (AOR) 2.72; 95% CI 1.14 to 6.49) and 25-34 years (AOR 4.34; 95% CI 2.61 to 7.21) had increased odds of fertility compared with women aged 35-49 years. Women using antiretroviral therapy (ART) for less than 5 years were more likely to have given birth in the last 3 years compared with those using ART for 10 years or more (AOR 2.96; 95% CI 1.19 to 7.36), even after controlling for age.

CONCLUSIONS

WLHIV in Ethiopia are having children and so it is imperative that safe conception strategies are readily available as well as support to reduce HIV-related risks for children born to these mothers. Strengthening reproductive health services for HIV-positive women in order to achieve their family planning goals is therefore important.

Trends Over Time for Adolescents Enrolling in HIV Care in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda From 2001-2014

BACKGROUND

The data needed to understand the characteristics and outcomes, over time, of adolescents enrolling in HIV care in East Africa are limited.

SETTING

Six HIV care programs in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study included individuals enrolling in HIV care as younger adolescents (10-14 years) and older adolescents (15-19 years) from 2001-2014. Descriptive statistics were used to compare groups at enrollment and antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation over time. The proportion of adolescents was compared with the total number of individuals aged 10 years and older enrolling over time. Competing-risk analysis was used to estimate 12-month attrition after enrollment/pre-ART initiation; post-ART attrition was estimated by Kaplan-Meier method.

RESULTS

A total of 6344 adolescents enrolled between 2001 and 2014. The proportion of adolescents enrolling among all individuals increased from 2.5% (2001-2004) to 3.9% (2013-2014, P < 0.0001). At enrollment, median CD4 counts in 2001-2004 compared with 2013-2014 increased for younger (188 vs. 379 cells/mm, P < 0.0001) and older (225 vs. 427 cells/mm, P < 0.0001) adolescents. At ART initiation, CD4 counts increased for younger (140 vs. 233 cells/mm, P < 0.0001) and older (64 vs. 323 cells/mm, P < 0.0001) adolescents. Twelve-month attrition also increased for all adolescents both after enrollment/pre-ART initiation (4.7% vs. 12.0%, P < 0.001) and post-ART initiation (18.7% vs. 31.2%, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Expanding HIV services and ART coverage was likely associated with earlier adolescent enrollment and ART initiation but also with higher attrition rates before and after ART initiation. Interventions are needed to promote retention in care among adolescents.

HIV prevalence and risk factors in infants born to HIV positive mothers, measured by dried blood spot real-time PCR assay in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Infants infected during pregnancy or while breastfeeding requires early HIV diagnosis at 6 weeks after birth to identify HIV infection and timely treatment. The objective of this work was to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors of HIV among HIV exposed infants in the Tigray regional state, Northern Ethiopia.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted on 350 exposed infants born to HIV seropositive mothers from September 01 to December 30, 2016. Convenient consecutive sampling technique was employed to enroll HIV exposed infants from age 6 weeks to 18 months attending prevention of mother to child transmission (PMCT) clinic at Anti Retroviral Therapy (ART) site facility in Tigray, Ethiopia. Sociodemographic data and associated risk factors were collected using a structured questionnaire. Dried Blood Spot (DBS) samples were collected from each infant and transported by post to Tigray Health Research Institute to detect HIV infection using real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Data were entered into EPI Info version 7, exported and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22. p-value less than 0.05 was deemed to be statistically significant by Fisher's exact test.

RESULTS

Three hundred forty infants (175 males, 165 females) met the criteria for selection during the completion of the study and the overall HIV prevalence was found to be 2.1% (n = 7). The majority of infants were from urban areas (n = 246, 72.4%). 45.5% (5/11, p = 0.001) infants were without ARV prophylaxis, 60% (3/5, p = 0.001) infants born to mothers who did not take maternal PMTCT intervention, 43% (3/7, p = 0.001) infants born to mothers who were not enrolled to ART care, and 6.1% (4/66, p = 0.029) infants of unmarried mothers showed statistically significant difference.

CONCLUSIONS

The overall prevalence of HIV among exposed infants was high but lower than the Millennium Development Goal targets. In order to eliminate the mother to child HIV transmission (MTCT) ARV prophylaxis in infants must be strengthened, and enrollment of HIV positive pregnant women to PMTCT and ART care and treatment is needed.

'If nurses were in our shoes would they breastfeed their own babies?' A qualitative inquiry on challenges faced by breastfeeding mothers on the PMTCT programme in a rural community in Zimbabwe

BACKGROUND

The Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission (PMTCT) of HIV programme in Zimbabwe has had remarkable success despite the country's economic challenges. The aim of this study was to explore the challenges faced by breastfeeding mothers on the PMTCT programme.

METHOD

Narratives from 15 women (age range 19-35 years) were collected at two rural health facilities in Zimbabwe through in-depth interviews over a period of 6 months. Thematic analysis was used to describe breastfeeding mothers' experiences and challenges of being on the PMTCT programme.

RESULTS

The findings suggest that breastfeeding women on the PMTCT programme face challenges that include internal, external and institutional stigma and discrimination. Women reported a sense of powerlessness in decision making on following through with the PMTCT programme and were ambivalent regarding disclosure of their HIV status to their partners and significant others.

CONCLUSION

HIV and AIDS programmes should pay attention to women's readiness for interventions. There is need to understand women's life experiences to ensure informed and targeted programming for PMTCT.

Protocol for the evaluation of the population-level impact of Zimbabwe's prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission program option B+: a community based serial cross-sectional study

Background

WHO recommends that HIV infected women receive antiretroviral therapy (ART) minimally during pregnancy and breastfeeding (“Option B”), or ideally throughout their lives regardless of clinical stage (“Option B+”) (Coovadia et al., Lancet 379:221–228, 2012). Although these recommendations were based on clinical trials demonstrating the efficacy of ART during pregnancy and breastfeeding, the population-level effectiveness of Option B+ is unknown, as are retention on ART beyond the immediate post-partum period, and the relative impact and cost-effectiveness of Option B+ compared to Option A (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 62:148–151, 2013; Ahmed et al., Curr Opin HIV AIDS 8:473–488, 2013). To address these issues, we conducted an impact evaluation of Zimbabwe’s prevention of mother to child transmission programme conducted between 2011 and 2018 using serial, community-based cross-sectional serosurveys, which spanned changes in WHO recommendations. Here we describe the rationale for the design and analysis.

Methods/design

Our method is to survey mother-infant pairs residing in the catchment areas of 157 health facilities randomly selected from 5 of 10 provinces in Zimbabwe. We collect questionnaires, blood samples from mothers and babies for HIV antibody and viral load testing, and verbal autopsies for deceased mothers/babies. Using this approach, we collected data from two previous time points: 2012 (pre-Option A standard of care), 2014 (post-Option A / pre-Option B+) and will collect a third round of data in 2017–18 (post Option B+ implementation) to monitor population-level trends in mother-to-child transmission of HIV (MTCT) and HIV-free infant survival. In addition, we will collect detailed information on facility level factors that may influence service delivery and costs.

Discussion

Although the efficacy of antiretroviral therapy (ART) during pregnancy and breastfeeding for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) has been well-documented in randomized trials, little evidence exists on the population-level impact and cost-effectiveness of Option B+ or the influence of the facility on implementation (Siegfried et al., Cochrane Libr 7:CD003510, 2017). This study will provide essential data on these gaps and will provide estimates on retention in care among Option B+ clients after the breastfeeding period.

