A new preparation for recording single-channel currents from skeletal muscle

Removal of the mechanoprotective influence of the cytoskeleton reveals PIEZO1 is gated by bilayer tension

Mechanosensitive ion channels are force-transducing enzymes that couple mechanical stimuli to ion flux. Understanding the gating mechanism of mechanosensitive channels is challenging because the stimulus seen by the channel reflects forces shared between the membrane, cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix. Here we examine whether the mechanosensitive channel PIEZO1 is activated by force-transmission through the bilayer. To achieve this, we generate HEK293 cell membrane blebs largely free of cytoskeleton. Using the bacterial channel MscL, we calibrate the bilayer tension demonstrating that activation of MscL in blebs is identical to that in reconstituted bilayers. Utilizing a novel PIEZO1-GFP fusion, we then show PIEZO1 is activated by bilayer tension in bleb membranes, gating at lower pressures indicative of removal of the cortical cytoskeleton and the mechanoprotection it provides. Thus, PIEZO1 channels must sense force directly transmitted through the bilayer.

The beta1a subunit regulates the functional properties of adult frog and mouse L-type Ca2+ channels of skeletal muscle

The beta(1a) subunit, one of the auxiliary subunits of Ca(V)1.1 channels, was expressed in COS-1 cells, purified by electroelution and electrodialysis techniques and identified by Western blot using monoclonal antibodies. The purified beta(1a) subunit strongly interacted in vitro with the alpha interaction domain (AID) of Ca(V)1.1 channels. The actions of the purified beta(1a) subunit on Ca(V)1.1 channel currents were assessed in whole cell voltage clamp experiments performed in vesicles derived from frog and mouse adult skeletal muscle plasma membranes. L-type inward currents were recorded in solutions containing Ba(2+) (I(Ba)). Values of peak I(Ba) were doubled by the beta(1a) subunit in frog and mouse muscle vesicles and the amplitude of the slow component of tail currents was greatly increased. The actions of the beta(1a) subunit on Ca(V)1.1 channel currents reached a steady state within 20 min. The beta(1a) subunit had no effect on the time courses of activation or inactivation of I(Ba) or shifted the current-voltage relation. Non-linear capacitive currents were recorded in solutions that contained mostly impermeant ions. Charge movement depended on voltage with average Boltzmann parameters: Q(max) = 28.0 +/- 6.6 nC microF(-1), V = -58.0 +/- 2.0 mV and k = 15.3 +/- 1.1 mV (n = 24). In the presence of the beta(1a) subunit, these parameters remained unchanged: Q(max) = 29.8 +/- 3.5 nC microF(-1), V = -54.5 +/- 2.2 mV and k = 16.4 +/- 1.3 mV (n = 21). Overall, the work describes a novel preparation to explore in situ the role of the beta(1a) subunit on the function of adult Ca(V)1.1 channels.

Inactivation of I(A) channels of frog skeletal muscle is modulated by ATP

Whole cell, voltage clamp experiments were performed in vesicles derived from frog skeletal muscle plasma membranes to characterize the influence of ATP on the kinetic properties of fast inactivating K(+) currents (I(A)). I(A) was recorded in ATP-free solutions. Peak I(A) decayed with a time constant of 27 ms at large depolarizations. Steady state inactivation reached half maximal values at -66 mV. In the presence of ATP, these values were 196 ms and -41 mV, respectively, indicating a major effect of ATP on inactivation. In contrast, activation of I(A) was unaffected by ATP. The protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors, H7 and staurosporine, greatly prevented the effects of ATP on inactivation. Inactivation remained unchanged by the protein kinase A inhibitor HA1004 or by the catalytic subunit of cAMP protein kinase. We conclude that ATP decreases inactivation of skeletal muscle I(A) and that this effect may be mediated by protein kinase C.

Transduction ion channels directly gated by sugars on the insect taste cell

Insects detect sugars and amino acids by a specialized taste cell, the sugar receptor cell, in the taste hairs located on their labela and tarsi. We patch-clamped sensory processes of taste cells regenerated from the cut end of the taste hairs on the labelum of the flashfly isolated from the pupa approximately 20 h before emergence. We recorded both single channel and ensemble currents of novel ion channels located on the distal membrane of the sensory process of the sugar receptor cell. In the stable outside-out patch membrane excised from the sensory processes, we could repeatedly record sucrose-induced currents for tens of minutes without appreciable decrease. An inhibitor of G-protein activation, GDP-beta-S, did not significantly decrease the sucrose response. These results strongly suggested that the channel is an ionotropic receptor (a receptor/channel complex), activated directly by sucrose without mediation by second messengers or G protein. The channel was shown to be a nonselective cation channel. Analyses of single channel currents showed that the sucrose-gated channel has a single channel conductance of approximately 30 pS and has a very short mean open time of approximately 0.23 ms. It is inhibited by external Ca(2+) and the dose-current amplitude relation could be described by a Michaelis-Menten curve with an apparent dissociation constant of approximately 270 mM. We also report transduction ion channels of the receptor/channel complex type directly gated by fructose and those gated by L-valine located on the sensory process.

