Recent advances in status epilepticus

Status epilepticus: Is there a Stage 1 plus?

In status epilepticus (SE), "time is brain." Currently, first-line therapy consists of benzodiazepines (BDZs) and SE is classified by the response to treatment; stage 2 or established SE is defined as "BDZ-resistant SE." Nonetheless, this classification does not always work, especially in the case of prolonged convulsive SE, where many molecular changes occur and γ-aminobutyric acid signaling becomes excitatory. Under these circumstances, BDZ therapy might not be optimal, and might be possibly detrimental, if given alone; as the duration of SE increases, so too does BDZ resistance. Murine models of SE showed how these cases might benefit more from synergistic combined therapy from the start. The definition of Stage 1 plus is suggested, as a stage requiring combined therapy from the start, which includes prolonged SE with seizure activity going on for >10 min, the time that marks the disruption of receptor homeostasis, with increased internalization. This specific stage might require a synergistic approach from the start, with a combination of first- and second-line treatment.

SREBP1 deficiency diminishes glutamate-mediated HT22 cell damage and hippocampal neuronal pyroptosis induced by status epilepticus

Status epilepticus (SE) is a life-threatening disorder that can result in death or severe brain damage, and there is a substantial body of evidence suggesting a strong association between pyroptosis and SE. Sterol regulatory element binding protein 1 (SREBP1) is a significant transcription factor participating in both lipid homeostasis and glucose metabolism. However, the function of SREBP1 in pyroptosis during SE remains unknown. In this study, we established a SE rat model by intraperitoneal injection of lithium chloride and pilocarpine in vivo. Additionally, we treated HT22 hippocampal cells with glutamate to create neuronal injury models in vitro. Our results demonstrated a significant induction of SREBP1, inflammasomes, and pyroptosis in the hippocampus of SE rats and glutamate-treated HT22 cells. Moreover, we found that SREBP1 is regulated by the mTOR signaling pathway, and inhibiting mTOR signaling contributed to the amelioration of SE-induced hippocampal neuron pyroptosis, accompanied by a reduction in SREBP1 expression. Furthermore, we conducted siRNA-mediated knockdown of SREBP1 in HT22 cells and observed a significant reversal of glutamate-induced cell death, activation of inflammasomes, and pyroptosis. Importantly, our confocal immunofluorescence analysis revealed the co-localization of SREBP1 and NLRP1. In conclusion, our findings suggest that deficiency of SREBP1 attenuates glutamate-induced HT22 cell injury and hippocampal neuronal pyroptosis in rats following SE. Targeting SREBP1 may hold promise as a therapeutic strategy for SE.

N-Formyl-Methionyl-Leucyl-Phenylalanine Plays a Neuroprotective and Anticonvulsant Role in Status Epilepticus Model

Status epilepticus (SE) is described as continuous and self-sustaining seizures, which triggers hippocampal neurodegeneration, inflammation, and gliosis. N-formyl peptide receptor (FPR) has been associated with inflammatory process. N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP) peptide plays an anti-inflammatory role, mediated by the activation of G-protein-coupled FPR. Here, we evaluated the influence of fMLP peptides on the behavior of limbic seizures, memory consolidation, and hippocampal neurodegeneration process. Male Wistar rats (Rattus norvegicus) received microinjections of pilocarpine in hippocampus (H-PILO, 1.2 mg/μL, 1 μL) followed by fMLP (1 mg/mL, 1 μL) or vehicle (VEH, saline 0.9%, 1 μL). During the 90 min of SE, epileptic seizures were analyzed according to the Racine's Scale. After 24 h of SE, memory impairment was assessed by the inhibitory avoidance test and the neurodegeneration process was evaluated in hippocampal areas. There was no change in latency and number of wet dog shake (WDS) after administration of fMLP. However, our results showed that the intrahippocampal infusion of fMLP reduced the severity of seizures, as well as the number of limbic seizures. In addition, fMLP infusion protected memory dysfunction followed by SE. Finally, the intrahippocampal administration of fMLP attenuated the process of neurodegeneration in both hippocampi. Taken together, our data suggest a new insight into the functional role of fMLP peptides, with important implications for their potential use as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of brain disorders, such as epilepsy. Schematic drawing on the neuroprotective and anticonvulsant role of fMLP during status epilepticus. Initially, a cannula was implanted in hippocampus and pilocarpine/saline was administered into the hippocampus followed by fMLP/saline (A-C). fMLP reduced seizure severity and neuronal death in the hippocampus, as well as protecting against memory deficit (D).

NCBP1 Improves Cognitive Function in Mice by Reducing Oxidative Stress, Neuronal Loss, and Glial Activation After Status Epilepticus

Status epilepticus (SE) is a severe manifestation of epilepsy which can cause neurologic injury and death. This study aimed to identify key proteins involved in the pathogenesis of epilepsy and find a potential drug target for SE treatment. Tandem mass tag (TMT)-based quantitative proteomic analysis was applied to screen differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) in epilepsy. The adeno-associated virus was employed to overexpress candidate DEP in mice, and kainic acid (KA) was used to generate a mouse model of epilepsy. Then histopathological examination of the hippocampal tissue was performed, and the inflammatory factors levels in serum and hippocampus were measured. The IP-MS analysis was carried out to identify the interacting protein of nuclear cap-binding protein 1 (NCBP1). The results were that NCBP1 was downregulated in the epileptic hippocampus. NCBP1 overexpression alleviated KA-induced cognitive impairment in mice and reduced the apoptosis and damage of hippocampal neurons. Additionally, overexpressed NCBP1 increased the expression of NeuN and reduced the expression of GFAP and IBA-1 in the hippocampus of the mice. Further study indicated that NCBP1 overexpression inhibited the expression of IL-6, IL-1β, and IFN-γ in serum and hippocampus as well as MDA and LDH in the hippocampus, whereas it increased the SOD levels, suggesting that overexpression of NCBP1 could diminish KA-induced inflammatory responses and oxidative stress. The IP-MS analysis identified that ELAVL4 was the NCBP1-interacting protein. In conclusion, this finding suggests that NCBP1 may potentially serve as a drug target for the treatment of epilepsy.

Neuromodulation Techniques in Children with Super-Refractory Status Epilepticus

Status epilepticus (SE) is a life-threatening condition and medical emergency which can have lifelong consequences, including neuronal death and alteration of neuronal networks, resulting in long-term neurologic and cognitive deficits in children. When standard pharmacological treatment for SE is not successful in controlling seizures, the condition evolves to refractory SE (rSE) and finally to super-refractory SE (srSE) if it exceeds 24 h despite using anaesthetics. In this systematic review, we present literature data on the potential uses of clinical neuromodulation techniques for the management of srSE in children, including electroconvulsive therapy, vagus nerve stimulation, and deep brain stimulation. The evaluation of these techniques is limited by the small number of published paediatric cases (n = 25, one with two techniques) in peer-reviewed articles (n = 18). Although neuromodulation strategies have not been tested through randomised, prospective controlled clinical trials, this review presents the existing data and the potential benefits of neuromodulation therapy, suggesting that these techniques, when available, could be considered at earlier stages within the course of srSE intending to prevent long-term neurologic complications. Clinical trials aiming to establish whether early intervention can prevent long-term sequelae are necessary in order to establish the potential clinical value of neuromodulation techniques for the treatment of srSE in children.

