1
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Lennon RJ, Ronanki S, Hegemann A. Immune challenge reduces daily activity period in free-living birds for three weeks. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230794. [PMID: 37583320 PMCID: PMC10427819 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-lethal infections are common in free-living animals and the associated sickness behaviours can impact crucial life-history trade-offs. However, little is known about the duration and extent of such sickness behaviours in free-living animals, and consequently how they affect life-history decisions. Here, free-living Eurasian blackbirds, Turdus merula, were immune-challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to mimic a bacterial infection and their behaviour was monitored for up to 48 days using accelerometers. As expected, immune-challenged birds were less active than controls within the first 24 h. Unexpectedly, this reduced activity remained detectable for 20 days, before both groups returned to similar activity levels. Furthermore, activity was positively correlated with a pre-experimental index of complement activity, but only in immune-challenged birds, suggesting that sickness behaviours are modulated by constitutive immune function. Differences in daily activity levels stemmed from immune-challenged birds resting earlier at dusk than control birds, while activity levels between groups were similar during core daytime hours. Overall, activity was reduced by 19% in immune-challenged birds and they were on average almost 1 h less active per day for 20 days. This unexpected longevity in sickness behaviour may have severe implications during energy-intense annual-cycle stages (e.g. breeding, migration, winter). Thus, our data help to understand the consequences of non-lethal infections on free-living animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosie J. Lennon
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Ecology Building, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Shivani Ronanki
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Ecology Building, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Arne Hegemann
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Ecology Building, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
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2
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Encel SA, Simpson EK, Schaerf TM, Ward AJW. Immune challenge affects reproductive behaviour in the guppy ( Poecilia reticulata). ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:230579. [PMID: 37564068 PMCID: PMC10410201 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.230579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
Immunocompetence and reproduction are among the most important determinants of fitness. However, energetic and metabolic constraints create conflict between these two life-history traits. While many studies have explored the relationship between immune activity and reproductive fitness in birds and mammals inoculated with bacterial endotoxin, very few have focused on fish. Fish have been neglected in this area due, in part, to the claim that they are largely resistant to the immune effects of endotoxins. However, the present study suggests that they are susceptible to significant effects with respect to reproductive behaviour. Here, we examined the reproductive behaviour of male guppies following exposure to bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in comparison to that of male guppies in a control treatment. Additionally, we investigated the responses of females to these males. We show that although immune challenge does not suppress general activity in male guppies, it significantly reduces mating effort. While females showed no difference in general activity as a function of male treatments, they did exhibit reduced group cohesion in the presence of LPS-exposed males. We discuss this in the context of sickness behaviours, social avoidance of immune-challenged individuals and the effects of mounting an immune response on reproductive behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella A. Encel
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown 2006, Australia
| | - Emily K. Simpson
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown 2006, Australia
| | - Timothy M. Schaerf
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown 2006, Australia
| | - Ashley J. W. Ward
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown 2006, Australia
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3
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Schoepf I, Olson S, Moore IT, Bonier F. Experimental reduction of haemosporidian infection affects maternal reproductive investment, parental behaviour and offspring condition. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20221978. [PMID: 36448284 PMCID: PMC9709520 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.1978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
When hosts have a long coevolutionary history with their parasites, fitness costs of chronic infection have often been assumed to be negligible. Yet, experimental manipulation of infections sometimes reveals effects of parasites on their hosts, particularly during reproduction. Whether these effects translate into fitness costs remains unclear. Here, we present the results of an experimental study conducted in a free-ranging population of red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) naturally experiencing a high prevalence of haemosporidian infections, with more than 95% of breeding adults infected with parasites from one or more haemosporidian genus. To assess effects of infection during reproduction, we manipulated adult red-winged blackbird females' parasite burden by administering an anti-haemosporidian medication before onset of egg-laying. Experimental reduction of infection resulted in significant benefits to mothers and their offspring. Medicated females laid heavier clutches, invested more in incubation and provisioning behaviour, and produced more fledglings than control females. Nestlings of medicated females had higher haematocrit, higher blood glucose, and lower reactive oxygen metabolites than nestlings of control females. Overall, our results provide evidence that, even in a species with high prevalence of infection, parasites can lead to decreased maternal investment and offspring quality, substantially reducing fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Schoepf
- Biology Department, Queen's University, 116 Barrie Street, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 1405 Perry Street, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
- University of Alberta, Augustana Campus, 4901 46 Avenue, Camrose, Alberta, Canada T4V 2R3
| | - Sarena Olson
- Biology Department, Queen's University, 116 Barrie Street, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6
| | - Ignacio T. Moore
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 1405 Perry Street, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Frances Bonier
- Biology Department, Queen's University, 116 Barrie Street, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6
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4
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Buttemer WA, O'Dwyer TW, Astheimer LB, Klasing KC, Hoye BJ. No evidence of metabolic costs following adaptive immune activation or reactivation in house sparrows. Biol Lett 2022; 18:20220036. [PMID: 35702980 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2022.0036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The energy cost of adaptive immune activation in endotherms is typically quantified from changes in resting metabolic rate following exposure to a novel antigen. An implicit assumption of this technique is that all variation in energy costs following antigenic challenge is due solely to adaptive immunity, while ignoring potential changes in the energy demands of ongoing bodily functions. We critically assess this assumption by measuring both basal metabolic rate (BMR) and exercise-induced maximal metabolic rate (MMR) in house sparrows before and after the primary and two subsequent vaccinations with either saline (sham) or two novel antigens (keyhole limpet haemocyanin and sheep red blood cells; KLH and SRBC, respectively). We also examined the effect of inducing male breeding levels of testosterone (T) on immune responses and their metabolic costs in both males and females. Although there was a moderate decrease in KLH antibody formation in T-treated birds, there was no effect of T on BMR, MMR or immunity to SRBC. There was no effect of vaccination on BMR but, surprisingly, all vaccinated birds maintained MMR better than sham-treated birds as the experiment progressed. Our findings caution against emphasizing energy costs or nutrient diversion as being responsible for reported fitness reductions following activation of adaptive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A Buttemer
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Terence W O'Dwyer
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Lee B Astheimer
- School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Kirk C Klasing
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-5270, USA
| | - Bethany J Hoye
- School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
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5
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Kravchenko LB. Influence of Social Conditions on Humoral Adaptive Immunity in Bank (Clethrionomys glareolus) and Gray-Sided (Clethrionomys rufocanus) Voles: An Experimental Study. BIOL BULL+ 2021. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062359021090120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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6
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Grunberg RL, Anderson DM. Host Energetics Explain Variation in Parasite Productivity across Hosts and Ecosystems. Am Nat 2021; 199:266-276. [DOI: 10.1086/717430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rita L. Grunberg
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901
| | - David M. Anderson
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
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7