Trial registration

NCT03388398 Retrospectively registered January 3, 2018.

Effectiveness of a Lay Counselor-Led Combination Intervention for Retention of Mothers and Infants in HIV Care: A Randomized Trial in Kenya

BACKGROUND

Retention of mothers and infants across the prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) continuum remains challenging. We assessed the effectiveness of a lay worker administered combination intervention compared with the standard of care (SOC) on mother-infant attrition.

METHODS

HIV-positive pregnant women starting antenatal care at 10 facilities in western Kenya were randomized using simple randomization to receive individualized health education, retention/adherence support, appointment reminders, and missed visit tracking vs. routine care per guidelines. The primary endpoint was attrition of mother-infant pairs at 6 months postpartum. Attrition was defined as the proportion of mother-infant pairs not retained in the clinic at 6 months postpartum because of mother or infant death or lost to follow-up. Intent-to-treat analysis was used to assess the difference in attrition. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov; NCT01962220.

RESULTS

From September 2013 to June 2014, 361 HIV-positive pregnant women were screened, and 340 were randomized to the intervention (n = 170) or SOC (n = 170). Median age at enrollment was 26 years (interquartile range 22-30); median gestational age was 24 weeks (interquartile range 17-28). Overall attrition of mother-infant pairs was 23.5% at 6 months postpartum. Attrition was significantly lower in the intervention arm compared with SOC (18.8% vs. 28.2%, relative risk (RR) = 0.67, 95% confidence interval: 0.45 to 0.99, P = 0.04). Overall, the proportion of mothers who were retained and virally suppressed (<1000 copies/mL) at 6 months postpartum was 54.4%, with no difference between study arms.

CONCLUSIONS

Provision of a combination intervention by lay counselors can decrease attrition along the PMTCT cascade in low-resource settings.

Associations between health systems capacity and mother-to-child HIV prevention program outcomes in Zambia

Introduction

Zambia has made substantial investments in health systems capacity, yet it remains unclear whether improved service quality improves outcomes. We investigated the association between health system capacity and use of prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) services in Zambia.

Materials and methods

We analyzed data from two studies conducted in rural and semi-urban Lusaka Province in 2014–2015. Health system capacity, our primary exposure, was measured with a validated balanced scorecard approach. Based on WHO building blocks for health systems strengthening, we derived overall and domain-specific facility scores (range: 0–100), with higher scores indicating greater capacity. Our outcome, community-level maternal antiretroviral drug use at 12 months postpartum, was measured via self-report in a large cohort study evaluating PMTCT program impact. Associations between health systems capacity and our outcome were analyzed via linear regression.

Results

Among 29 facilities, median overall facility score was 72 (IQR:67–74). Median domain scores were: patient satisfaction 75 (IQR 71–78); human resources 85 (IQR:63–87); finance 50 (IQR:50–67); governance 82 (IQR:74–91); service capacity 77 (IQR:68–79); service provision 60 (IQR:52–76). Our programmatic outcome was measured from 804 HIV-infected mothers. Median community-level antiretroviral use at 12 months was 81% (IQR:69–89%). Patient satisfaction was the only domain score significantly associated with 12-month maternal antiretroviral use (β:0.22; p = 0.02). When we excluded the human resources and finance domains, we found a positive association between composite 4-domain facility score and 12-month maternal antiretroviral use in peri-urban but not rural facilities.

Conclusions

In these Zambian health facilities, patient satisfaction was positively associated with maternal antiretroviral 12 months postpartum. The association between overall health system capacity and maternal antiretroviral drug use was stronger in peri-urban versus rural facilities. Additional work is needed to guide strategic investments for improved outcomes in HIV and broader maternal-child health region-wide.

The role of community volunteers in PMTCT programme: Lessons from selected sites in Zambia to strengthen health education on infant feeding and follow-up of HIV-positive mother-infant pair

Background

A global debate surrounding health care delivery at the lowest level of the community has aroused interest among researchers. In settings where skilled health workforce is scarce, the community relies on volunteers to provide care.

Aim

To explore the role of community-based volunteers (CBVs) and their perspectives on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and infant feeding to gain insights into the implementation of prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) interventions at community level.

Setting

The study was conducted in Lusaka using Ngombe and Chelstone health facilities to recruit participants. Fieldwork took place from January 2014 to September 2014.

Methods

An exploratory descriptive qualitative study employing focus group discussions was conducted with CBVs. Convenient sampling was used to recruit 10 participants from each site. All transcribed interviews were imported into the Nvivo 10 for open coding and analysis.

Results

Although the role of community volunteers was to support and teach mothers on infant feeding in relation to HIV, the known cultural norms and practices had a bearing on how they tailored their information on breastfeeding to mothers. However, their link of the community to the health facilities cannot be overemphasised in these settings.

Conclusion

The role of community volunteers in PMTCT interventions can be strengthened by improving their training through use of appropriate educational materials and support of required resources. Lessons from these sites can inform future research to design community-based interventions and develop health education materials that are sensitive to cultural norms and practices in this and similar settings.

UNICEF's contribution to the adoption and implementation of option B+ for preventing mother-to-child transmission of HIV: a policy analysis

BACKGROUND

Between 2011 and 2013, global and national guidelines for preventing mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV shifted to recommend Option B+, the provision of lifelong antiretroviral treatment for all HIV-infected pregnant women.

METHODS

We aimed to analyse how Option B+ reached the policy agenda, and unpack the processes, actors and politics that explain its adoption, with a focus on examining UNICEF's contribution to these events. Analysis drew on published articles and other documentation, 30 key informants interviews with staff at UNICEF, partner organisations and government officials, and country case studies. Cameroon, India, South Africa and Zimbabwe were each visited for 5-8 days. Interview transcripts were analysed using Dedoose software, reviewed several times and then coded thematically.

RESULTS

A national policy initiative in Malawi in 2011, in which the country adopted Option B+, rather than existing WHO recommended regimens, irrevocably placed the policy on the global agenda. UNICEF and other organisations recognised the policy's potential impact and strategically crafted arguments to support it, framing these around operational considerations, cost-effectiveness and values. As 'policy entrepreneurs', these organisations vigorously promoted the policy through a variety of channels and means, overcoming concerted opposition. WHO, on the basis of scanty evidence, released a series of documents towards the policy's endorsement, paving the way for its widespread adoption. National-level policy transformation was rapid and definitive, distinct from previous incremental policy processes. Many organisations, including UNICEF, facilitated these changes in country, acting individually, or in concert.

CONCLUSIONS

The adoption of the Option B+ policy marked a departure from established processes for PMTCT policy formulation which had been led by WHO with the support of technical experts, and in which recommendations were developed following shifts in evidence. Rather, changes were spurred by a country-level initiative, and a set of strategically framed arguments that resonated with funders and country-level actors. This bottom-up approach, supported by normative agencies, was transformative. For UNICEF, alignment between the organisation's country focus and the policy's underpinning values, enabled it to work with partners and accelerate widespread policy change.