Dihydropyridine-sensitive ion currents and charge movement in vesicles derived from frog skeletal muscle plasma membranes

1. Whole-cell voltage clamp experiments were performed in vesicles derived from frog skeletal muscle plasma membranes to characterize the electrophysiological properties of dihydropyridine (DHP) receptors. This preparation allows control of the composition of the internal medium and the recording of currents, without the influence of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). 2. In solutions containing Ba2+, Bay K 8644-sensitive, L-type inward currents were recorded. Peak Ba2+ currents (IBa) averaged 3.0 microA microF-1 and inactivated in a voltage-dependent manner. Half-maximal steady-state inactivation occurred at -40 mV. No major facilitation of tail currents was observed. 3. The time course of activation of L-type Ca2+ channels was voltage dependent and 10 times faster than that in muscle fibres; the current density values were also much lower. 4. Lowering [Mg2+]i from 2 to 0.1 mM shifted the time to peak of IBa versus voltage relation by -13 mV. 5. In solutions that contained mostly impermeant ions, non-linear capacitive currents were recorded. Charge movement with properties resembling charge 1 was observed in polarized vesicles. The charge movement depended on voltage with Boltzmann parameters: Qmax (maximum charge), 45.6 nC microF-1; V (potential at which Q = 0.5 Qmax), -58.4 mV; and k (slope factor), 22. 3 mV. There was no indication of the presence of Qgamma (the 'hump' component of charge movement). 6. In depolarized vesicles, non-linear currents were observed during hyperpolarizing pulses. The currents produced an excessive charge during 'on' transients only. Charge during 'off' transients was linear from -180 to +60 mV. There was no evidence of the presence of charge 2.

Membrane domain localization of pH-regulating transporters in frog skeletal muscle membrane vesicles

The distribution of pH-regulating transporters in surface and transverse (T) tubular membrane (TTM) domains of frog skeletal muscle was studied. 2',7'-Bis(carboxyethyl)-5(6)- carboxyfluorescein-loaded giant sarcolemmal vesicles, containing surface membrane, exhibited reversible Na+/H+ exchange. A microsomal vesicle fraction was shown to be enriched in TTM on the basis of high Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase and Mg(2+)-ATPase activity, high ouabain and nitrendipine binding, and low Ca(2+)-ATPase activity. TTM vesicles were well sealed and oriented inside out. Vesicles were loaded with the pH-sensitive dye pyranine. In response to an inwardly directed Na+ gradient, vesicles displayed virtually no alkalinization unless monensin was present. No pH response to an imposed Na+ gradient was seen regardless of the direction of the pH gradient across the vesicles, after phosphorylation of the vesicles with protein kinase C, or when exposed to guanosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate). In the presence of CO2, addition of Na+ or Cl- had no effect on vesicle pH. These data indicate that the TTM lacks functional pH-regulating transporters [Na+/H+ and (Na+ + HCO3-)/Cl- exchangers], suggesting that pH-regulating transporters are localized only to the surface membrane domain in frog muscle.

Transient outward K+ channels in vesicles derived from frog skeletal muscle plasma membranes

Whole-cell voltage-clamp experiments were performed in vesicles derived from frog skeletal muscle plasma membranes. Capacitance measurements showed that these vesicles lack invaginations. In solutions containing K+, transient outward currents with reversal potentials close to EK were recorded with a maximum potassium conductance of 0.3 mS/cm2. These currents inactivated in a voltage-dependent manner with a time constant of decay that reached a limiting value of 26 ms at large depolarizations. The steady-state inactivation reached half-maximum values at -66 mV. Transient currents were completely blocked with 5 mM 4-aminopyridine. Single-channel recordings made in inside-out excised patches from the vesicles had ensemble averages with characteristics similar to those of the macroscopic currents, although with significantly faster inactivation time constants. The single-channel chord conductance was 21 pS when the pipette and bath solutions contained 2.5 mM and 120 mM KCl, respectively. It is concluded that these vesicles contain potassium channels that are very similar to A channels found in neurons and other cells.

Tensile strength and dilatational elasticity of giant sarcolemmal vesicles shed from rabbit muscle

1. Mechanical properties of the surface membrane of skeletal muscle were determined on sarcolemmal vesicles (mean diameter, 71 microns) shed by rabbit psoas muscle swelling in 140 mM KC1 containing collagenase. 2. Vesicles were stressed by partial aspiration into parallel bore pipettes. The isotropic membrane tension so created caused an increase in membrane area which expresses itself in an elongation of the vesicle projection into the pipette. 3. For individual vesicles, a linear relationship between membrane tension and membrane area increase was found up to the point when the vesicle burst, i.e. sarcolemmal vesicles behaved as perfectly elastic structures. 4. The maximum tension sarcolemmal vesicles could sustain before bursting was 12.4 +/- 0.2 mN m-1 (median +/- 95% confidence interval), and the corresponding fractional increase in membrane area was 0.026 +/- 0.005 (median +/- 95% confidence interval). The elastic modulus of area expansion was 490 +/- 88 mN m-1 (mean +/- S.D.). 5. In conformity with cited comparable work on red blood cells and artificial lipid vesicles, the strength and area elasticity of the skeletal muscle membrane are considered properties of the fluid lipid matrix of the membrane and of the degree to which the bilayer is perturbed by lipid-protein interaction.