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Ndithia HK, Matson KD, Muchai M, Tieleman BI. Immune function differs among tropical environments but is not downregulated during reproduction in three year-round breeding equatorial lark populations. Oecologia 2021; 197:599-614. [PMID: 34636981 PMCID: PMC8585810 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-021-05052-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Seasonal variation in immune function can be attributed to life history trade-offs, and to variation in environmental conditions. However, because phenological stages and environmental conditions co-vary in temperate and arctic zones, their separate contributions have not been determined. We compared immune function and body mass of incubating (female only), chick-feeding (female and male), and non-breeding (female and male) red-capped larks Calandrella cinerea breeding year-round in three tropical equatorial (Kenya) environments with distinct climates. We measured four immune indices: haptoglobin, nitric oxide, agglutination, and lysis. To confirm that variation in immune function between breeding (i.e., incubating or chick-feeding) and non-breeding was not confounded by environmental conditions, we tested if rainfall, average minimum temperature (Tmin), and average maximum temperature (Tmax) differed during sampling times among the three breeding statuses per location. Tmin and Tmax differed between chick-feeding and non-breeding, suggesting that birds utilized environmental conditions differently in different locations for reproduction. Immune indices did not differ between incubating, chick-feeding and non-breeding birds in all three locations. There were two exceptions: nitric oxide was higher during incubation in cool and wet South Kinangop, and it was higher during chick-feeding in the cool and dry North Kinangop compared to non-breeding birds in these locations. For nitric oxide, agglutination, and lysis, we found among-location differences within breeding stage. In equatorial tropical birds, variation in immune function seems to be better explained by among-location climate-induced environmental conditions than by breeding status. Our findings raise questions about how within-location environmental variation relates to and affects immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry K Ndithia
- Ornithology Section, Department of Zoology, National Museums of Kenya, P.O. Box 40658, Nairobi, 00100 GPO, Kenya. .,Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, P.O. Box 11103, 9700 CC, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Kevin D Matson
- Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Environmental Sciences Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 3a, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Muchane Muchai
- Department of Clinical Studies (Wildlife and Conservation), College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, University of Nairobi, Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - B Irene Tieleman
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, P.O. Box 11103, 9700 CC, Groningen, The Netherlands
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8
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Caracalas HE, French SS, Hudson SB, Kluever BM, Webb AC, Eifler D, Lehmicke AJ, Aubry LM. Reproductive trade-offs in the colorado checkered whiptail lizard (Aspidoscelis neotesselatus): an examination of the relationship between clutch and follicle size. Evol Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-021-10131-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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9
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Karlsson Green K. The effects of host plant species and larval density on immune function in the polyphagous moth Spodoptera littoralis. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:10090-10097. [PMID: 34367561 PMCID: PMC8328413 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune functions are costly, and immune investment is usually dependent on the individual's condition and resource availability. For phytophagous insects, host plant quality has large effects on performance, for example growth and survival, and may also affect their immune function. Polyphagous insects often experience a large variation in quality among different host plant species, and their immune investment may thus vary depending on which host plant species they develop on. Larvae of the polyphagous moth Spodoptera littoralis have previously been found to exhibit density-dependent prophylaxis as they invest more in certain immune responses in high population densities. In addition, the immune response of S. littoralis has been shown to depend on nutrient quality in experiments with artificial diet. Here, I studied the effects of natural host plant diet and larval density on a number of immune responses to understand how host plant species affects immune investment in generalist insects, and whether the density-dependent prophylaxis could be mediated by host plant species. While host plant species in general did not mediate the density-dependent immune expression, particular host plant species was found to increase larval investment in certain functions of the immune system. Interestingly, these results indicate that different host plants may provide a polyphagous species with protection against different kinds of antagonisms. This insight may contribute to our understanding of the relationship between preference and performance in generalists, as well as having applied consequences for sustainable pest management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Karlsson Green
- Department of Plant Protection BiologySwedish University of Agricultural SciencesAlnarpSweden
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10
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Hasselquist D, Tobler M. The Accumulating Costs Hypothesis—to Better Understand Delayed “Hidden” Costs of Seemingly Mild Disease and Other Moderate Stressors. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.685057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mild diseases and moderate stressors are seemingly harmless and are therefore often assumed to have negligible impact on Darwinian fitness. Here we argue that the effects of “benign” parasites and other moderate stressors may have a greater impact on lifespan and other fitness traits than generally thought. We outline the “accumulating costs” hypothesis which proposes that moderate strains on the body caused by mild diseases and other moderate stressors that occur throughout life will result in small irreversible “somatic lesions” that initially are invisible (i.e., induce “hidden” costs). However, over time these somatic lesions accumulate until their summed effect reaches a critical point when cell senescence and malfunction begin to affect organ functionality and lead to the onset of degenerative diseases and aging. We briefly discuss three potential mechanisms through which the effects of moderate strains (e.g., mild diseases) could accumulate: Accelerated telomere shortening, loss of repetitious cell compartments and other uncorrected DNA damage in the genome. We suggest that telomere shortening may be a key candidate for further research with respect to the accumulating costs hypothesis. Telomeres can acquire lesions from moderate strains without immediate negative effects, lesions can be accumulated over time and lead to a critically short telomere length, which may eventually cause severe somatic malfunctioning, including aging. If effects of mild diseases, benign parasites and moderate stressors accrued throughout life can have severe delayed consequences, this might contribute to our understanding of life history strategies and trade-offs, and have important implications for medicine, including consideration of treatment therapies for mild (chronic) infections such as malaria.
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11
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Kirk D, Greischar M, Mideo N, Krkošek M. Environmental variability affects optimal trade‐offs in ecological immunology. Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Devin Kirk
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Toronto Toronto OntarioM5S 1A1Canada
| | - Megan Greischar
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Toronto Toronto OntarioM5S 1A1Canada
| | - Nicole Mideo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Toronto Toronto OntarioM5S 1A1Canada
| | - Martin Krkošek
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Toronto Toronto OntarioM5S 1A1Canada
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12
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Deere JR, Schaber KL, Foerster S, Gilby IC, Feldblum JT, VanderWaal K, Wolf TM, Travis DA, Raphael J, Lipende I, Mjungu D, Pusey AE, Lonsdorf EV, Gillespie TR. Gregariousness is associated with parasite species richness in a community of wild chimpanzees. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021; 75:87. [PMID: 34456452 PMCID: PMC8386636 DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-03030-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Increased risk of pathogen transmission through proximity and contact is a well-documented cost of sociality. Affiliative social contact, however, is an integral part of primate group life and can benefit health. Despite its importance to the evolution and maintenance of sociality, the tradeoff between costs and benefits of social contact for group-living primate species remains poorly understood. To improve our understanding of this interplay, we used social network analysis to investigate whether contact via association in the same space and/or physical contact measured through grooming were associated with helminth parasite species richness in a community of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). We identified parasite taxa in 381 fecal samples from 36 individuals from the Kasekela community of chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania, from November 1, 2006 - October 31, 2012. Over the study period, eight environmentally transmitted helminth taxa were identified. We quantified three network metrics for association and grooming contact, including degree strength, betweenness, and closeness. Our findings suggest that more gregarious individuals - those who spent more time with more individuals in the same space - had higher parasite richness, while the connections in the grooming network were not related to parasite richness. The expected parasite richness in individuals increased by 1.13 taxa (CI: 1.04, 1.22; p = 0.02) per one standard deviation increase in degree strength of association contact. The results of this study add to the understanding of the role that different types of social contact plays in the parasite richness of group-living social primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica R. Deere