Evidence of accessibility and utility of point-of-care diagnostics as an integral part of prevention of mother-to-child transmission services: systematic scoping review protocol

INTRODUCTION

Point-of-care (POC) testing has been shown to help improve healthcare access in resource-limited settings. However, there is paucity of evidence on accessibility of POC testing for prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) in resource-limited settings. We propose to conduct a systematic scoping review to map the evidence on POC testing services for PMTCT.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A scoping review framework, proposed by Arksey and O'Malley, will guide the study. A comprehensive literature search will be performed in the following electronic databases: PubMed, Science Direct, Cochrane Central, Google Scholar and databases within EBSCOhost (Medline and CINAHL). The primary research articles published in peer-reviewed journals and grey articles addressing our question will be included. One reviewer will conduct title screening and the results will be exported to endnote library. Two independent reviewers will perform abstract, then full article screening in parallel. The same process shall be employed to extract data from eligible studies. Data analysis will involve a narrative summary of included studies and thematic content analysis aided by NVIVO software V.11. The mixed methods assessment tool will be used to assess the quality of studies that will be included.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical approval is not applicable to this study. The study findings will be disseminated through publication in a peer-reviewed journal and presentations at conferences related to syphilis, HIV, PMTCT, bacterial infections and POC diagnostics.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42017056267.

Challenges and opportunities of optimal breastfeeding in the context of HIV option B+ guidelines

Background

In 2013, the World Health Organization released a new set of guidelines widely known as Option B+. Prior to that there were guidelines released in 2010. Option B+ recommends lifelong antiretroviral treatment for all pregnant and breastfeeding women living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus. The study aimed at investigating challenges and opportunities in implementing Infant and Young Child Feeding in the context of Prevention of Mother To Child Transmission (PMTCT) guidelines among HIV positive mothers of children aged 0–24 months. The study also examined implications presented by implementing the 2013 PMTCT consolidated guidelines in the transition phase from the 2010 approach in Zambia.

Methods

A mixed methods approach was employed in the descriptive cross sectional study utilizing semi structured questionnaires and Focused Group Discussions. Further, data was captured from the Health Information Management System.

Results

During the PMTCT transition, associated needs and challenges in institutionalizing the enhanced guidelines from option A and B to option B+ were observed. Nonetheless, there was a decline in Mother to Child Transmission (MTCT) of HIV rates with an average of 4%. Mothers faced challenges in complying with optimal breastfeeding practices owing to lack of community support systems and breast infections due to poor breast feeding occasioned by infants’ oral health challenges. Moreover, some mothers were hesitant of lifelong ARVs. Health workers faced programmatic and operational challenges such as compromised counseling services.

Conclusion

Despite the ambitious timelines for PMTCT transition, the need to inculcate new knowledge and vary known practice among mothers and the shift in counseling content for health workers, the consolidated guidelines for PMTCT proved effective. Some mothers were hesitant of lifelong ARVs, rationalizing the debated paradigm that prolonged chemotherapy/polypharmacy may be a future challenge in the success of ART in PMTCT. Conflicting breast feeding practices was a common observation across mothers thus underpinning the need to strongly invigorate Infant and Young Child Feeding information sharing across the continuum of heath care from facility level to community and up to the family; for cultural norms, practices and attitudes enshrined within communities play a vital role in child care.

Psychosocial challenges facing women living with HIV during the perinatal period in rural Uganda

The complexities of navigating pregnancy while living with HIV predispose women to additional stress. Finding ways to minimize psychosocial challenges during the perinatal period may maximize the well-being of mothers living with HIV and their children. The goal of this study was to explore psychosocial challenges experienced by women living with HIV (WLWH) during pregnancy and the postpartum. We conducted individual in-depth interviews with 20 WLWH recruited from an HIV treatment cohort study in Mbarara, Uganda as part of a larger study exploring perinatal depression. We conducted content analyses to identify themes related to challenges of WLWH during pregnancy and the postpartum. Participants had a median age of 33 years [IQR: 28-35], a median of 3 living children [IQR: 2-5], and 95% had achieved HIV-RNA suppression. Challenges were organized around the following themes: HIV -related stigma from health professionals, HIV status disclosure dilemma, unintended pregnancy and intimate partner violence, HIV and environmental structural barriers and distress and fear related to maternal and child health. Stigma centered on discrimination by health care professionals and personal shame associated with being pregnant as a WLWH. This led to difficulty engaging in HIV care, particularly when coupled with structural barriers, such as lack of transportation to clinic. Participants experienced intimate partner violence and lacked support from their partners and family members. Distress and fear about the health and uncertainty about the future of the unborn baby due to maternal deteriorating physical health was common. The perinatal period is a time of stress for WLWH. Challenges experienced by WLWH may compromise successful engagement in HIV care and may reduce quality of life for women and their children. Strategies aimed at alleviating the challenges of WLWH should involve the larger structural environment including partners, family and community member as well as policy makers, funders and program implementers to work together for the common cause. These consolidated efforts may not only lower the risk of psychological distress but has potential to create long lasting solutions to benefit the wider community.

HIV Drug Resistance Among Children Initiating First-Line Antiretroviral Treatment in Uganda

Background: There are limited data on primary human immunodeficiency virus drug resistance (HIVDR) in pediatric populations. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of primary HIVDR and associated risk factors among children initiating first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Uganda.

Methods: At three Ugandan clinics, children (age <12 years) requiring ART were recruited between January 2010 and August 2011. Before starting ART, blood was collected for viral load and pol gene sequencing. Drug resistance mutations were determined using the 2010 International AIDS Society–USA mutation list. Risk factors for HIVDR were assessed with multivariate regression analysis.

Results: Three hundred nineteen HIV-infected children with a median age of 4.9 years were enrolled. Sequencing was successful in 279 children (87.5%). HIVDR was present in 10% of all children and 15.2% of children <3 years. Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), non-NRTI (NNRTI), and dual-class resistance was present in 5.7%, 7.5%, and 3.2%, respectively. HIVDR occurred in 35.7% of prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT)–exposed children, 15.6% in children with unknown PMTCT history, and 7.7% among antiretroviral-naive children. History of PMTCT exposure [adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 2.6, 95% CI: 1.3–5.1] or unknown PMTCT status (AOR: 3.8, 95% CI: 1.1–13.5), low CD4 (AOR: 2.2, 95% CI: 1.3–3.6), current breastfeeding (AOR: 7.4, 95% CI: 2.6–21), and current maternal ART use (AOR: 6.4, 95% CI: 3.4–11.9) emerged as risk factors for primary HIVDR in multivariate analysis.

Conclusion: Pretreatment HIVDR is high, especially in children with PMTCT exposure. Protease inhibitor (PI)–based regimens are advocated by the World Health Organization, but availability in children is limited. Children with (unknown) PMTCT exposure, low CD4 count, current breastfeeding, or maternal ART need to be prioritized to receive PI-based regimens.

Factors associated with initiation of antiretroviral therapy in the advanced stages of HIV infection in six Ethiopian HIV clinics, 2012 to 2013

Introduction

Most HIV-positive persons in sub-Saharan Africa initiate antiretroviral therapy (ART) with advanced infection (late ART initiation). Intervening on the drivers of late ART initiation is a critical step towards achieving the full potential of HIV treatment scale-up. This study aimed to identify modifiable factors associated with late ART initiation in Ethiopia.

Methods

From 2012 to 2013, Ethiopian adults (n=1180) were interviewed within two weeks of ART initiation. Interview data were merged with HIV care histories to assess correlates of late ART initiation (CD4+ count <150 cells/µL or World Health Organization Stage IV).