Convertible modes of inactivation of potassium channels in Xenopus myocytes differentiating in vitro

1. Voltage-dependent inactivating single-channel potassium currents were recorded in cell-attached and inside-out patches from embryonic Xenopus myocytes differentiating in culture. 2. Channels with rapid inactivation (time constants < 25 ms) and with slow inactivation (time constants > 80 ms) recorded after one day in vitro appear to belong to two functionally different classes. Rapidly and slowly inactivating channels show steady-state inactivation with potentials of half-inactivation of -74 +/- 7 and -44 +/- 9 mV. They exhibit voltage-dependent activation, with times to half-maximal activation of 0.79 +/- 0.09 and 1.17 +/- 0.22 ms when stepped from -120 to +40 mV. Rapidly inactivating channels also have a lower open probability than slowly inactivating ones. The channels have similar conductances of 23 +/- 6 and 17 +/- 4 pS and extrapolated reversal potentials close to the potassium equilibrium potential. 3. In cell-attached patches, inactivation behaviours of channels with rapid or slow inactivation do not change during recording. After patch excision, rapidly inactivating channels usually switch to a slow inactivation mode. Slowly inactivating channels derived from rapidly inactivating channels after patch excision retain their conductance and extrapolated reversal potential, but are not distinguishable from native slowly inactivating channels with respect to steady-state inactivation, activation and inactivation times, as well as open probabilities. 4. The change in inactivation behaviour of rapidly inactivating channels after patch excision is reversed by application of reduced dithiothreitol (DTT). In contrast, channels with slow inactivation in the cell-attached mode do not change in to rapidly inactivating channels after application of DTT in the excised configuration, suggesting that these channels belong to a structurally different class. 5. Frequent observation of superposing channel openings indicates clustering of inactivating potassium channels in the myocyte membrane, since many patches lack channel activity. Clustering does not depend on the presence of differentiating neurones. 6. Channels with rapid inactivation increase 6-fold in density during the first day in culture in the presence of neurones; channel density decreases in their absence. Channels with slow inactivation increase 2-fold in density in the presence or absence of differentiating neurones during this period. 7. Channels with rapid or slow inactivation in cell-attached membrane belong to functionally distinct classes that are developmentally regulated differently. Reversible changes from rapid to slow inactivation mode after patch excision suggest that the channels may be structurally related.

Modification of K-ATP channels in pancreatic beta-cells by trypsin

The inside-out configuration of the patch-clamp method was used to study the effects of trypsin on the activity of ATP-sensitive potassium (K-ATP) channels from isolated mouse pancreatic beta-cells. Trypsin (20 micrograms/ml) irreversibly enhanced channel activity around twofold by reducing the interburst intervals without altering the burst kinetics. No effect on the single channel conductance or the inward rectification produced by internal Mg2+ was observed: however, the protease did reduce the inhibitory effect of Mg2+ on channel activity. Trypsin both prevented rundown of K-ATP channel activity and reactivated the channels after complete rundown. These effects of trypsin were absent in the presence of trypsin inhibitor. The protease also reduced the inhibitory effect of ATP on channel activity, increasing the dissociation constant from 7 to 49 microM. Trypsin removed the activating effect of ADP (0.1 mmol/l) on channel activity and reduced the inhibitory effect of tolbutamide (0.5 mmol/l). Carboxypeptidase A did not activate K-ATP channels in excised patches, although it was able to slightly reactivate channels after complete rundown, whereas chymotrypsin increased K-ATP channel activity but it did not produce reactivation. The effects of papain were similar to those of trypsin.