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN USA
| | - Kathryn L. Schaber
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Program in Population Biology, Ecology, and Evolutionary Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Steffen Foerster
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC USA
| | - Ian C. Gilby
- School of Human Evolution and Social Change, and Institute of Human Origins, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ USA
| | - Joseph T. Feldblum
- Department of Anthropology, and Society of Fellows, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI US
| | - Kimberly VanderWaal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN USA
| | - Tiffany M. Wolf
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN USA
| | - Dominic A. Travis
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN USA
| | - Jane Raphael
- Tanzanian National Park Authority, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Iddi Lipende
- Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Deus Mjungu
- Gombe Stream Research Center, The Jane Goodall Institute, Kigoma, Tanzania
| | - Anne E. Pusey
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC USA
| | | | - Thomas R. Gillespie
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Program in Population Biology, Ecology, and Evolutionary Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA USA
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13
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Seppälä O, Çetin C, Cereghetti T, Feulner PGD, Adema CM. Examining adaptive evolution of immune activity: opportunities provided by gastropods in the age of 'omics'. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20200158. [PMID: 33813886 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasites threaten all free-living organisms, including molluscs. Understanding the evolution of immune defence traits in natural host populations is crucial for predicting their long-term performance under continuous infection risk. Adaptive trait evolution requires that traits are subject to selection (i.e. contribute to organismal fitness) and that they are heritable. Despite broad interest in the evolutionary ecology of immune activity in animals, the understanding of selection on and evolutionary potential of immune defence traits is far from comprehensive. For instance, empirical observations are only rarely in line with theoretical predictions of immune activity being subject to stabilizing selection. This discrepancy may be because ecoimmunological studies can typically cover only a fraction of the complexity of an animal immune system. Similarly, molecular immunology/immunogenetics studies provide a mechanistic understanding of immunity, but neglect variation that arises from natural genetic differences among individuals and from environmental conditions. Here, we review the current literature on natural selection on and evolutionary potential of immune traits in animals, signal how merging ecological immunology and genomics will strengthen evolutionary ecological research on immunity, and indicate research opportunities for molluscan gastropods for which well-established ecological understanding and/or 'immune-omics' resources are already available. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Molluscan genomics: broad insights and future directions for a neglected phylum'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Otto Seppälä
- Research Department for Limnology, University of Innsbruck, Mondsee, Austria
| | - Cansu Çetin
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Teo Cereghetti
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Philine G D Feulner
- Department of Fish Ecology and Evolution, Centre of Ecology, Evolution and Biogeochemistry, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Kastanienbaum, Switzerland.,Division of Aquatic Ecology and Evolution, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Coen M Adema
- Department of Biology, Center for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
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14
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Ivy-Israel NMD, Moore CE, Schwartz TS, Steury TD, Zohdy S, Newbolt CH, Ditchkoff SS. Association between sexually selected traits and allelic distance in two unlinked MHC II loci in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Evol Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-021-10108-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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15
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Valenzuela-Sánchez A, Wilber MQ, Canessa S, Bacigalupe LD, Muths E, Schmidt BR, Cunningham AA, Ozgul A, Johnson PTJ, Cayuela H. Why disease ecology needs life-history theory: a host perspective. Ecol Lett 2021; 24:876-890. [PMID: 33492776 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
When facing an emerging infectious disease of conservation concern, we often have little information on the nature of the host-parasite interaction to inform management decisions. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that the life-history strategies of host species can be predictive of individual- and population-level responses to infectious disease, even without detailed knowledge on the specifics of the host-parasite interaction. Here, we argue that a deeper integration of life-history theory into disease ecology is timely and necessary to improve our capacity to understand, predict and mitigate the impact of endemic and emerging infectious diseases in wild populations. Using wild vertebrates as an example, we show that host life-history characteristics influence host responses to parasitism at different levels of organisation, from individuals to communities. We also highlight knowledge gaps and future directions for the study of life-history and host responses to parasitism. We conclude by illustrating how this theoretical insight can inform the monitoring and control of infectious diseases in wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Valenzuela-Sánchez
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,ONG Ranita de Darwin, Valdivia and Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Investigación para la Sustentabilidad, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mark Q Wilber
- Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA.,Center for Wildlife Health, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
| | - Stefano Canessa
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Leonardo D Bacigalupe
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Erin Muths
- U.S. Geological Survey, 2150 Centre Avenue Bldg C, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80526, USA
| | - Benedikt R Schmidt
- Institut für Evolutionsbiologie und Umweltwissenschaften, Universität Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland.,Info Fauna Karch, UniMail, Bâtiment G, Bellevaux 51, 2000, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Andrew A Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK
| | - Arpat Ozgul
- Institut für Evolutionsbiologie und Umweltwissenschaften, Universität Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Pieter T J Johnson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 80309, USA
| | - Hugo Cayuela
- IBIS, Department of Biology, University Laval, Pavillon Charles-Eugène-Marchand, Avenue de la Médecine, Quebec City, Canada.,Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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16
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Mendes TMF, Carrilho E, Galinaro CA, Cabral FJ, Allegretti SM. Biomphalaria glabrata infected with Angiostrongylus cantonensis: Proteomic changes in the snail host. Acta Trop 2020; 212:105684. [PMID: 32931750 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Angiostrongylus cantonensis is the main cause of human eosinophilic meningitis. Humans are accidental hosts, becoming infected due to ingestion of raw intermediate (snails and slugs) or paratenic hosts. Once ingested, the larvae migrate towards the brain where they die, causing the disease. To develop better mollusk control strategies, it is important to first understand what happens in the snail during infection, therefore our purpose was to characterize proteomic, metabolic and immunologic changes in Biomphalaria glabrata 24 h after infection with A. cantonensis. For this purpose, proteins were extracted from infected and uninfected snails and analyzed through mass spectrometry. Hemolymph was also collected, the number of hemocytes was counted and urea, nitric oxide, calcium, glycogen levels as well as alanine and aspartate aminotransferases activities were assessed. The cephalopodal region and gonad-digestive gland complex were dissected and their glycogen content was measured. After infection with A. cantonensis, we observed an increase of hemocytes and granulocytes as well as an increase in hemoglobin type 2 proteins. Temptin-like protein was also found up-regulated in infected snails. Several proteins with structural function (such as myosin heavy chain - striated muscle - like and protein LOC106059779 with ADAM/reprosolin domain) were also differentially expressed, suggesting loss/damage of internal tissues. Increase in phosphoglycerate mutase indicates an increase in glycolysis, possible to compensate the increase in energetic needs. Consequently, there is a decrease in glycogen reserves, particularly in the gonad - digestive gland complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago M F Mendes
- Biology Institute, Animal Biology Department, Campinas State University (UNICAMP) - SP, Brazil
| | - Emanuel Carrilho
- São Carlos Institute of Chemistry - University of São Paulo (USP) - SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos A Galinaro
- São Carlos Institute of Chemistry - University of São Paulo (USP) - SP, Brazil
| | - Fernanda J Cabral
- Biology Institute, Animal Biology Department, Campinas State University (UNICAMP) - SP, Brazil
| | - Silmara M Allegretti
- Biology Institute, Animal Biology Department, Campinas State University (UNICAMP) - SP, Brazil.