Results

The median CD4 count at enrolment in HIV care was 263 cells/µL (interquartile range (IQR): 140 to 390) and 212 cells/µL (IQR: 119 to 288) at ART initiation. Overall, 31.2% of participants initiated ART late, of whom 85.1% already had advanced HIV disease at enrolment. Factors associated with higher odds of late ART initiation included male sex (vs. non-pregnant females; adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 2.02; 95% CI: 1.50 to 2.73), high levels of psychological distress (vs. low/none, aOR: 1.96; 95% CI: 1.34 to 2.87), perceived communication barriers with providers (aOR: 2.42, 95% CI: 1.24 to 4.75), diagnosis via provider initiated testing (vs. voluntary counselling and testing, aOR: 1.47, 95% CI: 1.07 to 2.04), tuberculosis (TB) treatment prior to ART initiation (aOR: 2.16, 95% CI: 1.43 to 3.25) and a gap in care of six months or more prior to ART initiation (aOR: 2.02, 95% CI: 1.10 to 3.72). Testing because of partner illness/death (aOR: 0.64, 95% CI: 0.42 to 0.95) was associated with lower odds of late ART initiation.

Conclusions

Programmatic initiatives promoting earlier diagnosis, engagement in pre-ART care, and integration of TB and HIV treatments may facilitate earlier ART initiation. Men and those experiencing psychological distress may also benefit from targeted support prior to ART initiation.

Implementation Research for the Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission in Sub-Saharan Africa: Existing Evidence, Current Gaps, and New Opportunities

Tremendous gains have been made in the prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) in sub-Saharan Africa. Ambitious goals for the "virtual elimination" of pediatric HIV appear increasingly feasible, driven by new scientific advances, forward-thinking health policy, and substantial donor investment. To fulfill this promise, however, rapid and effective implementation of evidence-based practices must be brought to scale across a diversity of settings. The discipline of implementation research can facilitate this translation from policy into practice; however, to date, its core principles and frameworks have been inconsistently applied in the field. We reviewed the recent developments in implementation research across each of the four "prongs" of a comprehensive PMTCT approach. While significant progress continues to be made, a greater emphasis on context, fidelity, and scalability-in the design and dissemination of study results-would greatly enhance current efforts and provide the necessary foundation for future evidence-based programs.

Spatial Distributions of HIV Infection in an Endemic Area of Western Kenya: Guiding Information for Localized HIV Control and Prevention

HIV is still a major health problem in developing countries. Even though high HIV-risk-taking behaviors have been reported in African fishing villages, local distribution patterns of HIV infection in the communities surrounding these villages have not been thoroughly analyzed. The objective of this study was to investigate the geographical distribution patterns of HIV infection in communities surrounding African fishing villages. In 2011, we applied age- and sex-stratified random sampling to collect 1,957 blood samples from 42,617 individuals registered in the Health and Demographic Surveillance System in Mbita, which is located on the shore of Lake Victoria in western Kenya. We used these samples to evaluate existing antibody detection assays for several infectious diseases, including HIV antibody titers. Based on the results of the assays, we evaluated the prevalence of HIV infection according to sex, age, and altitude of participating households. We also used Kulldorff’s spatial scan statistic to test for HIV clustering in the study area. The prevalence of HIV at our study site was 25.3%. Compared with the younger age group (15–19 years), adults aged 30–34 years were 6.71 times more likely to be HIV-positive, and the estimated HIV-positive population among women was 1.43 times larger than among men. Kulldorff’s spatial scan statistic detected one marginally significant (P = 0.055) HIV-positive and one significant HIV-negative cluster (P = 0.047) in the study area. These results suggest a homogeneous HIV distribution in the communities surrounding fishing villages. In addition to individual behavior, more complex and diverse factors related to the social and cultural environment can contribute to a homogeneous distribution pattern of HIV infection outside of African fishing villages. To reduce rates of transmission in HIV-endemic areas, HIV prevention and control programs optimized for the local environment need to be developed.

Implementation and Operational Research: Integration of PMTCT and Antenatal Services Improves Combination Antiretroviral Therapy Uptake for HIV-Positive Pregnant Women in Southern Zambia: A Prototype for Option B+?

BACKGROUND

Early initiation of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) for HIV-positive pregnant women can decrease vertical transmission to less than 5%. Programmatic barriers to early cART include decentralized care, disease-stage assessment delays, and loss to follow-up.

INTERVENTION

Our intervention had 3 components: integrated HIV and antenatal services in 1 location with 1 provider, laboratory courier to expedite CD4 counts, and community-based follow-up of women-infant pairs to improve prevention of mother-to-child transmission attendance. Preintervention HIV-positive pregnant women were referred to HIV clinics for disease-stage assessment and cART initiation for advanced disease (CD4 count <350 cells/μL or WHO stage >2).

METHODS

We used a quasi-experimental design with preintervention/postintervention evaluations at 6 government antenatal clinics (ANCs) in Southern Province, Zambia. Retrospective clinical data were collected from clinic registers during a 7-month baseline period. Postintervention data were collected from all antiretroviral therapy-naive, HIV-positive pregnant women and their infants presenting to ANC from December 2011 to June 2013.

RESULTS

Data from 510 baseline women-infant pairs were analyzed and 624 pregnant women were enrolled during the intervention period. The proportion of HIV-positive pregnant women receiving CD4 counts increased from 50.6% to 77.2% [relative risk (RR) = 1.81; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.57 to 2.08; P < 0.01]. The proportion of cART-eligible pregnant women initiated on cART increased from 27.5% to 71.5% (RR = 2.25; 95% CI: 1.78 to 2.83; P < 0.01). The proportion of eligible HIV-exposed infants with documented 6-week HIV PCR test increased from 41.9% to 55.8% (RR = 1.33; 95% CI: 1.18 to 1.51; P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Integration of HIV care into ANC and community-based support improved uptake of CD4 counts, proportion of cART-eligible women initiated on cART, and infants tested.

Prospects for a Globally Effective HIV-1 Vaccine

A globally effective vaccine strategy must cope with the broad genetic diversity of HIV and contend with multiple transmission modalities. Understanding correlates of protection and the role of diversity in limiting protective vaccines with those correlates is key. RV144 was the first HIV-1 vaccine trial to demonstrate efficacy against HIV-1 infection. A correlates analysis comparing vaccine-induced immune responses in vaccinated-infected and vaccinated-uninfected volunteers suggested that IgG specific for the V1V2 region of gp120 was associated with reduced risk of HIV-1 infection and that plasma Env IgA was directly correlated with infection risk. RV144 and recent non-human primate (NHP) challenge studies suggest that Env is essential and perhaps sufficient to induce protective antibody responses against mucosally acquired HIV-1. Whether RV144 immune correlates can apply to different HIV vaccines, to populations with different modes and intensity of transmission, or to divergent HIV-1 subtypes remains unknown. Newer prime-boost mosaic and conserved sequence immunization strategies aiming at inducing immune responses of greater breadth and depth as well as the development of immunogens inducing broadly neutralizing antibodies should be actively pursued. Efficacy trials are now planned in heterosexual populations in southern Africa and men who have sex with men in Thailand. Although NHP challenge studies may guide vaccine development, human efficacy trials remain key to answer the critical questions leading to the development of a global HIV-1 vaccine for licensure.

Implementation and Operational Research: Effects of Antenatal Care and HIV Treatment Integration on Elements of the PMTCT Cascade: Results From the SHAIP Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial in Kenya

BACKGROUND

Integrating antenatal care (ANC) and HIV care may improve uptake and retention in services along the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) cascade. This study aimed to determine whether integration of HIV services into ANC settings improves PMTCT service utilization outcomes.