Inflammation as Treatment Target for Status Epilepticus

BACKGROUND

Status epilepticus (SE) is a serious neurological disease that manifests as prolonged seizures that last more than 5 minutes and between such episodes, patients do not regain consciousness. It can result in cognitive defects, brain damage, or even death. It is commonly known that one of the causes can be an inflammatory process, but here we will focus on inflammation as a result of new onset refractory status epilepticus and, related to this, new promising forms of SE treatment. Particular emphasis has been focused on new-onset refractory status epilepticus (NORSE).

METHODS

Based on public research databases, drugs with anti-inflammatory activity - commonly used in different spheres of medicine - have been reviewed as potentially treating status epilepticus.

RESULTS

There is seizable clinical research suggesting that drugs that decrease inflammatory processes might be effective in terminating status epilepticus.

CONCLUSION

There is growing evidence showing that adding anti-inflammatory drugs to basic antiepileptic treatment enhances the efficiency of the therapeutic process, with special potential in NORSE cases.

Inflammatory mechanisms of Ginkgo Biloba extract in improving memory functions through lncRNA-COX2/NF-κB pathway in mice with status epilepticus

PURPOSE

This study was to explore whether Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) improve memory impairment by alleviating neuroinflammation signaling in mice with status epilepticus.

METHODS

The status epilepticus (SE) mice model was established by pilocarpine and treated with 100 mg / kg of GBE for 14 days. Spontaneous alternation of Y-maze and new object recognition were used to explore memory impairment. To examine glial cell activation, we performed immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence staining. The activation of NF-κB signaling and the expression level of lncRNA-COX2 were detected by Western blot and qRT-PCR, respectively. Adeno-associated virus lncRNA-COX2 was injected into mice for overexpression of lncRNA-COX2.

RESULTS

After GBE treatment, the spontaneous alternation rate and the recognition coefficient in SE mice were both increased. Moreover, activation of glial cells, NF-κB signaling and lncRNA-COX2 were significantly decreased in SE mice. In the GBE-treated SE mice with lncRNA-COX2 overexpression, NF-κB signaling was up-regulated again; the reduced level of inflammation factors was reversed; the GBE-rescued spontaneous alternation rate of Y-maze was eliminated.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggested that GBE reduces the hippocampal inflammation by down-regulating lncRNA-COX2 / NF-κB signaling in the SE mice, leading to the decrease of neuronal damage and the improvement of memory functions.

H19 silencing decreases kainic acid-induced hippocampus neuron injury via activating the PI3K/AKT pathway via the H19/miR-206 axis

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common type of intractable epilepsy and is refractory to medications. However, the role and mechanism of H19 in regulating TLE remains largely undefined. Expression of H19 and miR-206 was detected using real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). Cell apoptosis, autophagy and inflammatory response were determined by flow cytometry, western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The interaction between H19 and miR-206 was predicted on the miRcode database and confirmed by luciferase reporter assay, RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) and RNA pull-down. H19 was upregulated and miR-206 was downregulated in the rat hippocampus neurons after kainic acid (KA) treatment. Functionally, both H19 knockdown and miR-206 overexpression weakened KA-induced apoptosis, autophagy, inflammatory response, and oxidative stress in hippocampus neurons. Mechanically, the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT signaling pathway was activated by H19 knockdown and miR-206 was confirmed to be targeted and negatively regulated by H19. Moreover, downregulation of miR-206 could counteract the effects of H19 knockdown in KA-induced hippocampus neurons. Knockdown of H19 suppressed hippocampus neuronal apoptosis, autophagy and inflammatory response presumably through directly upregulating miR-206 and activating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.

Why won't it stop? The dynamics of benzodiazepine resistance in status epilepticus

Status epilepticus is a life-threatening neurological emergency that affects both adults and children. Approximately 36% of episodes of status epilepticus do not respond to the current preferred first-line treatment, benzodiazepines. The proportion of episodes that are refractory to benzodiazepines is higher in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) than in high-income countries (HICs). Evidence suggests that longer episodes of status epilepticus alter brain physiology, thereby contributing to the emergence of benzodiazepine resistance. Such changes include alterations in GABA_A receptor function and in the transmembrane gradient for chloride, both of which erode the ability of benzodiazepines to enhance inhibitory synaptic signalling. Often, current management guidelines for status epilepticus do not account for these duration-related changes in pathophysiology, which might differentially impact individuals in LMICs, where the average time taken to reach medical attention is longer than in HICs. In this Perspective article, we aim to combine clinical insights and the latest evidence from basic science to inspire a new, context-specific approach to efficiently managing status epilepticus.

Management of Status Epilepticus, Refractory Status Epilepticus, and Super-refractory Status Epilepticus

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Status epilepticus is a serious condition caused by disorders and diseases that affect the central nervous system. In status epilepticus, hypersynchronous epileptic activity lasts longer than the usual duration of isolated self-limited seizures (time t1), which causes neuronal damage or alteration of neuronal networks at a certain time point (time t2), depending on the type of and duration of status epilepticus. The successful management of status epilepticus includes both the early termination of seizure activity and the earliest possible identification of a causative etiology, which may require independent acute treatment. In nonconvulsive status epilepticus, patients present only with subtle clinical signs or even without any visible clinical manifestations. In these cases, EEG allows for the assessment of cerebral function and identification of patterns in need of urgent treatment.

RECENT FINDINGS

In 2015, the International League Against Epilepsy proposed a new definition and classification of status epilepticus, encompassing four axes: symptomatology, etiology, EEG, and age. Various validation studies determined the practical usefulness of EEG criteria to identify nonconvulsive status epilepticus. The American Clinical Neurophysiology Society has incorporated these criteria into their most recent critical care EEG terminology in 2021. Etiology, age, symptomatology, and the metabolic demand associated with an increasing duration of status epilepticus are the most important determinants of prognosis. The consequences of status epilepticus can be visualized in vivo by MRI studies.

SUMMARY

The current knowledge about status epilepticus allows for a more reliable diagnosis, earlier treatment, and improved cerebral imaging of its consequences. Outcome prediction is a soft tool for estimating the need for intensive care resources.

Inhibition of Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) Mitigates Seizures

Astrocytes are critical regulators of the immune/inflammatory response in several human central nervous system (CNS) diseases. Emerging evidence suggests that dysfunctional astrocytes are crucial players in seizures. The objective of this study was to investigate the role of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) in 4-aminopyridine (4-AP)-induced seizures and the underlying mechanism. We also provide evidence for the role of Yes-associated protein (YAP) in seizures. 4-AP was administered to mice or primary cultured astrocytes. YAP-specific small interfering RNA (siRNA) was administered to primary cultured astrocytes. Mouse brain tissue and surgical specimens from epileptic patient brains were examined, and the results showed that TRPV4 was upregulated, while astrocytes were activated and polarized to the A1 phenotype. The levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), cytokine production, YAP, signal transducer activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), intracellular Ca2+([Ca2+]i) and the third component of complement (C3) were increased in 4-AP-induced mice and astrocytes. Perturbations in the immune microenvironment in the brain were balanced by TRPV4 inhibition or the manipulation of [Ca2+]i in astrocytes. Knocking down YAP with siRNA significantly inhibited 4-AP-induced pathological changes in astrocytes. Our study demonstrated that astrocytic TRPV4 activation promoted neuroinflammation through the TRPV4/Ca2+/YAP/STAT3 signaling pathway in mice with seizures. Astrocyte TRPV4 inhibition attenuated neuroinflammation, reduced neuronal injury, and improved neurobehavioral function. Targeting astrocytic TRPV4 activation may provide a promising therapeutic approach for managing epilepsy.