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17
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Nystrand M, Dowling DK. Effects of immune challenge on expression of life-history and immune trait expression in sexually reproducing metazoans-a meta-analysis. BMC Biol 2020; 18:135. [PMID: 33028304 PMCID: PMC7541220 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-020-00856-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Life-history theory predicts a trade-off between investment into immune defence and other fitness-related traits. Accordingly, individuals are expected to upregulate their immune response when subjected to immune challenge. However, this is predicted to come at the expense of investment into a range of other traits that are costly to maintain, such as growth, reproduction and survival. Currently, it remains unclear whether the magnitude of such costs, and trade-offs involving immune investment and other traits, manifests consistently across species and sexes. To address this, we conducted a meta-analysis to investigate how changes in sex, ontogenetic stage and environmental factors shape phenotypic trait expression following an immune challenge. RESULTS We explored the effects of immune challenge on three types of traits across sexually reproducing metazoans: life-history, morphological and proximate immune traits (235 effect sizes, 53 studies, 37 species [21 invertebrates vs. 16 vertebrates]). We report a general negative effect of immune challenge on survival and reproduction, a positive effect on immune trait expression, but no effect on morphology or development time. The negative effects of immune challenge on reproductive traits and survival were larger in females than males. We also report a pronounced effect of the immune treatment agent used (e.g. whether the treatment involved a live pathogen or not) on the host response to immune challenge, and find an effect of mating status on the host response in invertebrates. CONCLUSION These results suggest that costs associated with immune deployment following an immune challenge are context-dependent and differ consistently in their magnitude across the sexes of diverse taxonomic lineages. We synthesise and discuss the outcomes in the context of evolutionary theory on sex differences in life-history and highlight the need for future studies to carefully consider the design of experiments aimed at disentangling the costs of immune deployment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Nystrand
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800 Australia
| | - D. K. Dowling
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800 Australia
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18
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Duffield KR, Hampton KJ, Houslay TM, Rapkin J, Hunt J, Sadd BM, Sakaluk SK. Macronutrient intake and simulated infection threat independently affect life history traits of male decorated crickets. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:11766-11778. [PMID: 33144999 PMCID: PMC7593159 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Nutritional geometry has advanced our understanding of how macronutrients (e.g., proteins and carbohydrates) influence the expression of life history traits and their corresponding trade-offs. For example, recent work has revealed that reproduction and immune function in male decorated crickets are optimized at very different protein:carbohydrate (P:C) dietary ratios. However, it is unclear how an individual's macronutrient intake interacts with its perceived infection status to determine investment in reproduction or other key life history traits. Here, we employed a fully factorial design in which calling effort and immune function were quantified for male crickets fed either diets previously demonstrated to maximize calling effort (P:C = 1:8) or immune function (P:C = 5:1), and then administered a treatment from a spectrum of increasing infection cue intensity using heat-killed bacteria. Both diet and a simulated infection threat independently influenced the survival, immunity, and reproductive effort of males. If they called, males increased calling effort at the low infection cue dose, consistent with the terminal investment hypothesis, but interpretation of responses at the higher threat levels was hampered by the differential mortality of males across infection cue and diet treatments. A high protein, low carbohydrate diet severely reduced the health, survival, and overall fitness of male crickets. There was, however, no evidence of an interaction between diet and infection cue dose on calling effort, suggesting that the threshold for terminal investment was not contingent on diet as investigated here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin R. Duffield
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics SectionSchool of Biological SciencesIllinois State UniversityNormalILUSA
- Present address:
Crop Bioprotection Research UnitUnited States Department of AgricultureNational Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research ServicePeoriaILUSA
| | - Kylie J. Hampton
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics SectionSchool of Biological SciencesIllinois State UniversityNormalILUSA
- Present address:
Crop Bioprotection Research UnitUnited States Department of AgricultureNational Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research ServicePeoriaILUSA
| | | | - James Rapkin
- Centre for Ecology and ConservationUniversity of ExeterPenrynUK
| | - John Hunt
- Centre for Ecology and ConservationUniversity of ExeterPenrynUK
- School of Science and Hawkesbury Institute for the EnvironmentWestern Sydney UniversityPenrithNSWAustralia
| | - Ben M. Sadd
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics SectionSchool of Biological SciencesIllinois State UniversityNormalILUSA
| | - Scott K. Sakaluk
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics SectionSchool of Biological SciencesIllinois State UniversityNormalILUSA
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19
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Kubacka J, Cichoń M. An immune challenge of female great tits decreases offspring survival and has sex-specific effects on offspring body size. Acta Ethol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10211-020-00351-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractInvestment in immunity is expected to decrease (costly immunity) or enhance (terminal investment) reproductive performance. Here, we tested the effects of activation of the immune system in female great tits (Parus major) on (1) their reproductive effort and (2) the survival and body condition of their offspring, controlling for chick sex. We injected females tending 3-day-old chicks with sheep red blood cells (SRBC) or saline (control) and recorded their provisioning rates 6 days later, during the expected peak of antibody production. We measured tarsus length and body mass in 11-day-old chicks and monitored changes in brood size. We found that female provisioning rates were unaffected by the SRBC challenge. An analysis without an outlier, however, showed a significant challenge-by-hatch date interaction. This interaction indicated that female provisioning rates decreased with hatch dates in the SRBC but not in the control nests, suggesting a stronger effect in later breeders. Chick body mass was not affected by female immunisation nor by its interaction with chick sex. However, we found a significant challenge-by-sex interaction on offspring tarsus. In SRBC nests, the difference in tarsus length between male and female chicks was lower than in controls, suggesting sex-dependent effects of the challenge on offspring structural growth. Finally, chick mortality was greater in SRBC nests compared with controls, but chick survival probability was not affected by sex. Overall, our results support the costly immunity but not the terminal investment hypothesis in the great tit.
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20
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Vasilieva NY, Khrushchova AM, Kuptsov AV, Shekarova ON, Sokolova OV, Wang D, Rogovin KA. On the winter enhancement of adaptive humoral immunity: hypothesis testing in desert hamsters (Phodopus roborovskii: Cricetidae, Rodentia) kept under long-day and short-day photoperiod. Integr Zool 2020; 15:232-247. [PMID: 31773894 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We tested the winter immunity enhancement hypothesis (WIEH) on male desert hamsters (Phodopus roborovskii) kept under long-day (LD) and short-day (SD) photoperiods. We assumed that under SD in a laboratory, the adaptive humoral immune responsiveness to the antigenic challenge would be enhanced due to the lack of winter physical stressors and food shortages and/or because of the action of an endogenous winter bolstering mechanism, while under LD the immune responsiveness would be suppressed by the activity of the reproductive system. The results support the WIEH in part. We did not find a difference in antibody production in response to sheep erythrocytes between SD and LD hamsters, but SD males had the lower number of granulocytes and the higher number of lymphocytes in white blood cell counts. Reproductive activity was lower in SD males. These males demonstrated an increase in their mass-specific resting metabolic rate, their mass-specific maximal metabolic rate and their level of cortisol. The result of a generalized linear model analysis indicates the negative effect on secondary immunoresponsiveness to sheep erythrocytes of mid-ventral gland size, the organ characterizing individual reproductive quality, and designates a tradeoff between antibody production and reproductive effort. The mass-independent maximal metabolic rate also negatively affected antibody production, indicating a tradeoff between maximal aerobic performance and the adaptive immune function. The higher stress in SD males seems to be the most likely reason for the lack of the effect of daylight duration on antibody production.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Olga N Shekarova
- Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution RAS, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga V Sokolova
- Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution RAS, Moscow, Russia
| | - Dehua Wang
- Institute of Zoology Chinese Academy of Science, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China
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21
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Zurowski K, Janmaat AF, Kabaluk T, Cory JS. Modification of reproductive schedule in response to pathogen exposure in a wild insect: Support for the terminal investment hypothesis. J Evol Biol 2020; 33:1558-1566. [PMID: 32780527 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Trade-offs in the time and energy allocated to different functions, such as reproductive activities, can be driven by alterations in condition which reduce resources, often in response to extrinsic factors such as pathogens or parasites. When individuals are challenged by a pathogen, they may either reduce reproduction as a cost of increasing defence mechanisms or, alternatively, modify reproductive activities so as to increase fecundity thereby minimizing the fitness costs of earlier death, a behaviour consistent with the terminal investment hypothesis (TIH). The TIH predicts that individuals with decreased likelihood of future reproduction will maximize current reproductive effort, which may include shifts in reproductive timing. We examined how wild, adult female click beetles (Agriotes obscurus) responded after exposure to the fungal pathogen Metarhizium brunneum. Field-collected beetles exposed to a high concentration of M. brunneum died earlier and in greater numbers than those exposed to a low concentration. Using a multivariate approach, we examined the impact of pathogen challenge on lifespan and a suite of reproductive traits. Stepdown regression analysis showed that only female lifespan differed among the fungal treatments. Fungal-induced reductions in lifespan drove changes in the reproductive schedule, characterized by a decrease in preoviposition period. Moving the start of egg laying forward allowed the females to offset the costs of a shortened lifespan. These changes suggest that there is a threshold for terminal investment, which is dependent on strength of the survival threat. From an applied perspective, our findings imply that exposing adult click beetles to M. brunneum to reduce their population density might not succeed and is an approach that needs further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kari Zurowski
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Alida F Janmaat
- Department of Biology, University of the Fraser Valley, Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Todd Kabaluk
- Agassiz Research and Development Centre, Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Jenny S Cory
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
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22
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McDonald GC, Engel N, Ratão SS, Székely T, Kosztolányi A. The impact of social structure on breeding strategies in an island bird. Sci Rep 2020; 10:13872. [PMID: 32807811 PMCID: PMC7431420 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70595-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The social environment is a key factor determining fitness by influencing multiple stages of reproduction, including pair formation, mating behavior and parenting. However, the influence of social structure across different aspects of breeding is rarely examined simultaneously in wild populations. We therefore lack a consolidation of the mechanisms by which sociality impacts reproduction. Here we investigate the implications of the social environment before and during breeding on multiple stages of reproduction in an island population of the ground nesting shorebird, the Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus). We utilise information on mating decisions, nest locations and nesting success across multiple years in combination with social network analysis. Sociality before breeding was connected with patterns of pair formation. In addition, site fidelity and personal breeding experience was associated with the spatial organisation of breeding pairs. Our results provide evidence that, while differential social interactions at localised scales influence patterns of reproductive pairing, site fidelity and personal breeding experience influence the structure of populations at the landscape scale. Our results underline the tight link between the social structure of populations and patterns of mating, while revealing that the relative influence of sociality, breeding experience and local ecology are dynamic across different facets of reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant C McDonald
- Department of Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest, Budapest, Hungary.