METHODS

ANC clinics in rural Kenya were randomized to integrated (6 clinics, 569 women) or nonintegrated (6 clinics, 603 women) services. Intervention clinics provided all HIV services, including highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), whereas control clinics provided PMTCT services but referred women to HIV care clinics within the same facility. PMTCT utilization outcomes among HIV-infected women (maternal HIV care enrollment, HAART initiation, and 3-month infant HIV testing uptake) were compared using generalized estimating equations and Cox regression.

RESULTS

HIV care enrollment was higher in intervention compared with control clinics [69% versus 36%; odds ratio = 3.94, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.14 to 13.63]. Median time to enrollment was significantly shorter among intervention arm women (0 versus 8 days, hazard ratio = 2.20, 95% CI: 1.62 to 3.01). Eligible women in the intervention arm were more likely to initiate HAART (40% versus 17%; odds ratio = 3.22, 95% CI: 1.81 to 5.72). Infant testing was more common in the intervention arm (25% versus 18%), however, not statistically different. No significant differences were detected in postnatal service uptake or maternal retention.

CONCLUSIONS

Service integration increased maternal HIV care enrollment and HAART uptake. However, PMTCT utilization outcomes were still suboptimal, and postnatal service utilization remained poor in both study arms. Further improvements in the PMTCT cascade will require additional research and interventions.

Implementation and Operational Research: Effect of Integration of HIV Care and Treatment Into Antenatal Care Clinics on Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission and Maternal Outcomes in Nyanza, Kenya: Results From the SHAIP Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Many HIV-infected pregnant women identified during antenatal care (ANC) do not enroll in long-term HIV care, resulting in deterioration of maternal health and continued risk of HIV transmission to infants.

METHODS

We performed a cluster randomized trial to evaluate the effect of integrating HIV care into ANC clinics in rural Kenya. Twelve facilities were randomized to provide either integrated services (ANC, prevention of mother-to-child transmission, and HIV care delivered in the ANC clinic; n = 6 intervention facilities) or standard ANC services (including prevention of mother-to-child transmission and referral to a separate clinic for HIV care; n = 6 control facilities).

RESULTS

There were high patient attrition rates over the course of this study. Among study participants who enrolled in HIV care, there was 12-month follow-up data for 256 of 611 (41.8%) women and postpartum data for only 325 of 1172 (28%) women. By 9 months of age, 382 of 568 (67.3%) infants at intervention sites and 338 of 594 (57.0%) at control sites had tested for HIV [odds ratio (OR) 1.45, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.71 to 2.82]; 7.3% of infants tested HIV positive at intervention sites compared with 8.0% of infants at control sites (OR 0.89, 95% CI: 0.56 to 1.43). The composite clinical/immunologic progression into AIDS was similar in both arms (4.9% vs. 5.1%, OR 0.83, 95% CI: 0.41 to 1.68).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the provision of integrated services, patient attrition was substantial in both arms, suggesting barriers beyond lack of service integration. Integration of HIV services into the ANC clinic was not associated with a reduced risk of HIV transmission to infants and did not appear to affect short-term maternal health outcomes.

Supporting Option B+ scale up and strengthening the prevention of mother-to-child transmission cascade in central Malawi: results from a serial cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

We established Safeguard the Family (STF) to support Ministry of Health (MoH) scale-up of universal antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV-infected pregnant and breastfeeding women (Option B+) and to strengthen the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) cascade from HIV testing and counseling (HTC) through maternal ART provision and post-delivery early infant HIV diagnosis (EID). To these ends, we implemented the following interventions in 5 districts: 1) health worker training and mentorship; 2) couples' HTC and male partner involvement; 3) women's psychosocial support groups; and 4) health and laboratory system strengthening for EID.

METHODS

We conducted a serial cross-sectional study using facility-level quarterly (Q) program data and individual-level infant HIV-1 DNA PCR data to evaluate STF performance on PMTCT indicators for project years (Y) 1 (April-December 2011) through 3 (January-December 2013), and compared these results to national averages.

RESULTS

Facility-level uptake of HTC, ART, infant nevirapine prophylaxis, and infant DNA PCR testing increased significantly from quarterly baselines of 66 % (n/N = 32,433/48,804), 23 % (n/N = 442/1,958), 1 % (n/N = 10/1,958), and 52 % (n/N = 1,385/2,644) to 87 % (n/N = 39,458/45,324), 96 % (n/N = 2,046/2,121), 100 % (n/N = 2,121/2,121), and 62 % (n/N = 1,462/2,340), respectively, by project end (all p < 0.001). Quarterly HTC, ART, and infant nevirapine prophylaxis uptake outperformed national averages over years 2-3. While transitioning EID laboratory services to MoH, STF provided first-time HIV-1 DNA PCR testing for 2,226 of 11,261 HIV-exposed infants (20 %) tested in the MoH EID program in STF districts from program inception (Y2) through Y3. Of these, 78 (3.5 %) tested HIV-positive. Among infants with complete documentation (n = 608), median age at first testing decreased from 112 days (interquartile range, IQR: 57-198) in Y2 to 76 days (IQR: 46-152) in Y3 (p < 0.001). During Y3 (only year with national data for comparison), non-significantly fewer exposed infants tested HIV-positive (3.6 %) at first testing in STF districts than nationally (4.1 %) (p = 0.4).

CONCLUSIONS

STF interventions, integrated within the MoH Option B+ program, achieved favorable HTC, maternal ART, infant prophylaxis, and EID services uptake, and a low proportion of infants found HIV-infected at first DNA PCR testing. Continued investments are needed to strengthen the PMTCT cascade, particularly around EID.

Eliminating mother-to-child transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus in sub-Saharan Africa: The journey so far and what remains to be done

This review was carried out to provide a comprehensive overview of efforts toward elimination of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) with respect to progress, challenges, and recommendations in 21 sub-Saharan African priority countries. We reviewed literature published from 2011 to April 2015 using 3 databases; PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, as well as the 2014 Global Plan Progress Report. A total of 39 studies were included. Between 2009 and 2013, there was a 43% reduction in new HIV infections, the final MTCT rate was reduced from 28% to 18%, and antiretroviral therapy (ART) coverage increased from 11% to 24%. Challenges included poor adherence to antiretroviral therapy, poor linkage between mother-child pairs and post-natal healthcare services low early infant diagnosis coverage, low pediatric ART coverage, and high unmet needs for contraceptive services. Future recommendations include identification of key barriers, health system strengthening, strengthening community involvement, and international collaboration. There has been significant progress toward eliminating MTCT of HIV, but more effort is still needed.

Prospects for a globally effective HIV-1 vaccine

A globally effective vaccine strategy must cope with the broad genetic diversity of HIV and contend with multiple transmission modalities. Understanding correlates of protection and the role of diversity in limiting protective vaccines with those correlates is key. RV144 was the first HIV-1 vaccine trial to demonstrate efficacy against HIV-1 infection. A correlates analysis compared vaccine-induced immune responses in vaccinated-infected and vaccinated-uninfected volunteers suggested that IgG specific for the V1V2 region of gp120 was associated with reduced risk of HIV-1 infection and that plasma Env IgA was directly correlated with infection risk. RV144 and recent NHP challenge studies suggest that Env is essential and perhaps sufficient to induce protective antibody responses against mucosally acquired HIV-1. Whether RV144 immune correlates can apply to different HIV vaccines, to populations with different modes and intensity of transmission, or to divergent HIV-1 subtypes remains unknown. Newer prime-boost mosaic and conserved sequence immunization strategies aiming at inducing immune responses of greater breadth and depth as well as the development of immunogens inducing broadly neutralizing antibodies should be actively pursued. Efficacy trials are now planned in heterosexual populations in southern Africa and MSM in Thailand. Although NHP challenge studies may guide vaccine development, human efficacy trials remain key to answer the critical questions leading to the development of a global HIV-1 vaccine for licensure.