LncRNA Snhg5 Attenuates Status Epilepticus Induced Inflammation through Regulating NF-κΒ Signaling Pathway

Status epilepticus (SE) induced inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of SE. Long non-coding RNA small nucleolar RNA host gene 5 (lncRNA Snhg5) has been reported in various inflammatory diseases. However, the mechanism of Snhg5 regulated inflammation in SE remains unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to clarify the role and mechanism of Snhg5 in SE-induced inflammation in vitro and vivo. In vitro, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation in microglia was used to mimic the inflammation after SE. In vivo, SE model was induced by lithium chloride and pilocarpine. The level of Snhg5, p65, p-p65, p-inhibitor of kappaB (IκB)α, IκBα and inflammatory factors (tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β) were measured via quantitative real-time PCR or Western blot. The Nissl stain and immunohistochemical stain were performed to observe hippocampal damage and microglia proliferation. The results showed Snhg5 was up-regulated in the rat and microglia. Knockdown of Snhg5 inhibited LPS-induced inflammation and relative expression of p-65/p65, p-IκBα/IκBα. Moreover, down-regulation of Snhg5 attenuated SE-induced inflammation and reduced the number of microglia in hippocampus. These findings indicated that Snhg5 modulates the inflammation via nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) signaling pathway in SE rats.

Neuromodulation in Super-refractory Status Epilepticus

SUMMARY

Status epilepticus (SE) is a severe condition that needs immediate pharmacological treatment to tackle brain damage and related side effects. In approximately 20% of cases, the standard treatment for SE does not control seizures, and the condition evolves to refractory SE. If refractory status epilepticus lasts more than 24 hours despite the use of anesthetic treatment, the condition is redefined as super-refractory SE (srSE). sRSE is a destructive condition, potentially to cause severe brain damage. In this review, we discuss the clinical neuromodulation techniques for controlling srSE when conventional treatments have failed: electroconvulsive therapy, vagus nerve stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and deep brain stimulation. Data show that neuromodulation therapies can abort srSE in >80% of patients. However, no randomized, prospective, and controlled trials have been completed, and data are provided only by retrospective small case series and case reports with obvious inclination to publication bias. There is a need for further investigation into the use of neuromodulation techniques as an early treatment of srSE and to address whether an earlier intervention can prevent long-term complications.

Zingerone Targets Status Epilepticus by Blocking Hippocampal Neurodegeneration via Regulation of Redox Imbalance, Inflammation and Apoptosis

Epilepsy is an intricate neurological disease where the neurons are severely affected, leading to the mortality of millions worldwide. Status epilepticus (SE), induced by lithium chloride (LiCl) and pilocarpine, is the most accepted model for epilepsy. The current work aims to unravel the mechanisms underlying the anti-epileptic efficacy of zingerone (an active ingredient of ginger), which has beneficial pharmacological activities on seizure-induced behavioral, histological, neurochemical, and molecular patterns in mice. Zingerone restored cognitive function by diminishing seizure activity, escape latency, and subsequent hippocampal damage manifested in histology. Seizures are associated with local inflammation, redox imbalance, and neural loss, confirmed by the present study of SE, and was attenuated by zingerone treatment. Nuclear factor-kappa B and its downstream signaling molecules (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, NO, MPO) were activated in the LiCl-and-pilocarpine-induced group leading to inflammatory signaling, which was substantially ameliorated by zingerone treatment. The intrinsic apoptotic process was triggered subsequent to SE, as demonstrated by augmentation of cleaved caspase-3, downregulation of Bcl-2. However, zingerone treatment downregulated caspase-3 and upregulated Bcl-2, increasing cell survival and decreasing hippocampal neural death, deciphering involvement of apoptosis in SE. Therefore, zingerone plays an essential role in neuroprotection, probably by precluding oxidative stress, inflammation, and obstructing the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis.

Update on the management of status epilepticus

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Randomized controlled trials investigating the initial pharmacological treatment of status epilepticus have been recently published. Furthermore, status epilepticus arising in comatose survivors after cardiac arrest has received increasing attention in the last years. This review offers an updated assessment of status epilepticus treatment in these different scenarios.

RECENT FINDINGS

Initial benzodiazepines underdosing is common and correlates with development of status epilepticus refractoriness. The recently published ESETT trial provides high-level evidence regarding the equivalence of fosphenytoin, valproate, and levetiracetam as a second-line option. Myoclonus or epileptiform transients on electroencephalography occur in up to 1/3 of patients surviving a cardiac arrest. Contrary to previous assumptions regarding an almost invariable association with death, at least 1/10 of them may awaken with reasonably good prognosis, if treated. Multimodal prognostication including clinical examination, EEG, somatosensory evoked potentials, biochemical markers, and neuroimaging help identifying patients with a chance to recover consciousness, in whom a trial with antimyoclonic compounds and at times general anesthetics is indicated.

SUMMARY

There is a continuous, albeit relatively slow progress in knowledge regarding different aspect of status epilepticus; recent findings refine some treatment strategies and help improving patients' outcomes. Further high-quality studies are clearly needed to further improve the management of these patients, especially those with severe, refractory status epilepticus forms.

Preferential Antiseizure Medications in Pediatric Patients with Convulsive Status Epilepticus: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The optimal choice for first- and second-line antiseizure medications for pediatric patients with convulsive status epilepticus remains ambiguous. The present study aimed to estimate the comparative effect on the efficacy and safety of different antiseizure medications in pediatric patients with status epilepticus and provide evidence for clinical practice.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library for eligible randomized controlled trials. Inclusion criteria included: (1) pediatric patients; (2) diagnosis of status epilepticus; and (3) randomized controlled trials. Exclusion criteria were: (1) mixed population without a pediatric subgroup analysis; (2) not status epilepticus; (3) received the study drug prior to admission; (4) sample size fewer than 30; and (5) not randomized controlled trials. Primary outcome was seizure cessation. Secondary outcomes were seizure recurrence within 24 h, respiratory depression, and admission to an intensive care unit. The hierarchy of competing antiseizure medications was presented using the surface under the cumulative ranking curve.