The giant cardiac membrane patch method: stimulation of outward Na(+)-Ca2+ exchange current by MgATP

1. A giant patch method was used to study the stimulatory effect of cytoplasmic MgATP on outward Na(+)-Ca2+ exchange current in inside-out cardiac membrane patches (1-10 G omega seals with 14-24 microns pipette tip diameters) excised from guinea-pig, rabbit and mouse myocytes. 2. To establish the validity of the method with respect to structure, bleb formation was examined with electron microscopy and with confocal fluorescence light microscopy. The blebs, which form as the sarcolemma detaches, excluded intracellular organelles and transverse tubules. The blebbed cells contained normal sarcomeres, sarcoplasmic reticulum, triads and diads. 3. To further establish the validity of the method for ion transport studies, measurements of Na(+)-K+ pump currents and charge movements are described briefly which demonstrate (i) free access to the cytoplasmic membrane side, (ii) MgATP dependence comparable to reconstituted pump (Kd, 94 microns), (iii) fast, rigorous concentration control and (iv) Na(+)-K+ pump densities in the range of whole-cell densities. 4. Stimulation of outward Na(+)-Ca2+ exchange current by MgATP attenuated exchange current decay during step increments of cytoplasmic sodium, shifted the secondary activation of outward exchange current by cytoplasmic calcium to lower free calcium concentrations and, particularly in mouse cardiac sarcolemma, induced cytoplasmic calcium-independent current. 5. Upon removal of MgATP the stimulatory effect usually decayed with a t50 (half-time) of about 3 min. However, the reversal took place much more rapidly (t50, 5-20 s) in patches from individual guinea-pig and rabbit myocyte batches. When decay was rapid, secondary activation by cytoplasmic calcium was shifted to higher free cytoplasmic calcium concentrations (Kd, 10-65 microns-free calcium). 6. With repeated applications of MgATP the rate and magnitude of the stimulatory effect progressively decreased. 7. The Kd for MgATP of the initial rate of stimulation of outward exchange current was 3 mM or greater. When decay was rapid, the steady-state dependence of exchange current on MgATP also had a Kd of 3 mM or greater. 8. Stimulation of Na(+)-Ca2+ exchange current by MgATP occurred in the absence of cytoplasmic calcium with 9 mM-EGTA. 9. The stimulatory effect of 2 mM-MgATP was not inhibited by up to 200 microM of the protein kinase inhibitor 1-(5-isoquinoline sulphonyl)-2-methylpiperazine (H7), or by peptide inhibitors of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase, protein kinase C and calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

A macro cell-attached patch-clamp study of the properties of the Na current in the vicinity of the motor endplate region of frog single interosseal skeletal muscle fibres

A macro cell-attached patch-clamp technique using large (16 microns) electrodes was developed to study the properties of the Na current (INa) in the motor endplate region of frog interosseal muscle fibres (resting potential approx.-99 mV). The fibre isolation procedure allows the formation of gigaOhm seals and thus a good voltage-clamp control of the patch. At 22 degrees C, in the presence of 110 mM external [Na] and of K channel blockers, INa activates at -49.6 +/- 1.9 mV, reaches a maximum of 4.33 +/- 0.66 mA/cm2 at -7.5 +/- 2.5 mV and reverses at Vrev equal to +63.2 +/- 1.9 mV. There is no evidence for the presence of a tubular INa. When the [Na] in the recording pipette is changed, Vrev exactly follows the Nernst equation for Na ions. An internal [Na] of 9.69 mM is determined. The Na conductance is maximum (63.56 +/- 7.03 mS/cm2) at +8.9 +/- 3.0 mV and markedly decreases for potentials positive to +25 mV. In contrast, the Na permeability (maximum of 6.13 +/- 0.95 x 10(-4) cm/s at +51.4 +/- 5.6 mV) remains more constant at positive potentials. The Na channels are half-inactivated at -68.9 mV and half-activated at -37.9 mV. At the potential at which INa is maximum, the half-time of activation is 223.9 +/- 10.5 microseconds, the time to peak 365.7 +/- 13.5 microseconds and the time constant of inactivation 260.7 +/- 11.2 microseconds. The time constant of reactivation at -100 mV is 1.44 +/- 0.19 ms. These and other results show that INa can be adequately studied with this technique.

High conductance anion channel in Schwann cell vesicles from rat spinal roots

Potassium uptake, possibly together with chloride, is one of the presumed functions of Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. However, the presence of chloride channels has not been demonstrated in adult Schwann cells. We present here a new method which allows single channel recordings to be made from Schwann cells in situ without enzymatic treatment. Isolated rat spinal roots were split mechanically into several bundles. Within about 30 min after this procedure small bleb-like vesicles (approximately 20-30 microns in diameter) with a clean surface appeared at the edges of the fibre bundles. Immunofluorescence microscopy with a surface marker for Schwann cell membranes (monoclonal antibody O4) revealed that the vesicles originate from Schwann cells. In standard patch clamp recordings with symmetrical bath and pipette solutions (excised inside-out configuration) an anion channel with the following characteristics was mainly observed: 1) single channel slope conductance of 337 +/- 5 pS in 125 mM KCl and 209 +/- 6 pS in 125 mM K+ methylsulphate; 2) ion permeability ratio: PCl/PK/Pgluconate = 1/0.12/0.06; 3) linear current-voltage relationship (range +/- 60 mV); and 4) voltage- and time-dependent inactivation (the channel was most active at potentials +/- 20 mV). Pharmacologically, the channel was completely blocked with zinc (1 mM) and barium (10 mM). A similar anion channel, showing characteristics 1-4), has been described in cultured Schwann cells of newborn rats (Gray et al., 1984). We now demonstrate that this channel is also present in adult Schwann cells in situ.