- Department of Zoology, Edward Grey Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Noémie Engel
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Milner Centre for Evolution, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Sara S Ratão
- FMB, Fundação Maio Biodiversidade, Cidade do Porto Inglês, Maio, 6110, Cabo Verde
| | - Tamás Székely
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Milner Centre for Evolution, University of Bath, Bath, UK
- FMB, Fundação Maio Biodiversidade, Cidade do Porto Inglês, Maio, 6110, Cabo Verde
- Department of Evolutionary Zoology and Human Biology, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - András Kosztolányi
- Department of Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest, Budapest, Hungary
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23
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Bellinvia S, Spachtholz A, Borgwardt I, Schauer B, Otti O. Female immunity in response to sexually transmitted opportunistic bacteria in the common bedbug Cimex lectularius. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 123:104048. [PMID: 32179035 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2020.104048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Besides typical sexually transmitted microbes, even environmental, opportunistic microbes have been found in copulatory organs of insects and even humans. To date, only one study has experimentally investigated the sexual transmission of opportunistic microbes from male to female insects, whereas nothing is known about the transmission from females to males. Even if opportunistic microbes do not cause infection upon transmission, they might eventually become harmful if they multiply inside the female. While the immune system of females is often assumed to target sexually transmitted microbes, most studies ignore the role of mating-associated opportunistic microbes. Variation in immunity between populations has been linked to parasite or bacteria prevalence but no study has ever addressed between-population differences in immune responses to sexually transmitted opportunistic microbes. We here show that bacteria applied to the copulatory organs of common bedbugs, Cimex lectularius, are sexually transmitted to the opposite sex at a high rate, including the transmission from female to male. Bacterial growth in the female sperm-receiving organ was inhibited over the first hours after introduction, but after this initial inhibition bacterial numbers increased, suggesting a shift of investment from immune defence towards reproduction. However, 24 h after the injection of bacteria, male components, or saline as a control, the sperm-receiving organ showed lysozyme-like activity and inhibited the growth of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria in vitro, potentially to mop up the remaining bacteria. Contrasting our prediction, neither bacterial growth nor immune responses differed between populations. Future studies should link transmission dynamics, immune responses and fitness effects in both sexes. Experimental manipulation of environmental bacteria could be used to investigate how transmission frequency and toxicity of sexually transmitted opportunistic microbes shapes bacteria clearance and immune responses across populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Bellinvia
- Animal Population Ecology, Animal Ecology I, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany.
| | - Andrea Spachtholz
- Animal Population Ecology, Animal Ecology I, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Ina Borgwardt
- Animal Population Ecology, Animal Ecology I, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Bastian Schauer
- Animal Population Ecology, Animal Ecology I, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Oliver Otti
- Animal Population Ecology, Animal Ecology I, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
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24
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Nord A, Hegemann A, Folkow LP. Reduced immune responsiveness contributes to winter energy conservation in an Arctic bird. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:223/8/jeb219287. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.219287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Animals in seasonal environments must prudently manage energy expenditure to survive the winter. This may be achieved through reductions in the allocation of energy for various purposes (e.g. thermoregulation, locomotion, etc.). We studied whether such trade-offs also include suppression of the innate immune response, by subjecting captive male Svalbard ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea) to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) during exposure to either mild temperature (0°C) or cold snaps (acute exposure to −20°C), in constant winter darkness when birds were in energy-conserving mode, and in constant daylight in spring. The innate immune response was mostly unaffected by temperature. However, energy expenditure was below baseline when birds were immune challenged in winter, but significantly above baseline in spring. This suggests that the energetic component of the innate immune response was reduced in winter, possibly contributing to energy conservation. Immunological parameters decreased (agglutination, lysis, bacteriostatic capacity) or did not change (haptoglobin/PIT54) after the challenge, and behavioural modifications (anorexia, mass loss) were lengthy (9 days). While we did not study the mechanisms explaining these weak, or slow, responses, it is tempting to speculate they may reflect the consequences of having evolved in an environment where pathogen transmission rate is presumably low for most of the year. This is an important consideration if climate change and increased exploitation of the Arctic would alter pathogen communities at a pace outwith counter-adaption in wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Nord
- Department of Biology, Lund University, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, University of Tromsø – the Arctic University of Norway, NO-9037 Tromsø, Norway
- Scottish Centre for Ecology and the Natural Environment, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Rowardennan G63 0AW, UK
| | - Arne Hegemann
- Department of Biology, Lund University, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Lars P. Folkow
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, University of Tromsø – the Arctic University of Norway, NO-9037 Tromsø, Norway
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25
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O’Dwyer K, Dargent F, Forbes MR, Koprivnikar J. Parasite infection leads to widespread glucocorticoid hormone increases in vertebrate hosts: A meta‐analysis. J Anim Ecol 2019; 89:519-529. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katie O’Dwyer
- Department of Chemistry and Biology Ryerson University Toronto ON Canada
| | - Felipe Dargent
- Department of Biology Carleton University Ottawa ON Canada
| | - Mark R. Forbes
- Department of Biology Carleton University Ottawa ON Canada
| | - Janet Koprivnikar
- Department of Chemistry and Biology Ryerson University Toronto ON Canada
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26
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RAMIREZ‐OTAROLA N, ESPINOZA J, KALERGIS AM, SABAT P. Response to lipopolysaccharide inOctodon deguspups produces age‐related sickness behavior but does not have effects in juveniles. Integr Zool 2019; 14:235-247. [DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia RAMIREZ‐OTAROLA
- Department of Ecological Sciences, Science FacultyUniversidad de Chile Santiago Chile
- Department of Ecology, Center of Applied Ecology & Sustainability, Biological Sciences FacultyPontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago Chile
| | - Janyra ESPINOZA
- Millennium Institute Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias BiológicasPontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago Chile
| | - Alexis M. KALERGIS
- Millennium Institute Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias BiológicasPontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago Chile
- Departamento de Endocrinología, Facultad de MedicinaPontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago Chile
| | - Pablo SABAT
- Department of Ecological Sciences, Science FacultyUniversidad de Chile Santiago Chile
- Department of Ecology, Center of Applied Ecology & Sustainability, Biological Sciences FacultyPontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Santiago Chile
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27
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Marwaha J, Aase H, Geist J, Stoeckle BC, Kuehn R, Jakobsen PJ. Host (Salmo trutta) age influences resistance to infestation by freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) glochidia. Parasitol Res 2019; 118:1519-1532. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-019-06300-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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28
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Koch RE, Staley M, Kavazis AN, Hasselquist D, Toomey MB, Hill GE. Testing the resource trade-off hypothesis for carotenoid-based signal honesty using genetic variants of the domestic canary. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.188102. [PMID: 30877227 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.188102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Carotenoid-based coloration in birds is widely considered an honest signal of individual condition, but the mechanisms responsible for condition dependency in such ornaments remain debated. Currently, the most common explanation for how carotenoid coloration serves as a reliable signal of condition is the resource trade-off hypothesis, which proposes that use of carotenoids for ornaments reduces their availability for use by the immune system or for protection from oxidative damage. However, two main assumptions of the hypothesis remain in question: whether carotenoids boost the performance of internal processes such as immune and antioxidant defenses, and whether allocating carotenoids to ornaments imposes a trade-off with such benefits. In this study, we tested these two fundamental assumptions using types of domestic canary (Serinus canaria domestica) that enable experiments in which carotenoid availability and allocation can be tightly controlled. Specifically, we assessed metrics of immune and antioxidant performance in three genetic variants of the color-bred canary that differ only in carotenoid phenotype: ornamented, carotenoid-rich yellow canaries; unornamented, carotenoid-rich 'white dominant' canaries; and unornamented, carotenoid-deficient 'white recessive' canaries. The resource trade-off hypothesis predicts that carotenoid-rich individuals should outperform carotenoid-deficient individuals and that birds that allocate carotenoids to feathers should pay a cost in the form of reduced immune function or greater oxidative stress compared with unornamented birds. We found no evidence to support either prediction; all three canary types performed equally across measures. We suggest that testing alternative mechanisms for the honesty of carotenoid-based coloration should be a key focus of future studies of carotenoid-based signaling in birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca E Koch
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA .,School of Biological Science, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3168, Australia
| | - Molly Staley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA.,Center for the Science of Animal Welfare, Brookfield Zoo, Chicago, IL, 60513, USA.,Department of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60660, USA