RESULTS

Eight first-line antiseizure medication studies involving 1686 participants and eight second-line antiseizure medication studies involving 1711 participants were eligible for analysis. Midazolam, diazepam, lorazepam, and paraldehyde were administered as first-line antiseizure medications. Valproate, phenobarbital, phenytoin, fosphenytoin, and levetiracetam were investigated as second-line antiseizure medications. No significant differences were observed across first- and second-line antiseizure medications. Midazolam ranked the best for primary and secondary outcomes among the first-line antiseizure medications. Phenobarbital ranked the best for seizure cessation and a lower risk of admission to the intensive care unit. Valproate had superiority in preventing recurrence within 24 h. Levetiracetam had the lowest probability of developing respiratory depression.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated the hierarchy of competing interventions. Midazolam could be a better option for first-line treatment. Phenobarbital, levetiracetam, and valproate had their respective superiority in the second-line intervention. This study may provide useful information for clinical decision making under different circumstances.

Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor γ Coactivator 1α Activates Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor That Protects Against Neuronal Cell Death Following Status Epilepticus through PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK Signaling

Status epilepticus may cause molecular and cellular events, leading to hippocampal neuronal cell death. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1-α (PGC-1α) is an important regulator of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2), also known as fetal liver kinase receptor 1 (Flk-1). Resveratrol is an activator of PGC-1α. It has been suggested to provide neuroprotective effects in epilepsy, stroke, and neurodegenerative diseases. In the present study, we used microinjection of kainic acid into the left hippocampal CA3 region in Sprague Dawley rats to induce bilateral prolonged seizure activity. Upregulating the PGC-1α pathway will increase VEGF/VEGFR2 (Flk-1) signaling and further activate some survival signaling that includes the mitogen activated protein kinase kinase (MEK)/mitogen activated protein kinase (ERK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathways and offer neuroprotection as a consequence of apoptosis in the hippocampal neurons following status epilepticus. Otherwise, downregulation of PGC-1α by siRNA against pgc-1α will inhibit VEGF/VEGFR2 (Flk-1) signaling and suppress pro-survival PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK pathways that are also accompanied by hippocampal CA3 neuronal cell apoptosis. These results may indicate that the PGC-1α induced VEGF/VEGFR2 pathway may trigger the neuronal survival signaling, and the PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK signaling pathways. Thus, the axis of PGC-1α/VEGF/VEGFR2 (Flk-1) and the triggering of downstream PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK signaling could be considered an endogenous neuroprotective effect against apoptosis in the hippocampus following status epilepticus.

Withanolide-A treatment exerts a neuroprotective effect via inhibiting neuroinflammation in the hippocampus after pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus

Status epilepticus (SE) is a medical emergency with high mortality and a risk factor for the development of chronic epilepsy. Given that effective treatments for the pathophysiology following SE are still lacking, suppressing pathophysiological mechanisms of SE may be important to inhibit epileptogenesis. Withanolide-A (WA), a major bioactive component of Withania somnifera, is a potential medicinal natural compound showing improvement of some neurological diseases, such as cerebral ischemia. In the present study, we examined whether administration of WA can exert the beneficial effects involved in neuroprotection and anti-inflammatory effects in a mouse model of pilocarpine-induced SE. Our results showed that WA treatment ameliorated SE-induced apoptotic neuronal cell death in the hippocampus. Moreover, WA treatment reduced immunoreactivity of both ionized calcium binding adapter molecule 1-positive microglia/macrophage and glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive reactive astrocytes, and the SE-induced increase in both interleukin-1 β and tumor necrosis factor in the hippocampus, suggesting that inhibiting pro-inflammatory factors by WA treatment might induce neuroprotection after SE. These results suggest that WA may be useful in improving the treatment efficacy for pathophysiology following SE.

Midazolam: an essential palliative care drug

Midazolam is a commonly used benzodiazepine in palliative care and is considered one of the four essential drugs needed for the promotion of quality care in dying patients. Acting on the benzodiazepine receptor, it promotes the action of gamma-aminobutyric acid. Gamma-aminobutyric acid action promotes sedative, anxiolytic, and anticonvulsant properties. Midazolam has a faster onset and shorter duration of action than other benzodiazepines such as diazepam and lorazepam lending itself to greater flexibility in dosing than other benzodiazepines. The kidneys excrete midazolam and its active metabolite. Metabolism occurs in the liver by the P450 system. This article examines the pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, and clinical uses of midazolam in palliative care.

Inflammation and reactive oxygen species in status epilepticus: Biomarkers and implications for therapy

Preclinical studies in immature and adult rodents and clinical observations show that neuroinflammation and oxidative stress are rapid onset phenomena occurring in the brain during status epilepticus and persisting thereafter. Notably, both neuroinflammation and oxidative stress contribute to the acute and long-term sequelae of status epilepticus thus representing potential druggable targets. Antiinflammatory drugs that interfere with the IL-1β pathway, such as anakinra, can control benzodiazepine-refractory status epilepticus in animals, and there is recent proof-of-concept evidence for therapeutic effects in children with Febrile infection related epilepsy syndrome (FIRES). Inhibitors of monoacylglycerol lipase and P2X7 receptor antagonists are also promising antiinflammatory drug candidates for rapidly aborting de novo status epilepticus and provide neuroprotection. Antiinflammatory and antioxidant drugs administered to rodents during status epilepticus and transiently thereafter, prevent long-term sequelae such as cognitive deficits and seizure progression in animals developing epilepsy. Some drugs are already in medical use and are well-tolerated, therefore, they may be considered for treating status epilepticus and its neurological consequences. Finally, markers of neuroinflammation and oxidative stress are measureable in peripheral blood and by neuroimaging, which offers an opportunity for developing prognostic and predictive mechanistic biomarkers in people exposed to status epilepticus. This article is part of the Special Issue "Proceedings of the 7th London-Innsbruck Colloquium on Status Epilepticus and Acute Seizures.

Systemic thrombin inhibition ameliorates seizures in a mouse model of pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus

Status epilepticus (SE) is a life-threatening condition characterized by ongoing seizure activity which can lead to severe brain damage and death if not treated properly. Recent work suggests that alterations in blood-brain barrier (BBB) function and subsequent cortical exposure to coagulation factors may initiate, promote, and/or sustain SE. This suggestion is based on the observation that the serine protease thrombin, which plays a fundamental role in the blood coagulation cascade, increases neural excitability through the activation of protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1). However, it remains unclear whether systemic inhibition of thrombin asserts "anti-epileptic" effects in vivo. We here used the pilocarpine model of SE in adult 3-month-old male mice to address the question whether intraperitoneal injection of the thrombin inhibitor α-NAPAP (0.75 mg/kg) counters SE. Indeed, pharmacological inhibition of thrombin ameliorates the behavioral outcome of pilocarpine-induced SE. Similar results are obtained when the thrombin receptor PAR1 is pharmacologically blocked using intraperitoneal injection of SCH79797 (25 μg/kg) prior to SE induction. Consistent with these results, an increase in thrombin immunofluorescence is detected in the hippocampus of pilocarpine-treated animals. Moreover, increased hippocampal serine protease activity is detected 90 min after SE induction, which is not observed in animals treated with α-NAPAP prior to SE induction. Together, these results corroborate and extend recent studies suggesting that novel oral anticoagulants which target thrombin (and PAR1) may assert anti-epileptic effects in vivo. KEY MESSAGES: Systemic thrombin/PAR1-inhibition ameliorates anticoagulants behavioral seizures. Status epilepticus increases thrombin levels in the hippocampus. Increased serine protease activity in the hippocampus after status epileptic. Anti-epileptic potential of clinically used anticoagulants must be evaluated.