The effect of intracellular pH on ATP-dependent potassium channels of frog skeletal muscle

1. We have used patch-clamp methods to study the effects of pH at the cytoplasmic surface of the membrane on ATP-dependent K+ channels (KATP channels) in patches excised from frog (Rana temporaria) skeletal muscle, and to study the kinetics of ATP binding. 2. In the absence of ATP, a reduction in pH led to a slight decrease in single-channel current amplitude, an increase in the number of very brief closings, an increase in the apparent mean open time, and an increase in burst duration. After correction for missed closings, the change in mean open time was slight. Despite these changes in detailed kinetics, the channel open-state probability, Popen, changed little with changes in pH in the absence of ATP. 3. In the presence of ATP, a decrease in internal pH (pHi) reduced the degree of channel inhibition by ATP, shifting the curve relating Popen and [ATP] to higher concentrations of ATP without altering its steepness. The ATP concentration for half-inhibition of channel activity (Ki) was 17 microM at pH 7.2 and 260 microM at pH 6.3. 4. The effect of pH could be modelled by assuming that one or two protons bind to the channel and prevent ATP binding to exert its effect of causing channel closure. The predicted dissociation constants for ATP and H+ respectively were 5.4 and 0.11 microM. 5. The rate constants for binding and unbinding of ATP were estimated from the dependence of the mean open time on [ATP] and from the Ki. The apparent rate constants for ATP binding were 0.6 and 0.04 mM-1 ms-1 at pH 7.2 and 6.3 respectively, while the rate constant for unbinding was 0.01 ms-1. In terms of our model the calculated true rate constant for ATP binding was 1.85 mM-1 ms-1. ATP binding also led to a reduction in burst duration. 6. The effect of pH described here differs from findings in cardiac muscle and pancreatic B-cells. The results are discussed in relation to the possible function of KATP channels in skeletal muscle during exercise.

The flickery block of ATP-dependent potassium channels of skeletal muscle by internal 4-aminopyridine

We have examined the effects of 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) on single ATP-dependent potassium channels in patches excised from frog skeletal muscle. 4-AP applied to the internal face of the membrane caused a flickery block. We could not detect any flickery block when 10 mM 4-AP was applied to the external surface of the membrane. The reduction in mean unitary current by internal 4-AP was consistent with 1:1 binding with a Kd of 3.3 mM at 0 mV. The block was voltage-dependent, increasing with depolarization with an effective valency of 0.57. Rate constants for blocking and unblocking by 4-AP were obtained by fitting beta functions to the distribution of current amplitudes. Both rate constants were voltage-dependent. At 0 mV they were 17 mM-1 ms-1 and 61 ms-1. Simulation of the block using these rate constants produced a flickery block very similar to that observed experimentally.

Skeletal muscle ATP-sensitive K+ channels recorded from sarcolemmal blebs of split fibers: ATP inhibition is reduced by magnesium and ADP

A new, nonenzymatically treated preparation of amphibian sarcolemmal blebs has been used to study the regulation of skeletal muscle ATP-sensitive K+ [K(ATP)] channels. When a frog skeletal muscle fiber is split in half in a Ca(2+)-free relaxing solution, large hemispherical membrane blebs appear spontaneously within minutes without need for Ca(2+)-induced contraction or enzymatic treatment. These blebs readily formed gigaseals with patch pipettes, and excised inside-out patches were found to contain a variety of K+ channels. Most prominent were K(ATP) channels similar to those found in the surface membrane of other muscle and nonmuscle cells. These channels were highly selective for K+, had a conductance of approximately 53 pS in 140 mM K+, and were blocked by internal ATP. The presence of these channels in most patches implies that split-fiber blebs are made up, at least in large part, of sarcolemmal membrane. In this preparation, K(ATP) channels could be rapidly and reversibly blocked by glibenclamide (0.1-10 microM) in a dose-dependent manner. These channels were sensitive to ATP in the micromolar range in the absence of Mg. This sensitivity was noticeably reduced in the presence of millimolar Mg, most likely because of the ability of Mg2+ ions to bind ATP. Our data therefore suggest that free ATP is a much more potent inhibitor of these channels than MgATP. Channel sensitivity to ATP was significantly reduced by ADP in a manner consistent with a competition between ADP, a weak inhibitor, and ATP, a strong inhibitor, for the same inhibitory binding sites. These observations suggest that the mechanisms of nucleotide regulation of skeletal muscle and pancreatic K(ATP) channels are more analogous than previously thought.