| | | | - Dennis Hasselquist
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Ekologihuset, Sölvegatan 37, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Matthew B Toomey
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.,Department of Biological Science, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK, 74104, USA
| | - Geoffrey E Hill
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
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29
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Males can evolve lower resistance to sexually transmitted infections to infect their mates and thereby increase their own fitness. Evol Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-019-09976-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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30
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Behrman EL, Howick VM, Kapun M, Staubach F, Bergland AO, Petrov DA, Lazzaro BP, Schmidt PS. Rapid seasonal evolution in innate immunity of wild Drosophila melanogaster. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 285:rspb.2017.2599. [PMID: 29321302 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.2599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the rate of evolutionary change and the genetic architecture that facilitates rapid adaptation is a current challenge in evolutionary biology. Comparative studies show that genes with immune function are among the most rapidly evolving genes across a range of taxa. Here, we use immune defence in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster to understand the rate of evolution in natural populations and the genetics underlying rapid change. We probed the immune system using the natural pathogens Enterococcus faecalis and Providencia rettgeri to measure post-infection survival and bacterial load of wild D. melanogaster populations collected across seasonal time along a latitudinal transect along eastern North America (Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and Virginia). There are pronounced and repeatable changes in the immune response over the approximately 10 generations between spring and autumn collections, with a significant but less distinct difference observed among geographical locations. Genes with known immune function are not enriched among alleles that cycle with seasonal time, but the immune function of a subset of seasonally cycling alleles in immune genes was tested using reconstructed outbred populations. We find that flies containing seasonal alleles in Thioester-containing protein 3 (Tep3) have different functional responses to infection and that epistatic interactions among seasonal Tep3 and Drosomycin-like 6 (Dro6) alleles underlie the immune phenotypes observed in natural populations. This rapid, cyclic response to seasonal environmental pressure broadens our understanding of the complex ecological and genetic interactions determining the evolution of immune defence in natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily L Behrman
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, 433 S. University Ave., Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Virginia M Howick
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, 3125 Comstock Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Martin Kapun
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Fabian Staubach
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, 371 Serra St, Stanford, CA 94305-5020, USA.,Albert-Ludwigs University, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Alan O Bergland
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, 371 Serra St, Stanford, CA 94305-5020, USA.,Department of Biology, University of Virginia, 409 McCormic Rd, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - Dmitri A Petrov
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, 371 Serra St, Stanford, CA 94305-5020, USA
| | - Brian P Lazzaro
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, 3125 Comstock Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Paul S Schmidt
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, 433 S. University Ave., Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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31
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Hicks O, Burthe SJ, Daunt F, Newell M, Chastel O, Parenteau C, Green JA. The role of parasitism in the energy management of a free-ranging bird. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:jeb.190066. [PMID: 30397174 PMCID: PMC6307876 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.190066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Parasites often prompt sub-lethal costs to their hosts by eliciting immune responses. These costs can be hard to quantify but are crucial to our understanding of the host's ecology. Energy is a fundamental currency to quantify these costs, as energetic trade-offs often exist between key fitness-related processes. Daily energy expenditure (DEE) comprises of resting metabolic rate (RMR) and energy available for activity, which are linked via the energy management strategy of an organism. Parasitism may play a role in the balance between self-maintenance and activity, as immune costs can be expressed in elevated RMR. Therefore, understanding energy use in the presence of parasitism enables mechanistic elucidation of potential parasite costs. Using a gradient of natural parasite load and proxies for RMR and DEE in a wild population of breeding European shags (Phalacrocorax aristotelis), we tested the effect of parasitism on maintenance costs as well as the relationship between proxies for RMR and DEE. We found a positive relationship between parasite load and our RMR proxy in females but not males, and no relationship between proxies for RMR and DEE. This provides evidence for increased maintenance costs in individuals with higher parasite loads and suggests the use of an allocation energy management strategy, whereby an increase to RMR creates restrictions on energy allocation to other activities. This is likely to have fitness consequences as energy allocated to immunity is traded off against reproduction. Our findings demonstrate that understanding energy management strategies alongside fitness drivers is central to understanding the mechanisms by which these drivers influence individual fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Hicks
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GP, UK
| | - Sarah J Burthe
- Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bush Estate, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0QB, UK
| | - Francis Daunt
- Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bush Estate, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0QB, UK
| | - Mark Newell
- Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bush Estate, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0QB, UK
| | - Olivier Chastel
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, UMR 7372 - CNRS & Université de La Rochelle, FR-79360 Villiers en Bois, France
| | - Charline Parenteau
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, UMR 7372 - CNRS & Université de La Rochelle, FR-79360 Villiers en Bois, France
| | - Jonathan A Green
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GP, UK
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32
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Richardson J, Smiseth PT. Effects of variation in resource acquisition during different stages of the life cycle on life-history traits and trade-offs in a burying beetle. J Evol Biol 2018; 32:19-30. [PMID: 30311711 PMCID: PMC7379983 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Individual variation in resource acquisition should have consequences for life‐history traits and trade‐offs between them because such variation determines how many resources can be allocated to different life‐history functions, such as growth, survival and reproduction. Since resource acquisition can vary across an individual's life cycle, the consequences for life‐history traits and trade‐offs may depend on when during the life cycle resources are limited. We tested for differential and/or interactive effects of variation in resource acquisition in the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides. We designed an experiment in which individuals acquired high or low amounts of resources across three stages of the life cycle: larval development, prior to breeding and the onset of breeding in a fully crossed design. Resource acquisition during larval development and prior to breeding affected egg size and offspring survival, respectively. Meanwhile, resource acquisition at the onset of breeding affected size and number of both eggs and offspring. In addition, there were interactive effects between resource acquisition at different stages on egg size and offspring survival. However, only when females acquired few resources at the onset of breeding was there evidence for a trade‐off between offspring size and number. Our results demonstrate that individual variation in resource acquisition during different stages of the life cycle has important consequences for life‐history traits but limited effects on trade‐offs. This suggests that in species that acquire a fixed‐sized resource at the onset of breeding, the size of this resource has larger effects on life‐history trade‐offs than resources acquired at earlier stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon Richardson
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Per T Smiseth
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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33
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Sköld-Chiriac S, Nilsson JÅ, Hasselquist D. Immune challenge induces terminal investment at an early breeding stage in female zebra finches. Behav Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ary147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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34
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Sparks AM, Watt K, Sinclair R, Pilkington JG, Pemberton JM, Johnston SE, McNeilly TN, Nussey DH. Natural Selection on Antihelminth Antibodies in a Wild Mammal Population. Am Nat 2018; 192:745-760. [PMID: 30444657 DOI: 10.1086/700115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
An effective immune response is expected to confer fitness benefits through improved resistance to parasites but also incur energetic costs that negatively impact fitness-related traits, such as reproduction. The fitness costs and benefits of an immune response are likely to depend on host age, sex, and levels of parasite exposure. Few studies have examined the full extent to which patterns of natural selection on immune phenotypes vary across demographic groups and environments in the wild. Here, we assessed natural selection on plasma levels of three functionally distinct isotypes (IgA, IgE, and IgG) of antibodies against a prevalent nematode parasite measured in a wild Soay sheep population over 26 years. We found little support for environment-dependent selection or reproductive costs. However, antibody levels were negatively associated with parasite egg counts and positively associated with subsequent survival, albeit in a highly age- and isotype-dependent manner. Raised levels of antiparasite IgA best predicted reduced egg counts, but this did not predict survival in lambs. In adults increased antiparasite IgG predicted reduced egg counts, and in adult females IgG levels also positively predicted overwinter survival. Our results highlight the potential importance of age- and sex-dependent selection on immune phenotypes in nature and show that patterns of selection can vary even among functionally related immune markers.