Sirtuin 1 Regulates Mitochondrial Biogenesis and Provides an Endogenous Neuroprotective Mechanism Against Seizure-Induced Neuronal Cell Death in the Hippocampus Following Status Epilepticus

Status epilepticus may decrease mitochondrial biogenesis, resulting in neuronal cell death occurring in the hippocampus. Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) functionally interacts with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α), which play a crucial role in the regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis. In Sprague-Dawley rats, kainic acid was microinjected unilaterally into the hippocampal CA3 subfield to induce bilateral seizure activity. SIRT1, PGC-1α, and other key proteins involving mitochondrial biogenesis and the amount of mitochondrial DNA were investigated. SIRT1 antisense oligodeoxynucleotide was used to evaluate the relationship between SIRT1 and mitochondrial biogenesis, as well as the mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and neuronal cell survival. Increased SIRT1, PGC-1α, and mitochondrial biogenesis machinery were found in the hippocampus following experimental status epilepticus. Downregulation of SIRT1 decreased PGC-1α expression and mitochondrial biogenesis machinery, increased Complex I dysfunction, augmented the level of oxidized proteins, raised activated caspase-3 expression, and promoted neuronal cell damage in the hippocampus. The results suggest that the SIRT1 signaling pathway may play a pivotal role in mitochondrial biogenesis, and could be considered an endogenous neuroprotective mechanism counteracting seizure-induced neuronal cell damage following status epilepticus.

Electroacupuncture Reduces Seizure Activity and Enhances GAD 67 and Glutamate Transporter Expression in Kainic Acid Induced Status Epilepticus in Infant Rats

Status epilepticus (SE) is one of the most significant complications in pediatric neurology. Clinical studies have shown positive effects of electroacupuncture (EA) as a therapeutic alternative in the control of partial seizures and secondary generalized clonic seizures. EA promotes the release of neurotransmitters such as GABA and some opioids. The present study aimed to evaluate the anticonvulsive and neuromodulatory effects of Shui Gou DM26 (SG_DM26) acupuncture point electrostimulation on the expression of the glutamate decarboxylase 67 (GAD67) enzyme and the glutamate transporter EAAC1 in an early SE model. At ten postnatal days (10-PD), male rats weighing 22-26 g were divided into 16 groups, including control and treatment groups: Simple stimulation, electrostimulation, anticonvulsant drug treatment, and combined treatment-electrostimulation and pentobarbital (PB). SE was induced with kainic acid (KA), and the following parameters were measured: Motor behavior, and expression of GAD67 and EAAC1. The results suggest an antiepileptic effect derived from SG DM26 point EA. The possible mechanism is most likely the increased production of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, which is observed as an increase in the expression of both GAD67 and EAAC1, as well as the potential synergy between the neuromodulator effects of EA and PB.

Pharmacotherapy for Refractory and Super-Refractory Status Epilepticus in Adults

Patients with prolonged seizures that do not respond to intravenous benzodiazepines and a second-line anticonvulsant suffer from refractory status epilepticus and those with seizures that do not respond to continuous intravenous anesthetic anticonvulsants suffer from super-refractory status epilepticus. Both conditions are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. A strict pharmacological treatment regimen is urgently required, but the level of evidence for the available drugs is very low. Refractory complex focal status epilepticus generally does not require anesthetics, but all intravenous non-anesthetizing anticonvulsants may be used. Most descriptive data are available for levetiracetam, phenytoin and valproate. Refractory generalized convulsive status epilepticus is a life-threatening emergency, and long-term clinical consequences are eminent. Administration of intravenous anesthetics is mandatory, and drugs acting at the inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)_A receptor such as midazolam, propofol and thiopental/pentobarbital are recommended without preference for one of those. One in five patients with anesthetic treatment does not respond and has super-refractory status epilepticus. With sustained seizure activity, excitatory N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are increasingly expressed post-synaptically. Ketamine is an antagonist at this receptor and may prove efficient in some patients at later stages. Neurosteroids such as allopregnanolone increase sensitivity at GABA_A receptors; a Phase 1/2 trial demonstrated safety and tolerability, but randomized controlled data failed to demonstrate efficacy. Adjunct ketogenic diet may contribute to termination of difficult-to-treat status epilepticus. Randomized controlled trials are needed to increase evidence for treatment of refractory and super-refractory status epilepticus, but there are multiple obstacles for realization. Hitherto, prospective multicenter registries for pharmacological treatment may help to improve our knowledge.

The Neuroprotective Effect of Astaxanthin on Pilocarpine-Induced Status Epilepticus in Rats

Cognitive dysfunction is one of the serious complications induced by status epilepticus (SE), which has a significant negative impact on patients’ quality of life. Previous studies demonstrated that the pathophysiological changes after SE such as oxidative stress, inflammatory reaction contribute to neuronal damage. A recent study indicated that preventive astaxanthin (AST) alleviated epilepsy-induced oxidative stress and neuronal apoptosis in the brain. In the present study, rats were treated with vehicle or AST 1 h after SE onset and were injected once every other day for 2 weeks (total of seven times). The results showed that the cognitive function in SE rats was significantly impaired, and AST treatment improved cognitive function in the Morris water maze (MWM). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining and TdT-mediated dUTP Nick-End Labeling (TUNEL) staining showed obvious damage in the hippocampus of SE rats, and AST alleviated the damage. Subsequently, we evaluated the effect of AST on relative pathophysiology to elucidate the possible mechanisms. To evaluate the oxidative stress, the expression of malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in plasma were detected using commercially available kits. NADPH oxidase-4 (Nox-4), p22phox, NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf-2), heme oxygenase 1 (Ho-1) and sod1 in the parahippocampal cortex and hippocampus were detected using western blot and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The levels of MDA in plasma and Nox-4 and p22phox in the brain increased in SE rats, and the levels of SOD in plasma and Nrf-2, Ho-1 and sod1 in the brain decreased. Treatment with AST alleviated these changes. We also detected the levels of inflammatory mediators like cyclooxygenase-2 (cox-2), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and NF-κB phosphorylation p65 (p-p65)/p65 in the brain. The inflammatory reaction was significantly activated in the brain of SE rats, and AST alleviated neuroinflammation. We detected the levels of p-Akt, Akt, B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and caspase-3 in the parahippocampal cortex and hippocampus using western blot. The levels of p-Akt/Akt and Bcl-2 decreased in SE rats, Bax and cleaved caspase-3/caspase-3 increased, while AST alleviated these changes. The present study indicated that AST exerted an reobvious neuroprotective effect in pilocarpine-induced SE rats.