Estimating the impact of the US President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief on HIV treatment and prevention programmes in Africa

BACKGROUND

Since 2004, the US President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) has supported the tremendous scale-up of HIV prevention, care and treatment services, primarily in sub-Saharan Africa. We evaluate the impact of antiretroviral treatment (ART), prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) and voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) programmes on survival, mortality, new infections and the number of orphans from 2004 to 2013 in 16 PEPFAR countries in Africa.

METHODS

PEPFAR indicators tracking the number of persons receiving ART for their own health, ART regimens for PMTCT and biomedical prevention of HIV through VMMC were collected across 16 PEPFAR countries. To estimate the impact of PEPFAR programmes for ART, PMTCT and VMMC, we compared the current scenario of PEPFAR-supported interventions to a counterfactual scenario without PEPFAR, and assessed the number of life years gained (LYG), number of orphans averted and HIV infections averted. Mathematical modelling was conducted using the SPECTRUM modelling suite V.5.03.

RESULTS

From 2004 to 2013, PEPFAR programmes provided support for a cumulative number of 24 565 127 adults and children on ART, 4 154 878 medical male circumcisions, and ART for PMTCT among 4 154 478 pregnant women in 16 PEPFAR countries. Based on findings from the model, these efforts have helped avert 2.9 million HIV infections in the same period. During 2004-2013, PEPFAR ART programmes alone helped avert almost 9 million orphans in 16 PEPFAR countries and resulted in 11.6 million LYG.

CONCLUSIONS

Modelling results suggest that the rapid scale-up of PEPFAR-funded ART, PMTCT and VMMC programmes in Africa during 2004-2013 led to substantially fewer new HIV infections and orphaned children during that time and longer lives among people living with HIV. Our estimates do not account for the impact of the PEPFAR-funded non-biomedical interventions such as behavioural and structural interventions included in the comprehensive HIV prevention, care and treatment strategy used by PEPFAR countries. Therefore, the number of HIV infections and orphans averted and LYG may be underestimated by these models.

Update on the Epidemiology and Prevention of HIV/AIDS in the United States

This update on the epidemiology and prevention of HIV in the United States is intended to provide contextual background that will help inform an understanding of recent developments in the domestic HIV epidemic. We describe the epidemiology of HIV disease in the US and the HIV continuum of care based on data collected primarily through HIV surveillance systems led by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention including HIV incidence, prevalence, comorbidities and death. Populations and geographic regions disparately impacted by HIV are also highlighted. The HIV prevention armamentarium is also described including behavioral approaches to prevention, the emerging availability of biomedical prevention interventions such as pre-exposure prophylaxis, and structural and population-level interventions including treatment as prevention. Finally gaps in our understanding of the epidemic are underscored and suggestions for future epidemiologic research are proposed.

New prospects for a preventive HIV-1 vaccine

The immune correlates of risk analysis and recent non-human primate (NHP) challenge studies have generated hypotheses that suggest HIV-1 envelope may be essential and, perhaps, sufficient to induce protective antibody responses against HIV-1 acquisition at the mucosal entry. New prime-boost mosaic and conserved-sequence, together with replicating vector immunisation strategies aiming at inducing immune responses or greater breadth, as well as the development of immunogens inducing broadly neutralising antibodies and mucosal responses, should be actively pursued and tested in humans. Whether the immune correlates of risk identified in RV144 can be extended to other vaccines, other populations, or different modes and intensity of transmission, and against increasing HIV-1 genetic diversity, remains to be demonstrated. Although NHP challenge studies may guide vaccine development, human efficacy trials remain key for answering the critical questions leading to the development of a global HIV-1 vaccine for licensure.

Investments in blood safety improve the availability of blood to underserved areas in a sub-Saharan African country

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Since 2004, several African countries, including Namibia, have received assistance from the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). Gains have been documented in the safety and number of collected units in these countries, but the distribution of blood has not been described.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nine years of data on blood requests and issues from Namibia were stratified by region to describe temporal and spatial changes in the number and type of blood components issued to Namibian healthcare facilities nationally.

RESULTS

Between 2004 and 2007 (early years of PEPFAR support) and 2008-2011 (peak years of PEPFAR support), the average number of red cell units issued annually increased by 23.5% in seven densely populated but less-developed regions in northern Namibia; by 30% in two regions with urban centres; and by 35.1% in four sparsely populated rural regions.

CONCLUSION

Investments in blood safety and a policy decision to emphasize distribution of blood to underserved regions improved blood availability in remote rural areas and increased the proportion of units distributed as components. However, disparities persist in the distribution of blood between Namibia's urban and rural regions.

A systematic review of psychological functioning of children exposed to HIV: using evidence to plan for tomorrow's HIV needs

Prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV can virtually eliminate paediatric HIV infection. Studies are needed to understand child development outcomes for children exposed to HIV in utero but born HIV negative (HIV affected children). This systematic review examined cognitive, developmental and behavioural outcomes for HIV affected children compared to control unexposed and uninfected children. Key word searches of electronic databases generated 1,739 hits and 11 studies with adequate quality design and measures of standardised cognitive, behavioural and developmental indices. Cognitive performance, behaviour and developmental delay were measured with 15 different standardised scales from 650 HIV affected children, 736 control children and 205 HIV positive children. Performance scores for HIV affected children were significantly lower than controls in at least one measure in 7/11 studies. An emerging pattern of delay seems apparent. HIV affected children will grow in number and their development needs to be monitored and provided for.

Temporal changes in the outcomes of HIV-exposed infants in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo during a period of rapidly evolving guidelines for care (2007-2013)

OBJECTIVE

Guidelines for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV have developed rapidly, yet little is known about how outcomes of HIV-exposed infants have changed over time. We describe HIV-exposed infant outcomes in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, between 2007 and 2013.

DESIGN

Cohort study of mother-infant pairs enrolled in family-centered comprehensive HIV care.

METHODS

Accounting for competing risks, we estimated the cumulative incidences of early infant diagnosis, HIV transmission, death, loss to follow-up, and combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) initiation for infants enrolled in three periods (2007-2008, 2009-2010, and 2011-2012).

RESULTS

1707 HIV-exposed infants enrolled at a median age of 2.6 weeks. Among infants whose mothers had recently enrolled into HIV care (N = 1411), access to EID by age two months increased from 28% (95% confidence limits [CL]: 24,34%) among infants enrolled in 2007-2008 to 63% (95% CL: 59,68%) among infants enrolled in 2011-2012 (Gray's p-value <0.01). The 18-month cumulative incidence of HIV declined from 16% (95% CL: 11,22%) for infants enrolled in 2007-2008 to 11% (95% CL: 8,16%) for infants enrolled in 2011-2012 (Gray's p-value = 0.19). The 18-month cumulative incidence of death also declined, from 8% (95% CL: 5,12%) to 3% (95% CL: 2,5%) (Gray's p-value = 0.02). LTFU did not improve, with 18-month cumulative incidences of 19% (95% CL: 15,23%) for infants enrolled in 2007-2008 and 22% (95% CL: 18,26%) for infants enrolled in 2011-2012 (Gray's p-value = 0.06). Among HIV-infected infants, the 24-month cumulative incidence of cART increased from 61% (95% CL: 43,75%) to 97% (95% CL: 82,100%) (Gray's p-value <0.01); the median age at cART decreased from 17.9 to 9.3 months. Outcomes were better for infants whose mothers enrolled before pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed encouraging improvements, but continued efforts are needed.