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35
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Roved J, Hansson B, Tarka M, Hasselquist D, Westerdahl H. Evidence for sexual conflict over major histocompatibility complex diversity in a wild songbird. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:rspb.2018.0841. [PMID: 30068671 PMCID: PMC6111173 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.0841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in parasite load and immune responses are found across a wide range of animals, with females generally having lower parasite loads and stronger immune responses than males. Intrigued by these general patterns, we investigated if there was any sign of sex-specific selection on an essential component of adaptive immunity that is known to affect fitness, the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) genes, in a 20-year study of great reed warblers. Our analyses on fitness related to MHC-I diversity showed a highly significant interaction between MHC-I diversity and sex, where males with higher, and females with lower, MHC-I diversity were more successful in recruiting offspring. Importantly, mean MHC-I diversity did not differ between males and females, and consequently neither sex reached its MHC-I fitness optimum. Thus, there is an unresolved genetic sexual conflict over MHC-I diversity in great reed warblers. Selection from pathogens is known to maintain MHC diversity, but previous theory ignores that the immune environments are considerably different in males and females. Our results suggest that sexually antagonistic selection is an important, previously neglected, force in the evolution of vertebrate adaptive immunity, and have implications for evolutionary understanding of costs of immune responses and autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Roved
- Department of Biology, Molecular Ecology and Evolution Lab, Lund University, Ecology Building, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Bengt Hansson
- Department of Biology, Molecular Ecology and Evolution Lab, Lund University, Ecology Building, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Maja Tarka
- Department of Biology, Molecular Ecology and Evolution Lab, Lund University, Ecology Building, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Dennis Hasselquist
- Department of Biology, Molecular Ecology and Evolution Lab, Lund University, Ecology Building, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Helena Westerdahl
- Department of Biology, Molecular Ecology and Evolution Lab, Lund University, Ecology Building, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
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36
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Pero EM, Hare JF. Costs of Franklin’s ground squirrel (Poliocitellus franklinii) ectoparasitism reveal adaptive sex allocation. CAN J ZOOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2017-0129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Parasite infestation may impose direct costs of blood, nutrient, and energy depletion, along with indirect costs of increased immune response upon hosts. We investigated how ectoparasitism influences body mass and reproduction in a free-living population of Franklin’s ground squirrels (Poliocitellus franklinii (Sabine, 1822)) located near Delta Marsh, Manitoba, Canada. We experimentally reduced ectoparasite burden by treating seven reproductive females with an insecticide following breeding and contrasted body mass and reproductive performance of those individuals to seven sham-treated control females. Insecticide-treated dams did not differ from sham-treated dams in body mass, litter size, or juvenile mass, and thus, dam growth and reproduction were not compromised by ectoparasite defense at the infestation levels experienced in this study. However, litter sex ratio differed significantly between insecticide-treated and control females, with a higher proportion of male offspring produced among females with reduced ectoparasite load. Our findings are thus consistent with the Trivers–Willard model for adaptive sex allocation, yet they provide novel comparative insight into how sociality may modulate the expression of adaptive sex allocation among small mammals given the differential payoff associated with the production of high-quality female versus male offspring in more social versus less social species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen M. Pero
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - James F. Hare
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
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37
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Duffield KR, Hampton KJ, Houslay TM, Hunt J, Rapkin J, Sakaluk SK, Sadd BM. Age‐dependent variation in the terminal investment threshold in male crickets. Evolution 2018; 72:578-589. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kristin R. Duffield
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics Section, School of Biological Sciences Illinois State University Normal Illinois 61761
| | - Kylie J. Hampton
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics Section, School of Biological Sciences Illinois State University Normal Illinois 61761
| | - Thomas M. Houslay
- Center for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn TR10 9FE United Kingdom
| | - John Hunt
- Center for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn TR10 9FE United Kingdom
- School of Science and Health and Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University Penrith NSW 2751 Australia
| | - James Rapkin
- Center for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn TR10 9FE United Kingdom
| | - Scott K. Sakaluk
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics Section, School of Biological Sciences Illinois State University Normal Illinois 61761
| | - Ben M. Sadd
- Behavior, Ecology, Evolution and Systematics Section, School of Biological Sciences Illinois State University Normal Illinois 61761
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38
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No evidence that carotenoid pigments boost either immune or antioxidant defenses in a songbird. Nat Commun 2018; 9:491. [PMID: 29403051 PMCID: PMC5799171 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-02974-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dietary carotenoids have been proposed to boost immune system and antioxidant functions in vertebrate animals, but studies aimed at testing these physiological functions of carotenoids have often failed to find support. Here we subject yellow canaries (Serinus canaria), which possess high levels of carotenoids in their tissue, and white recessive canaries, which possess a knockdown mutation that results in very low levels of tissue carotenoids, to oxidative and pathogen challenges. Across diverse measures of physiological performance, we detect no differences between carotenoid-rich yellow and carotenoid-deficient white canaries. These results add further challenge to the assumption that carotenoids are directly involved in supporting physiological function in vertebrate animals. While some dietary carotenoids provide indirect benefits as retinoid precursors, our observations suggest that carotenoids themselves may play little to no direct role in key physiological processes in birds. Dietary carotenoids have been proposed to have physiological benefits in addition to contributing to coloration. Here, Koch et al. compare immune and antioxidant functions in yellow, carotenoid-rich vs. white, carotenoid-deficient canaries and find no difference, suggesting a limited physiological role of carotenoids.