Resveratrol Promotes Mitochondrial Biogenesis and Protects against Seizure-Induced Neuronal Cell Damage in the Hippocampus Following Status Epilepticus by Activation of the PGC-1α Signaling Pathway

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) is known to regulate mitochondrial biogenesis. Resveratrol is present in a variety of plants, including the skin of grapes, blueberries, raspberries, mulberries, and peanuts. It has been shown to offer protective effects against a number of cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, stroke, and epilepsy. This study examined the neuroprotective effect of resveratrol on mitochondrial biogenesis in the hippocampus following experimental status epilepticus. Kainic acid was microinjected into left hippocampal CA3 in Sprague Dawley rats to induce bilateral prolonged seizure activity. PGC-1α expression and related mitochondrial biogenesis were investigated. Amounts of nuclear respiratory factor 1 (NRF1), mitochondrial transcription factor A (Tfam), cytochrome c oxidase 1 (COX1), and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) were measured to evaluate the extent of mitochondrial biogenesis. Increased PGC-1α and mitochondrial biogenesis machinery after prolonged seizure were found in CA3. Resveratrol increased expression of PGC-1α, NRF1, and Tfam, NRF1 binding activity, COX1 level, and mtDNA amount. In addition, resveratrol reduced activated caspase-3 activity and attenuated neuronal cell damage in the hippocampus following status epilepticus. These results suggest that resveratrol plays a pivotal role in the mitochondrial biogenesis machinery that may provide a protective mechanism counteracting seizure-induced neuronal damage by activation of the PGC-1α signaling pathway.

Update in status epilepticus

Status epilepticus (SE) is a neurological emergency that requires urgent antiepileptic therapies, and a rapid treatment of its cause. In recent years, its definition has been updated to adapt it to all types of SE; this update helps to standardise the treatment. The new definition is based on two times: point t1, after which the event will not spontaneously cease, and period t2, after which neuronal damage may appear. There are three lines of treatment: first, benzodiazepines; second, antiepileptic drugs; and third, intravenous anaesthetics. The application of the different lines of treatment raises still unanswered questions, since the prognosis also depends on the aetiology, age and duration. For this reason, different prognostic scales are being developed to help us to assess its evolution and in turn, adapt the aggressiveness of the treatment to each patient.

Perampanel: A therapeutic alternative in refractory status epilepticus associated with MELAS syndrome

To our knowledge, there are no reports of status epilepticus (SE) associated with mitochondrial diseases and treated with perampanel (PER). We present three cases of patients with refractory SE associated with MELAS syndrome who responded favorably to PER.

All cases were diagnosed as non-convulsive SE (focal without impairment of level of consciousness). After an initial treatment with other anti-seizure drugs, PER was added in all cases (8, 16 and 12 mg) and cessation of SE was observed within the next 4-8 hours. All the cases involved a stroke-like lesion present on brain MRI.

In our patients, PER was an effective option in SE associated with MELAS syndrome.

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Status epilepticus (SE) in MELAS is associated with a stroke-lesion and it is usually refractory.

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We present three cases of refractory SE and MELAS who responded favorably to Perampanel.

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Perampanel (PER) may be an effective option in SE associated with MELAS syndrome.

Human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived MGE cell grafting after status epilepticus attenuates chronic epilepsy and comorbidities via synaptic integration

This study provides evidence that human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived medial ganglionic eminence (MGE) cell grafting into the hippocampus after status epilepticus can greatly reduce the frequency of spontaneous seizures in the chronic phase through both antiepileptogenic and antiepileptic effects. The antiepileptogenic changes comprised reductions in host interneuron loss, abnormal neurogenesis, and aberrant mossy fiber sprouting, whereas the antiepileptic effects were evident from an increased occurrence of seizures after silencing of graft-derived interneurons. Additional curative impacts of grafting comprised improved cognitive and mood function. The results support the application of autologous human MGE cell therapy for temporal lobe epilepsy. Autologous cell therapy is advantageous as such a paradigm can avoid immune suppression and promote enduring graft–host integration.

Medial ganglionic eminence (MGE)-like interneuron precursors derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) are ideal for developing patient-specific cell therapy in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). However, their efficacy for alleviating spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRS) or cognitive, memory, and mood impairments has never been tested in models of TLE. Through comprehensive video- electroencephalographic recordings and a battery of behavioral tests in a rat model, we demonstrate that grafting of hiPSC-derived MGE-like interneuron precursors into the hippocampus after status epilepticus (SE) greatly restrained SRS and alleviated cognitive, memory, and mood dysfunction in the chronic phase of TLE. Graft-derived cells survived well, extensively migrated into different subfields of the hippocampus, and differentiated into distinct subclasses of inhibitory interneurons expressing various calcium-binding proteins and neuropeptides. Moreover, grafting of hiPSC-MGE cells after SE mediated several neuroprotective and antiepileptogenic effects in the host hippocampus, as evidenced by reductions in host interneuron loss, abnormal neurogenesis, and aberrant mossy fiber sprouting in the dentate gyrus (DG). Furthermore, axons from graft-derived interneurons made synapses on the dendrites of host excitatory neurons in the DG and the CA1 subfield of the hippocampus, implying an excellent graft–host synaptic integration. Remarkably, seizure-suppressing effects of grafts were significantly reduced when the activity of graft-derived interneurons was silenced by a designer drug while using donor hiPSC-MGE cells expressing designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs). These results implied the direct involvement of graft-derived interneurons in seizure control likely through enhanced inhibitory synaptic transmission. Collectively, the results support a patient-specific MGE cell grafting approach for treating TLE.

Perampanel in the treatment of status epilepticus: A systematic review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

Perampanel (PER) is a noncompetitive β-amino-3-(5-methyl-3-oxo-1,2-oxazol-4-yl)propionic acid (AMPA) receptor antagonist with demonstrated efficacy in animal models of status epilepticus (SE). We performed a systematic review of the literature to assess the efficacy and tolerability of PER in the treatment of refractory and super-refractory SE.

METHODS

We searched Medline, Embase, and CENTRAL (accessed from inception to April 30, 2018) to identify studies evaluating oral PER as treatment of SE of any type. We also searched the OpenGrey repository and conference proceedings of international congresses by the International League Against Epilepsy and by the American Epilepsy Society from 2012 onwards.

RESULTS

Ten articles were included, with a total of 69 episodes of SE occurring in 68 patients (aged 18 to 91 years). The type and etiology of SE varied remarkably across studies. The number of drugs used prior to PER ranged from 1 to 9. The time from SE onset to PER administration ranged from 9.25 h to 35 days. The initial PER dose ranged from 2 to 32 mg. The proportion of patients achieving clinical SE cessation varied from 17% to 100%. The time from PER administration to SE cessation ranged from 1 h to 4 weeks.

CONCLUSIONS

The currently available evidence supporting the use of PER in SE is weak and hampered by several confounding factors. Further studies should be performed in more clinically homogeneous and larger cohorts to evaluate the efficacy and safety of PER administered in earlier stages of SE, at higher dosages, and at intervals shorter than 24 h.