Uptake of prevention of mother-to-child-transmission using Option B+ in northern rural Malawi: a retrospective cohort study

To identify points of dropout on the pathway from offering HIV testing to maintenance on antiretroviral therapy (ART), following the introduction of the Option B+ policy for pregnant women in Malawi (lifelong ART for HIV-positive mothers and 6 weeks nevirapine for the infants), a retrospective cohort study within a demographic surveillance system in northern Malawi. Women living in the demographic surveillance system who initiated antenatal care (ANC) between July 2011 (date of policy change) and January 2013, were eligible for inclusion. Women who consented were interviewed at home about their health facility attendance and care since pregnancy, including antenatal clinic (ANC) visits, delivery and postpartum care. Women's reports, patient-held health records and clinic health records were manually linked to ascertain service use. Among 395 women, 86% had tested for HIV before the pregnancy, 90% tested or re-tested at the ANC visit, and <1% had never tested. Among 53 mothers known to be HIV-positive before attending ANC, 15 (28%) were already on ART prior to pregnancy. Ten women tested HIV-positive for the first time during pregnancy. Of the 47 HIV-positive mothers not already on ART, 26/47 (55%) started treatment during pregnancy. All but five women who started ART were still on treatment at the time of study interview. HIV testing was almost universal and most women who initiated ART were retained in care. However, nearly half of eligible pregnant women not on ART at the start of ANC had not taken up the invitation to initiate (lifelong) ART by the time of delivery, leaving their infants potentially HIV-exposed.

HIV-1 vaccines: challenges and new perspectives

The development of a safe and effective preventive HIV-1 vaccine remains a public health priority. Despite scientific difficulties and disappointing results, HIV-1 vaccine clinical development has, for the first time, established proof-of-concept efficacy against HIV-1 acquisition and identified vaccine-associated immune correlates of risk. The correlate of risk analysis showed that IgG antibodies against the gp120 V2 loop correlated with decreased risk of HIV infection, while Env-specific IgA directly correlated with increased risk. The development of vaccine strategies such as improved envelope proteins formulated with potent adjuvants and DNA and vectors expressing mosaics, or conserved sequences, capable of eliciting greater breadth and depth of potentially relevant immune responses including neutralizing and non-neutralizing antibodies, CD4+ and CD8+ cell-mediated immune responses, mucosal immune responses, and immunological memory, is now proceeding quickly. Additional human efficacy trials combined with other prevention modalities along with sustained funding and international collaboration remain key to bring an HIV-1 vaccine to licensure.

HLA-G 14 bp deletion/insertion polymorphism and mother-to-child transmission of HIV

The human leukocyte antigen HLA-G, highly expressed at the maternal-fetal interface, has a pivotal role in mediating immune tolerance. In this study we investigated the influence of HLA-G 14 bp insertion polymorphism in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 mother-to-child HIV-1 transmission. The 14 bp insertion polymorphism was analyzed among 99 HIV-1 positive mothers and 329 infants born to HIV-positive mothers in Zambia, among whom vertical transmission status and timing had been determined. HLA-G 14 bp insertion polymorphism was detected using a custom TaqMan single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) genotyping assay. Logistic regression was conducted to examine the associations between HLA-G alleles and the risk of HIV transmission. The 14 bp insertion allele was more frequent in HIV exposed-uninfected (EU) infants than in infected infants, and was associated with reduced risk of both in utero (IU) and intrapartum (IP) HIV transmission, after adjusting for maternal cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) cell count and plasma viral load. Maternal HLA-G 14 bp insertion genotype and HLA-G concordance between mother and child were not associated with the risk of perinatal HIV transmission. The presence of the 14 bp insertion associates with protection toward IU and IP HIV infection in children from Zambia, suggesting that HLA-G could be involved in the vertical transmission of HIV.

The role of family planning in elimination of new pediatric HIV infection

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

We reviewed recent literature on the role of family planning in eliminating new pediatric HIV infections.

RECENT FINDINGS

Global commitments to eliminate new pediatric HIV infections recognize that preventing unintended pregnancies among women with HIV is essential to achieving this goal. However, substantial shortcomings exist in translating this policy support into widespread practice. Programs to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV continue to be implemented and evaluated as a narrow set of interventions that typically begins in antenatal care, after a woman is already pregnant. In addition, data suggest that women living with HIV experience high rates of unmet need for family planning and unintended pregnancies. Evidence is growing that integrating family planning and HIV services is an effective strategy for increasing access to contraception among women with HIV who do not wish to become pregnant. A number of health system obstacles must be resolved to achieve effective, sustained delivery of integrated services at scale.

SUMMARY

Prevention of unintended pregnancies among women with HIV must be elevated as a programmatic priority. By strengthening family planning programs for all women, and better integrating family planning and HIV services, progress toward ending new pediatric HIV infections will be accelerated.

Prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission within the continuum of maternal, newborn, and child health services

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To reach virtual elimination of pediatric HIV, programs for the prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) must expand coverage and achieve long-term retention of mothers and infants. Although PMTCT have been traditionally aligned with maternal, newborn, and child health (MNCH) services, novel approaches are needed to address the increasing demands of evolving global PMTCT policies.

RECENT FINDINGS

PMTCT-MNCH integration has improved the uptake and timely initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) among treatment-eligible pregnant women in public health settings. Postpartum engagement of HIV-infected mothers and HIV-exposed infants has been insufficient, although alignment of visits to the childhood immunization schedule and establishment of integrated mother-infant clinics may increase retention. Evidence also suggests that the integration of maternal HIV testing into childhood immunization clinics can significantly increase the identification of at-risk HIV-exposed infants previously missed by traditional PMTCT models.

SUMMARY

Targeted service integration models can improve PMTCT uptake. However, as global PMTCT policy shifts to universal provision of maternal ART during pregnancy (i.e., Option B/B+), these findings must be reexamined in the context of increased service demand and systems burden. Intensive evaluation is needed to ensure quality clinical care is maintained both for PMTCT and for underpinning MNCH services.

A prospective study of the effect of pregnancy on CD4 counts and plasma HIV-1 RNA concentrations of antiretroviral-naive HIV-1-infected women

BACKGROUND

In HIV-1-infected women, CD4 count declines occur during pregnancy, which has been attributed to hemodilution. However, for women who have not initiated antiretroviral therapy, it is unclear if CD4 declines are sustained beyond pregnancy and accompanied by increased viral levels, which could indicate an effect of pregnancy on accelerating HIV-1 disease progression.

METHODS

In a prospective study among 2269 HIV-1-infected antiretroviral therapy-naive women from 7 African countries, we examined the effect of pregnancy on HIV-1 disease progression. We used linear mixed models to compare CD4 counts and plasma HIV-1 RNA concentrations between pregnant, postpartum, and nonpregnant periods.