Activation of ATP-sensitive K channels by a K channel opener (SR 44866) and the effect upon electrical and mechanical activity of frog skeletal muscle

To examine the effects of the activation of adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive K channels in a skeletal muscle we have applied the ATP-sensitive K channel opener SR44866 whilst recording single ion channels, voltage-clamped membrane currents, evoked action potentials and tension in sartorius muscles of the frog. In excised inside-out membrane patches SR44866 opened channels which could be inhibited by internal ATP and glibenclamide. In voltage-clamped individual muscle fibres SR44866 evoked a glibenclamide-sensitive membrane current which reversed at -70 mV. The effect of SR44866 was dose dependent with an effective concentration for 50% maximal effect (EC50) of 67 microM and a slope factor of 2. SR44866 dose dependently reduced the duration of the spike after-potential, spike overshoot, Vmax, tetrodotoxin-sensitive voltage-gated inward membrane currents and muscle twitch tension. From this evidence it can be concluded that the opening of ATP-sensitive K channels may be associated with the inhibition of contraction of skeletal muscle.

Multiple blocking mechanisms of ATP-sensitive potassium channels of frog skeletal muscle by tetraethylammonium ions

1. Patch-clamp methods were used to study the action of tetraethylammonium ions (TEA+) and other quaternary ammonium ions on adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive K+ channels in sarcolemmal vesicles from frog skeletal muscle. The blocking ions were applied either to the external or the internal surface of the membrane patch. 2. External TEA+ caused a very fast block, so that the amplitude of single-channel currents was reduced. Open-channel variance was decreased. The block was 1:1, with a dissociation constant (Kd) of 6-7 mM. We could detect no voltage dependence of Kd. 3. External TEA+ prolonged open times in a manner consistent with the channel being unable to close when blocked by TEA+. 4. TEA+ also blocked when applied to the internal side of the membrane. This block showed two components with different kinetics and different affinities. The slow block chopped up openings into much briefer events and had a Kd of about 1.4 mM at -3 mV. The fast block reduced the amplitude of unitary currents and was of lower affinity, with Kd around 26 mM. 5. The slow block by internal TEA+ was markedly voltage dependent, the Kd decreasing e-fold for a 37 mV depolarization. Both the association and dissociation rates were dependent on voltage. In contrast, the fast block by internal TEA+ appeared virtually independent of voltage. 6. The effects of internally applied tetramethylammonium (TMA+) and tetrapentylammonium (TPA+) ions were also investigated. Internal TMA+ produced a flickery block while the block by internal TPA+ was similar to that caused by TEA+, although TPA+ was about 10 times more effective. 7. Our results suggest that the channel has three binding sites for TEA+, one of which is accessible from the outside of the membrane. Only one of the internal sites is located so as to experience a substantial fraction of the membrane voltage field.

Rubidium ions and the gating of delayed rectifier potassium channels of frog skeletal muscle

1. Unitary currents were measured through delayed rectifier potassium channels of frog skeletal muscle, under conditions where either potassium or rubidium ions carried current. 2. Unitary currents were reduced in amplitude when Rb+ was the charge carrier, indicating that Rb+ permeated the channel less readily than did K+. On the other hand permeability ratios (PRb/PK) measured from the change in reversal potential upon ionic substitution were 0.92 for the external and 0.67 for the internal mouth of the channel. 3. Ensemble-averaged currents activated under depolarization along a similarly S-shaped time course whether K+ or Rb+ carried current, though slightly more slowly in Rb+. However, under repolarization to a negative level, tail currents were prolonged about tenfold in Rb+. 4. The duration of channel opening was substantially prolonged in Rb+. The distribution of open times was fitted by a single exponential whether K+ or Rb+ was the charge carrier, indicating a single open state. But the mean open time, averaged over all voltages investigated, was 2.65 times greater in Rb+. 5. The prolongation in Rb+ of tail currents under repolarization was associated with increases in the number of openings per burst and in the number of bursts during each tail. 6. The implications of these results for channel gating are discussed. It is argued that an early step in channel activation is more voltage dependent than later steps.

Patch clamp of sarcolemmal spheres from stretched skeletal muscle fibers

Stretching frog skeletal muscle fibers to the breaking point results in the rapid formation of numerous large spheres of membrane (5-80 microns diam). The surface of the spheres readily forms gigaohm (G omega) seals against patch pipettes, allowing low-noise single-channel recording. Currents recorded from patches isolated from these spheres indicate that they contain a variety of channels including 1) a small Na+-selective channel seen in the presence of veratridine, 2) a K+-selective channel which is blocked by millimolar Mg-ATP, and 3) a relatively large voltage-dependent Cl- channel which is blocked by Zn2+ and limited in selectivity over other anions [PCl/PMOPS = 3.7; MOPS, 3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid]. These channels have been described previously and have been identified as markers for sarcolemmal (SL) membrane. Accordingly, this method allows rapid and direct recording of channels in the SL membrane without first having to pretreat fibers with proteolytic enzymes to render the SL accessible to patch pipettes.