Risk score predictive of mortality in status epilepticus according to a national database

Status epilepticus (SE) is a serious neurologic condition with high morbidity and mortality rates. This study aimed to develop and validate a risk score that is predictive of mortality in patients with SE using clinical factors without electrocardiography. The inclusion criteria of this study were all patients diagnosed with SE and treated between 2005 and 2015. We retrospectively searched for eligible patients using the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) code for SE (G41) in the national Universal Health Coverage database. The outcome was death at discharge or within 30 days after discharge. Factors-associated death was analyzed using stepwise logistic regression analysis. Risk scores were developed based on the final logistic regression model. The final model was also validated. There were 10 924 patients used for model development and 10 808 used for model validation. The formula to determine the risk score for SE mortality was 5 × shock + 4 × age over 60 years old + 3.5 × heart diseases + 3 × acute renal failure + 3 × septicemia + 2.5 × central nervous system infection + 2.5 × age 41-60 years old + 2 × cancer + 2 × chronic renal failure + 1.5 × age 21-40 years old + 1 × pneumonia + 1 × respiratory failure + 1 × anemia. The risk scores of greater than 4 indicated risk for mortality with a sensitivity of 78.20% and specificity of 75.38%. The area under the receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curve for death in the final model was 83.59%. The area under the ROC curve for the model validation group was 83.52%. SE patients who had a risk score of 4 or more were at high risk for death. Physicians should be aware of the high mortality rate in these particular patients.

Novel drugs and early polypharmacotherapy in status epilepticus

PURPOSE

Rescue medications for status epilepticus (SE) have a relatively high rate of failure. The purpose of this review is to summarize the evidence for the efficacy of novel drugs and early polypharmacotherapy for SE.

METHOD

Literature review.

RESULTS

New drugs and treatment strategies aim to target the pathophysiology of SE in order to improve seizure control and outcomes. Changes at the synapse level during SE include a progressive decrease in synaptic GABA_A receptors and increase in synaptic NMDA receptors. These changes tend to promote self-sustaining seizures. Current SE guidelines recommend a rapid stepwise treatment using benzodiazepines in monotherapy as the first-line treatment, targeting GABA_A synaptic receptors. Novel treatment approaches target GABA_A synaptic and extrasynaptic receptors with allopregnanolone, and NMDA receptors with ketamine. Novel rescue treatments used for SE include topiramate, brivaracetam, and perampanel, which are already marketed in epilepsy. Some available drugs not marketed for use in epilepsy have been used in the treatment of SE, and other agents are being studied for this purpose. Early polytherapy, most frequently combining a benzodiazepine with a second-line drug or an NMDA receptor antagonist, might potentially increase seizure control with relatively minor increase in side effects. Although many preclinical studies support novel drugs and early polytherapy in SE, human studies are scarce and inconclusive. Currently, evidence is lacking to recommend specific combinations of these new agents.

CONCLUSIONS

Novel drugs and strategies target the underlying pathophysiology of SE with the intent to improve seizure control and outcomes.

Pediatric refractory and super-refractory status epilepticus

PURPOSE

To summarize the available evidence related to pediatric refractory status epilepticus (RSE) and super-refractory status epilepticus (SRSE), with emphasis on epidemiology, etiologies, therapeutic approaches, and clinical outcomes.

METHODS

Narrative review of the medical literature using MEDLINE database.

RESULTS

RSE is defined as status epilepticus (SE) that fails to respond to adequately used first- and second-line antiepileptic drugs. SRSE occurs when SE persist for 24 h or more after administration of anesthesia, or recurs after its withdrawal. RSE and SRSE represent complex neurological emergencies associated with long-term neurological dysfunction and high mortality. Challenges in management arise as the underlying etiology is not always promptly recognized and therapeutic options become limited with prolonged seizures. Treatment decisions mainly rely on case series or experts' opinions. The comparative effectiveness of different treatment strategies has not been evaluated in large prospective series or randomized clinical trials. Continuous infusion of anesthetic agents is the most common treatment for RSE and SRSE, although many questions on optimal dosing and rate of administration remain unanswered. The use of non-pharmacological therapies is documented in case series or reports with low level of evidence. In addition to neurological complications resulting from prolonged seizures, children with RSE/SRSE often develop systemic complications associated with polypharmacy and prolonged hospital stay.

CONCLUSION

RSE and SRSE are neurological emergencies with limited therapeutic options. Multi-national collaborative efforts are desirable to evaluate the safety and efficacy of current RSE/SRSE therapies, and potentially impact patients' outcomes.

Intramuscular allopregnanolone and ganaxolone in a mouse model of treatment-resistant status epilepticus

Allopregnanolone (5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one) and its synthetic 3β-methyl analog, ganaxolone, are positive allosteric modulators of synaptic and extrasynaptic γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)_A receptors that exhibit antiseizure activity in diverse animal seizure models, including models of status epilepticus (SE). The 2 neuroactive steroids are being investigated as treatments for SE, including as a treatment for SE induced by chemical threat agents. Intramuscular injection is the preferred route of administration in the prehospital treatment of SE. The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy of intramuscular allopregnanolone and ganaxolone in the treatment of SE induced by the chemical threat agent tetramethylenedisulfotetramine (TETS). The test agents were administered 40 minutes after the onset of SE when mice are refractory to treatment. Allopregnanolone and ganaxolone (each at 3 mg/kg) terminated SE in, respectively, 92% and 75% of animals, and prevented mortality in 85% and 50% of animals; the mean times to termination of behavioral seizures were, respectively, 172 ± 16 and 447 ± 52 seconds. In a separate series of experiments, mice were dosed with the neuroactive steroids by intramuscular injection, and plasma and brain levels were sampled at various time points following injection to estimate pharmacokinetic parameters. Plasma C_max (maximum concentration) values for allopregnanolone and ganaxolone were 645 and 550 ng/mL, respectively. Brain exposure of both steroids was approximately 3-fold the plasma exposure. Two-compartment pharmacokinetic analysis revealed that the central compartment V_d (volume of distribution), CL (clearance), t_½ (terminal half-life), and F (intramuscular bioavailability) values for allopregnanolone and ganaxolone were, respectively, 4.95 L/kg 12.88 L/kg/h,16 minutes, 97%, and 5.07 L/kg, 8.35 L/kg/h, 25 minutes, 95%. Allopregnanolone and ganaxolone are effective in the treatment of TETS-induced SE when administered by the intramuscular route. Allopregnanolone is more rapidly acting and modestly more effective, possibly because it has greater potency on GABA_A receptors.

Prospects of Cannabidiol for Easing Status Epilepticus-Induced Epileptogenesis and Related Comorbidities

The hippocampus is one of the most susceptible regions in the brain to be distraught with status epilepticus (SE) induced injury. SE can occur from numerous causes and is more frequent in children and the elderly population. Administration of a combination of antiepileptic drugs can abolish acute seizures in most instances of SE but cannot prevent the morbidity typically seen in survivors of SE such as cognitive and mood impairments and spontaneous recurrent seizures. This is primarily due to the inefficiency of antiepileptic drugs to modify the evolution of SE-induced initial precipitating injury into a series of epileptogenic changes followed by a state of chronic epilepsy. Chronic epilepsy is typified by spontaneous recurrent seizures, cognitive dysfunction, and depression, which are associated with persistent inflammation, significantly waned neurogenesis, and abnormal synaptic reorganization. Thus, alternative approaches that are efficient not only for curtailing SE-induced initial brain injury, neuroinflammation, aberrant neurogenesis, and abnormal synaptic reorganization but also for thwarting or restraining the progression of SE into a chronic epileptic state are needed. In this review, we confer the promise of cannabidiol, an active ingredient of Cannabis sativa, for preventing or easing SE-induced neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, cognitive and mood impairments, and the spontaneous recurrent seizures.