RESULTS

Women contributed 3270 person-years of follow-up, during which time 476 women became pregnant. In adjusted analysis, CD4 counts were an average of 56 (95% confidence interval: 39 to 73) cells/mm lower during pregnant compared with nonpregnant periods and 70 (95% confidence interval: 53 to 88) cells/mm lower during pregnant compared with postpartum periods; these results were consistent when restricted to the subgroup of women who became pregnant. Plasma HIV-1 RNA concentrations were not different between pregnant and nonpregnant periods (P = 0.9) or pregnant and postpartum periods (P = 0.3). Neither CD4 counts nor plasma HIV-1 RNA levels were significantly different in postpartum compared with nonpregnant periods.

CONCLUSIONS

CD4 count declines among HIV-1-infected women during pregnancy are temporary and not sustained in postpartum periods. Pregnancy does not have a short-term impact on plasma HIV-1 RNA concentrations.

The role of health systems and policy in producing behavior and social change to enhance child survival and development in low- and middle-income countries: an examination of the evidence

Evidence-based behavior change interventions addressing health systems must be identified and disseminated to improve child health outcomes. Studies of the efficacy of such interventions were identified from systematic searches of the published literature. Two hundred twenty-nine of the initially identified references were judged to be relevant and were further reviewed for the quality and strength of the evidence. Studies were eligible if an intervention addressed policy or health systems interventions, measured relevant behavioral or health outcomes (e.g., nutrition, childhood immunization, malaria prevention and treatment), used at least a moderate quality research design, and were implemented in low- or middle-income countries. Policy or systems interventions able to produce behavior change reviewed included media (e.g., mass media, social media), community mobilization, educational programs (for caregivers, communities, or providers), social marketing, opinion leadership, economic incentives (for both caregiver and provider), health systems strengthening/policy/legislation, and others. Recommendations for policy, practice, and research are given based on fairly strong data across the areas of health service delivery, health workforce, health financing, governance and leadership, and research.

Antiretroviral drug regimens to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV: a review of scientific, program, and policy advances for sub-Saharan Africa

Considerable advances have been made in the effort to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) in sub-Saharan Africa. Clinical trials have demonstrated the efficacy of antiretroviral regimens to interrupt HIV transmission through the antenatal, intrapartum, and postnatal periods. Scientific discoveries have been rapidly translated into health policy, bolstered by substantial investment in health infrastructure capable of delivering increasingly complex services. A new scientific agenda is also emerging, one that is focused on the challenges of effective and sustainable program implementation. Finally, global campaigns to "virtually eliminate" pediatric HIV and dramatically reduce HIV-related maternal mortality have mobilized new resources and renewed political will. Each of these developments marks a major step in regional PMTCT efforts; their convergence signals a time of rapid progress in the field, characterized by an increased interdependency between clinical research, program implementation, and policy. In this review, we take stock of recent advances across each of these areas, highlighting the challenges--and opportunities--of improving health services for HIV-infected mothers and their children across the region.

Advanced HIV disease at entry into HIV care and initiation of antiretroviral therapy during 2006-2011: findings from four sub-saharan African countries

BACKGROUND

Timely antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation requires early diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection with prompt enrollment and engagement in HIV care.

METHODS

We examined programmatic data on 334 557 adults enrolling in HIV care, including 149 032 who initiated ART during 2006-2011 at 132 facilities in Kenya, Mozambique, Rwanda, and Tanzania. We examined trends in advanced HIV disease (CD4+ count <100 cells/μL or World Health Organization disease stage IV) and determinants of advanced HIV disease at ART initiation.

RESULTS

Between 2006-2011, the median CD4+ count at ART initiation increased from 125 to 185 cells/μL an increase of 10 cells/year. Although the proportion of patients initiating ART with advanced HIV disease decreased from 42% to 29%, sex disparities widened. In 2011, the odds of advanced disease at ART initiation were higher among men (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.4; 95% CI, 1.3-1.5), those on tuberculosis treatment (AOR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.3-2.0), and those with a ≥ 12 month gap in pre-ART care (AOR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.6-2.6).

CONCLUSIONS

Intensified efforts are needed to identify and link HIV-infected individuals to care earlier and to retain them in continuous pre-ART care to facilitate more timely ART initiation.

Can combination prevention strategies reduce HIV transmission in generalized epidemic settings in Africa? The HPTN 071 (PopART) study plan in South Africa and Zambia

The HIV Prevention Trials Network (HPTN) is conducting the HPTN 071 (PopART) study in 21 communities in Zambia and South Africa with support from a consortium of funders. HPTN 071 (PopART) is a community-randomized trial of a combination prevention strategy to reduce HIV incidence in the context of the generalized epidemic of southern Africa. The full PopART intervention strategy is anchored in home-based HIV testing and facilitated linkage of HIV-infected persons to care through community health workers and universal antiretroviral therapy for seropositive persons regardless of CD4+ cell count or HIV viral load. To further reduce the risk of HIV acquisition among uninfected individuals, the study aims to expand voluntary medical male circumcision, diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections, behavioral counseling, and condom distribution. The full PopART intervention strategy also incorporates promotion of other interventions designed to reduce HIV and tuberculosis transmission, including optimization of the prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission and enhanced individual and public health tuberculosis services. Success for the PopART strategy depends on the ability to increase coverage for the study interventions whose uptake is a necessary antecedent to a prevention effect. Processes will be measured to assess the degree of penetration of the interventions into the communities. A randomly sampled population cohort from each community will be used to measure the impact of the PopART strategy on HIV incidence over 3 years. We describe the strategy being tested and progress to date in the HPTN 071 (PopART) study.

Pediatric AIDS in the elimination agenda

Scott Kellerman and colleagues argue that the scope of the current HIV elimination agenda must be broadened in order to ensure access to care and treatment for all children living with HIV. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary

Impact of an innovative approach to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV--Malawi, July 2011-September 2012

Antiretroviral medications can reduce rates of mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to less than 5%. However, in 2011, only 57% of HIV-infected pregnant women in low- and middle-income countries received a World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended regimen for prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT), and an estimated 300,000 infants acquired HIV infection from their mothers in sub-Saharan Africa; 15,700 (5.2%) of these infants were born in Malawi. An important barrier to PMTCT in Malawi is the limited laboratory capacity for CD4 cell count, which is recommended by WHO to determine which antiretroviral medications to start. In the third quarter of 2011, the Malawi Ministry of Health (MOH) implemented an innovative approach (called "Option B+"), in which all HIV-infected pregnant and breastfeeding women are eligible for lifelong antiretroviral therapy (ART) regardless of CD4 count. Since that time, several countries (including Rwanda, Uganda, and Haiti) have adopted the Option B+ policy, and WHO was prompted to release a technical update in April 2012 describing the advantages and challenges of this approach as well as the need to evaluate country experiences with Option B+. Using data collected through routine program supervision, this report is the first to summarize Malawi's experience implementing Option B+ under the direction of the MOH and supported by the Office of the Global AIDS Coordinator (OGAC) through the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR). In Malawi, the number of pregnant and breastfeeding women started on ART per quarter increased by 748%, from 1,257 in the second quarter of 2011 (before Option B+ implementation) to 10,663 in the third quarter of 2012 (1 year after implementation). Of the 2,949 women who started ART under Option B+ in the third quarter of 2011 and did not transfer care, 2,267 (77%) continue to receive ART at 12 months; this retention rate is similar to the rate for all adults in the national program. Option B+ is an important innovation that could accelerate progress in Malawi and other countries toward the goal of eliminating mother-to-child transmission of HIV worldwide.