The voltage-dependent block of ATP-sensitive potassium channels of frog skeletal muscle by caesium and barium ions

1. Patch clamp techniques were used to study the action of external Cs+ and Ba2+ on adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP)-dependent K+ channels in sarcolemmal vesicles from frog skeletal muscle. Both ions block channels in a voltage-dependent fashion, block increasing with hyperpolarization. 2. The Cs+ block is flickery, mean unitary current being reduced and open-level noise increased. The concentration dependence is consistent with 1:1 binding, with a dissociation constant (Kd) of 4.1 mM at -62 mV. The Kd increases e-fold for a 20 mV depolarization. 3. The kinetics of Cs+ block were analysed by amplitude distribution analysis, and by measurement of the excess open-level variance. Both methods gave similar rate constants for blocking and unblocking; about 20 mM-1 ms-1 and 75 ms-1 at -62 mV. 4. All the voltage dependence of the Cs+ block appears to lie in the blocking reaction; unblocking is independent of voltage. 5. Ba2+ blocks with slower kinetics, so that blocking events can be resolved in single-channel records. Ba2+ reduces mean open time and causes long closings. 6. The blocking rate constant for Ba2+ was measured from the open times. It was about 1.7 mM-1 ms-1 at -62 mV and increased e-fold for a 40 mV hyperpolarization. The unblocking rate, measured from closed times, yielded a Kd of about 0.1 mM at -62 mV, in agreement with that measured from the reduction in open-state probability. 7. Our results suggest that Cs+ and Ba2+ block at sites within the channel, and provide evidence that the channel is a multi-ion pore.

Single-channel activity in sarcolemmal vesicles from human and other mammalian muscles

Segments of mammalian, including human, skeletal muscle 1-2 cm long can be induced to shed vesicles by treatment with collagenase in a high-KCl solution containing no added calcium. The vesicles are encompassed by clean sarcolemma so that the gigaseal necessary for patch-clamping is readily formed. The properties of inwardly rectifying potassium channels and of calcium-activated potassium channels in patches detached from such vesicles are shown to be consistent with expectations based on earlier studies on intact muscle fibers and with patch clamp results on the same type of channels in other tissues. A chloride channel which rectifies outwardly with a conductance ranging from 15 to 50 pS is also described. The utility of sarcolemmal vesicles for the study of ion channels in human biopsy material is discussed.

The action of external tetraethylammonium ions on unitary delayed rectifier potassium channels of frog skeletal muscle

1. We have used single-channel recording to investigate the block by extracellular tetraethylammonium ions (TEA+) of delayed rectifier potassium channels of frog skeletal sarcolemma. 2. TEA+ blocks by reducing the apparent amplitude of unitary currents, without detectable increase in open-level current variance. 3. The block by TEA+ appeared to be 1:1, the fractional current being halved at 5.8 mM and -3 mV. The dissociation constant for the block was voltage dependent, increasing e-fold for a 138 mV depolarization. 4. Activation of delayed rectifier potassium currents is not altered by TEA+. 5. Open times, which in the presence of TEA+ represents bursts of open and blocked events, are not increased by TEA+, indicating that blocked channels are able to close normally.

Isolated muscle cells as a physiological model

Summary of a symposium presented by the American Physiological Society (Cell and General Physiology Section and Muscle Group) at the 70th Annual Meeting of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, St. Louis, Missouri, April 15, 1986, chaired by M. Lieberman and F. Fay. This symposium reflects a growing interest in seeking new technologies to study the basic physiological and biophysical properties of cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscle cells. Recognizing that technical and analytical problems associated with multicellular preparations limit the physiological significance of many experiments, investigators have increasingly focused on efforts to isolate single, functional embryonic, and adult muscle cells. Progress in obtaining physiologically relevant preparations has been both rapid and significant even though problems regarding cell purification and viability are not fully resolved. The symposium draws attention to a broad, though incomplete, range of studies using isolated or cultured muscle cells. Based on the following reports, investigators should be convinced that a variety of experiments can be designed with preparations of isolated cells and those in tissue culture to resolve questions about fundamental physiological properties of muscle cells.

Studies of the unitary properties of adenosine-5'-triphosphate-regulated potassium channels of frog skeletal muscle