The Clinical Characteristics and Prognostic Analysis of Status Epilepticus in Northeast China

OBJECTIVE

Status epilepticus (SE) is a neurological emergency that may cause severe neurological deficiency and even death. The aim of this study was to analyze the clinical characteristics and prognosis of SE in northeast China. Additionally, the etiology and classification are discussed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively collected the clinical profiles of patients diagnosed with SE in the Epilepsy Center of Jilin University between January 2011 and May 2015. The causes and clinical courses were investigated. The individuals were followed up by visit or telephone, and the prognoses were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 223 patients with SE were enrolled, including 134 cases with non-refractory SE (NRSE) and 89 cases with refractory or super-refractory SE (RSE/SRSE). Fifteen patients died during hospitalization, yielding a mortality of 6.73%; 11 of them succumbed to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Statistical analysis showed significant differences in age, family history of epilepsy, and the incidence of non-convulsive SE (NCSE) between the NRSE group and RSE/SRSE group (p < 0.05). We found no significant differences in the causes of SE (central nervous system infection, autoimmune encephalitis, and epilepsy) between these 2 groups.

CONCLUSION

In northeast China, SE is associated with relatively lower mortality, and MODS is the major cause of death. Older age and NCSE are risk factors predicting potential progression to RSE. Central nervous system infection, autoimmune encephalitis, and epilepsy were common causes of SE, but there was no significant association between any of these causes and the occurrence of RSE.

25 years of advances in the definition, classification and treatment of status epilepticus

PURPOSE

Status epilepticus (SE) requires not only urgent symptomatic treatment with antiepileptic drugs but also rapid identification and treatment of its cause. This narrative review summarizes the most important advances in classification and treatment of SE.

METHOD

Data sources included MEDLINE, EMBASE, ClinicalTrials.gov, and back tracking of references in pertinent studies, reviews, and books.

RESULTS

SE is now defined as "a condition resulting either from the failure of the mechanisms responsible for seizure termination or from the initiation of mechanisms, which lead to abnormally, prolonged seizures (after time point t1). It is a condition, which can have long-term consequences (after time point t2), including neuronal death, neuronal injury, and alteration of neuronal networks, depending on the type and duration of seizures." A new diagnostic classification system of SE introduces four axes: semiology, aetiology, EEG correlates, and age. For the acute treatment intravenous benzodiazepines (lorazepam, diazepam, clonazepam) and intramuscular midazolam appear as most effective treatments for early SE. In children, buccal or intranasal midazolam are useful alternatives. In established SE intravenous antiepileptic drugs (phenytoin, valproate, levetiracetam, phenobarbital, and lacosamide) are in use. Treatment options in refractory SE are intravenous anaesthetics; ketamine, magnesium, steroids and other drugs have been used in super-refractory SE with variable outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Over the past 25 years major advances in definition, classification and understanding of its mechanisms have been achieved. Despite this up to 40% of patients in early status cannot be controlled with first line drugs. The treatment of super-refractory status is still an almost evidence free zone.

Is intravenous lorazepam really more effective and safe than intravenous diazepam as first-line treatment for convulsive status epilepticus? A systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Some guidelines or expert consensus indicate that intravenous (IV) lorazepam (LZP) is preferable to IV diazepam (DZP) for initial treatment of convulsive status epilepticus (SE). We aimed to critically assess all the available data on efficacy and tolerability of IV LZP compared with IV DZP as first-line treatment of convulsive SE.

METHODS

Systematic search of the literature (MEDLINE, CENTRAL, EMBASE, ClinicalTrials.gov) to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing IV LZP versus IV DZP used as first-line treatment for convulsive SE (generalized or focal). Inverse variance, Mantel-Haenszel meta-analysis to obtain risk ratio (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) of following outcomes: seizure cessation after drug administration; continuation of SE requiring a different drug; seizure cessation after a single dose of medication; need for ventilator support; clinically relevant hypotension.

RESULTS

Five RCTs were included, with a total of 656 patients, 320 randomly allocated to IV LZP and 336 to IV DZP. No statistically significant differences were found between IV LZP and IV DZP for clinical seizure cessation (RR 1.09; 95% CI 1.00 to 1.20), continuation of SE requiring a different drug (RR 0.76; 95% CI 0.57 to 1.02), seizure cessation after a single dose of medication (RR 0.96; 95% CI 0.85 to 1.08), need for ventilator support RR 0.93; 95% CI 0.61 to 1.43, and clinically relevant hypotension.

CONCLUSION

Despite its favorable pharmacokinetic profile, a systematic appraisal of the literature does not provide evidence to strongly support the preferential use of IV LZP as first-line treatment of convulsive SE over IV DZP.

A review of intranasal formulations for the treatment of seizure emergencies

Epileptic seizure emergencies are life-threatening conditions, which in their most severe form, status epilepticus, have a high mortality rate if not quickly terminated. Treatment requires rapid delivery of anti-epileptics such as benzodiazepines to the brain. The nasal route is attractive due to its non-invasiveness, potential for direct nose to brain delivery, high vascularity, relatively large absorptive surface area, and avoidance of intestinal/liver metabolism. However, the limited volume of the nasal cavity and poor water solubility of anti-epileptics restrict absorption, leading to insufficient therapeutic brain levels. This review covers various formulation approaches adopted to improve nasal delivery of drugs, especially benzodiazepines, used to treat seizure emergencies. Other general topics such as nasal anatomy, challenges to nasal delivery, and drug/formulation considerations for nose to brain delivery are also discussed.

Chirally Pure Prodrugs and Their Converting Enzymes Lead to High Supersaturation and Rapid Transcellular Permeation of Benzodiazepines

Water-soluble prodrugs can be rapidly converted by enzymes to hydrophobic drugs, whose aqueous thermodynamic solubilities are low, but are maintained in aqueous solution at supersaturated concentrations due to slow precipitation kinetics. Recently, we investigated avizafone (AVF) in combination with Aspergillus oryzae protease as a prodrug/enzyme system intended to produce supersaturated diazepam (DZP). Several fold enhancement of permeation of supersaturated DZP across Madin-Darby canine kidney II-wild type (MDCKII-wt) monolayers was observed, compared to saturated DZP solutions. However, prodrug conversion was incomplete, putatively due to partial racemization of AVF and stereoselectivity of A oryzae protease. Here we report synthesis of chirally pure AVF, and demonstrate complete conversion to supersaturated DZP followed by complete DZP permeation at enhanced rates across MDCKII-wt cell monolayers. We also synthesized, for the first time, a chirally pure prodrug of midazolam (MDZ-pro) and carried out the same sequence of studies. A oryzae protease was identified as a benign and efficient activating enzyme for MDZ-pro. The MDZ-pro/A oryzae protease system showed greater than 25-fold increase in absorption rate of MDZ across MDCKII-wt monolayers, compared to saturated MDZ. Such chirally pure prodrug/enzyme systems are promising candidates for efficient intranasal delivery of benzodiazepine drugs used in the treatment of seizure emergencies.