1. Patch-clamp techniques were used to study adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP)-dependent K+ channels in sarcolemmal vesicles from frog skeletal muscle. In addition to its ATP dependence, opening of these channels was voltage dependent, the open-state probability (P open) increasing with depolarization. 2. The reversal potential of unitary currents changed with external K+ concentration, [K+]o, as expected if the Na-K permeability ration (pNa/pK) equals 0.015. Unitary conductance increased with increasing [K+]o from 14.8 +/- 0.5 pS (n = 5) in 2.5 mM-K+ to 42.3 +/- 1.0 pS (n = 8) in 60 mM-K+. This increase was less than that expected from independence. 3. Replacement of 60 mM-external K+ by 60 mM-external Rb+ shifted the reversal potential of unitary currents by -6.7 mV, suggesting that Rb+ enters channels nearly as easily as does K+ (Rb-K permeability ration, pRb/pK = 0.76). Unitary currents were much smaller in Rb+, consistent with Rb+ binding within the channel. 4. The ATP-regulated K+ channel was blocked by both internal and external tetraethylammonium ions (TEA+). 2 mM-TEA+, applied to the cytoplasmic face of membrane patches, interrupted channel openings. Higher concentrations reduced unitary current amplitude, suggesting an increase in the rapidity of TEA+ block. 5. The reduction in P open by ATP was consistent with 1:1 binding and a dissociation constant of 0.135 mM. ATP appeared not to be hydrolysed to close channels. Adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP) were less effective than ATP, but retained channel closing properties. Substitution of adenine with other purines or with pyrimidine bases substantially reduced activity, as did substitution of ribose by 2'-deoxyribose or by ribose 2',3'-dialdehyde. 6. Sarcoplasmic Ca2+ did not influence P open. 7. Myotubes, grown from thigh muscles of new-born rats, appeared to lack ATP-dependent K+ channels. Adult frog muscle appeared to lack high-conductance Ca2+-dependent K+ channels, at least in the surface membrane. Such channels were found in myotube membranes. 8. Open- and closed-time histograms were constructed and were consistent with at least two open and at least three closed states. Channel openings were grouped in bursts. Open times, burst lengths and the number of openings per burst were reduced by ATP. 9. The effects of [K+]o on unitary conductance and of K+ replacement with Rb+ are discussed in terms of a simple Eyring rate theory formulation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Ionic channels: II. Voltage- and agonist-gated and agonist-modified channel properties and structure

This article reviews the different forms of ionic channels: voltage-gated, agonist-gated, and agonist- and second messenger-modified channels. The recent advances in our knowledge of the amino acid sequence of the sodium channel and the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and the relationship of the primary structure to the channels' quarternary structure and function are discussed.

Ionic channels: I. The biophysical basis for ion passage and channel gating

This article reviews the biophysics of ion passage through membrane pores, as well as the physical factors that control the ion selectivity, gating, and conductance of an ionic channel. Different voltage clamp techniques are discussed in detail. The biophysical properties of sodium channels are reviewed.

Mobility of voltage-dependent ion channels and lectin receptors in the sarcolemma of frog skeletal muscle

The mobility of lectin receptors and of two types of ion channels was studied in skeletal muscles of the frog Rana temporaria. Lectin receptors were labeled with fluorescent derivatives of succinyl-concanavalin A (Con A) or wheat germ agglutinin (WGA), and their mobility was measured by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. Of the receptors for WGA, approximately 53% were free to diffuse in the plane of the membrane, with an average diffusion coefficient as found in other preparations (D = 6.4 X 10(-11) cm2/s). Con A receptors were not measurably mobile. The mobility of voltage-dependent Na and K (delayed rectifier) channels was investigated with the loose-patch clamp method, coupled with through-the-pipette photodestruction of channels by ultraviolet (UV) light. Na channels were not measurably mobile (D less than or equal to 10(-12) cm2/s). With K channels, photodestruction was followed by a small but consistent recovery of K current, which suggested that some K channels diffused in the plane of the membrane. Our results with K currents are best fit if 25% of the K channels diffuse with D = 5 X 10(-11) cm2/s, with the remainder being immobile. For both Na and K channels, photodestruction by UV was most effective at a wavelength of approximately 289 nm. At this wavelength, the energy density required for an e-fold reduction in the number of functional channels was 0.40 J/cm2 for Na channels and 0.94 J/cm2 for K channels. Irradiation at this wavelength and dose did not measurably diminish the mobility of WGA receptors; hence, the immobility of Na and most K channels is not due to UV irradiation. It is concluded that mobile and immobile membrane proteins coexist in the sarcolemma of frog skeletal muscle, and that voltage-dependent Na and K channels are singled out for immobilization.

Properties of single potassium channels in vesicles formed from the sarcolemma of frog skeletal muscle

The patch-clamp method was used to study unitary delayed rectifier K+ channels in large vesicles formed from the membrane of frog skeletal muscle. Channels were activated by depolarizing pulses. Single-channel conductance was about 15 pS in physiological [K+]o and was doubled by raising [K+]o to 120 mM. TEA+ caused an apparent reduction in single-channel current, which we attribute to a rapid block. When depolarizations were repeated at brief intervals, records with and without channel openings were ordered non-randomly, providing evidence for a slow process which was probably inactivation. In multichannel patches the relation between variance and mean current, binomial analysis, and the distribution of times for single and double openings were all consistent with channels behaving independently. Open times were distributed exponentially. Mean open time, tau o, increased with depolarization so that 1/tau o was an exponential function of voltage. First latency histograms peaked at times later than zero and could not be fitted by a scheme having only two closed states. Channel openings occurred in bursts and closed time histograms could be fitted by the sum of three exponentials. Our results imply a scheme with at least three closed states, an open and an inactivated state.