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39
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Downs CJ, Boan BV, Lohuis TD, Stewart KM. Investigating Relationships between Reproduction, Immune Defenses, and Cortisol in Dall Sheep. Front Immunol 2018; 9:105. [PMID: 29445376 PMCID: PMC5797757 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Life-history theory is fundamental to understanding how animals allocate resources among survival, development, and reproduction, and among traits within these categories. Immediate trade-offs occur within a short span of time and, therefore, are more easily detected. Trade-offs, however, can also manifest across stages of the life cycle, a phenomenon known as carryover effects. We investigated trade-offs on both time scales in two populations of Dall sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) in Southcentral Alaska. Specifically, we (i) tested for glucocorticoid-mediated carryover effects from the breeding season on reproductive success and immune defenses during parturition and (ii) tested for trade-offs between immune defenses and reproduction within a season. We observed no relationship between cortisol during mating and pregnancy success; however, we found marginal support for a negative relationship between maternal cortisol and neonate birth weights. Low birth weights, resulting from high maternal cortisol, may result in low survival or low fecundity for the neonate later in life, which could result in overall population decline. We observed a negative relationship between pregnancy and bacterial killing ability, although we observed no relationship between pregnancy and haptoglobin. Study site affected bactericidal capacity and the inflammatory response, indicating the influence of external factors on immune responses, although we could not test hypotheses about the cause of those differences. This study helps advance our understanding of the plasticity and complexity of the immune system and provides insights into the how individual differences in physiology may mediate differences in fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia J. Downs
- Department of Biology, Hamilton College, Clinton, NY, United States
| | - Brianne V. Boan
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, United States
| | - Thomas D. Lohuis
- Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage, AK, United States
| | - Kelley M. Stewart
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, United States
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40
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Schoenle LA, Schoepf I, Weinstein NM, Moore IT, Bonier F. Higher plasma corticosterone is associated with reduced costs of infection in red-winged blackbirds. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2018; 256:89-98. [PMID: 28697920 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2017.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 06/06/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid hormones allow individuals to rapidly adjust their physiology and behavior to meet the challenges of a variable environment. An individual's baseline concentration of glucocorticoids can reflect shifts in life history stage and resource demands while mediating a suite of physiological and behavioral changes that include immune modulation and resource allocation. Thus, glucocorticoids could facilitate a response to parasites that is optimized for an individual's specific challenges and life history stage. We investigated the relationship between endogenous circulating glucocorticoids and measures of resistance and tolerance to Haemosporidian parasites (including those that cause avian malaria) in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). We found that higher endogenous concentrations of circulating glucocorticoids were associated with reduced costs of parasite infection, which is indicative of higher tolerance, but were unrelated to parasite burden in free ranging, breeding male birds. Post-breeding, both males and females with higher glucocorticoid concentrations had higher measures of tolerance to Haemosporidian infection. Our findings suggest a potentially adaptive role for glucocorticoids in shifting the response to parasites to align with an individual's current physiological state and the challenges they face.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A Schoenle
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 1405 Perry St., Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States.
| | - Ivana Schoepf
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 1405 Perry St., Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States; Biology Department, Queen's University, Biosciences Complex 3523, Kingston ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
| | - Nicole M Weinstein
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3900 Spruce St., Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States.
| | - Ignacio T Moore
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 1405 Perry St., Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States.
| | - Frances Bonier
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 1405 Perry St., Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States; Biology Department, Queen's University, Biosciences Complex 3523, Kingston ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
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41
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Ramirez-Otarola N, Espinoza J, Kalergis AM, Sabat P. Is there an effect of environmental temperature on the response to an antigen and the metabolic rate in pups of the rodent Octodon degus ? J Therm Biol 2018; 71:17-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2017.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Revised: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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42
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Abstract
Although reproductive strategies can be influenced by a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, life history theory provides a rigorous framework for explaining variation in reproductive effort. The terminal investment hypothesis proposes that a decreased expectation of future reproduction (as might arise from a mortality threat) should precipitate increased investment in current reproduction. Terminal investment has been widely studied, and a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic cues that elicit such a response have been identified across an array of taxa. Although terminal investment is often treated as a static strategy, the level at which a cue of decreased future reproduction is sufficient to trigger increased current reproductive effort (i.e., the terminal investment threshold) may depend on context, including the internal state of the organism or its current external environment, independent of the cue that triggers a shift in reproductive investment. Here, we review empirical studies that address the terminal investment hypothesis, exploring both the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that mediate its expression. Based on these studies, we propose a novel framework within which to view the strategy of terminal investment, incorporating factors that influence an individual's residual reproductive value beyond a terminal investment trigger - the dynamic terminal investment threshold.
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43
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Smith GD, French SS. Physiological Trade-Offs in Lizards: Costs for Individuals and Populations. Integr Comp Biol 2017; 57:344-351. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icx062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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44
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Schneider-Crease I, Griffin RH, Gomery MA, Bergman TJ, Beehner JC. High mortality associated with tapeworm parasitism in geladas (Theropithecus gelada) in the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. Am J Primatol 2017; 79. [PMID: 28783206 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Revised: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Despite increasing appreciation for parasitism as an important component of primate ecology and evolution, surprisingly few studies have demonstrated the costs of helminth parasitism in primates. Detecting parasite-related costs in primates is particularly difficult because it requires detailed, long-term data on individual host reproductive success, survival, and parasitism. The identification of the larval tapeworm Taenia serialis in geladas under intensive long-term study in the Ethiopian Highlands (Nguyen et al. [2015] American Journal of Primatology, 77:579-594; Schneider-Crease et al. [2013] Veterinary Parasitology 198:240-243) provides an opportunity to examine how an endemic parasite impacts host reproductive success and survival. We used survival analyses to assess the mortality risk associated with protuberant larval cysts characteristic of T. serialis using a decade of data from a gelada population in the Simien Mountains National Park (SMNP), Ethiopia. We demonstrated strikingly high mortality associated with T. serialis cysts in adult females, particularly for younger adults. The estimated effect of cysts on male mortality was similar, although the effect was not statistically significant, likely owing to the smaller sample size. Additionally, the offspring of mothers with cysts experienced increased mortality, which was driven almost entirely by maternal death. Mothers with cysts had such high mortality that they rarely completed an interbirth interval. Comparison with a study of this parasite in another gelada population on the Guassa Plateau (Nguyen et al. [2015] American Journal of Primatology, 77:579-594) revealed lower cyst prevalence in the SMNP and similar cyst-associated mortality. However, many more females with cysts completed interbirth intervals at Guassa than in the SMNP, suggesting that T. serialis cysts may kill hosts more rapidly in the SMNP. Our results point toward the underlying causes of individual and population-level heterogeneity in T. serialis-associated mortality as important areas for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Randi H Griffin
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Megan A Gomery
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Thore J Bergman
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Jacinta C Beehner
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.,Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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45
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Grzędzicka E. Immune challenge of female great tits at nests affects provisioning and body conditions of their offspring. Acta Ethol 2017; 20:223-233. [PMID: 28955122 PMCID: PMC5591367 DOI: 10.1007/s10211-017-0265-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2016] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The trade-off between animal’s parental reproductive effort and survival is still poorly understood. Parental allocation between the workload during breeding attempts and the parents’ own body conditions can be assessed through the offspring quality. Here, I questioned whether the immune responsiveness of female great tits may be considered as a mediator of this trade-off. Specifically, I tested whether (1) the parental reproductive effort decreases, (2) the food composition provided to chicks changes, and (3) whether the nestling immunocompetence and body mass decrease after experimental immunisation. Two populations of great tit Parus major occupying nest boxes were studied in Niepołomice Forest and Krzyszkowice Forest (Southern Poland) in 2011 and 2012, respectively. Three days after hatching, half of the females were challenged with sheep red blood cells (SRBC), while other females were injected with phosphate-buffered saline PBS (control). Six days later, food provided by the parents was collected from nestlings. After another 2 days, the offspring’s body mass was measured and wing web swelling in response to an additional phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) injection. In both years, immunocompetence and in 2012 also body mass in the offspring of SRBC-immunised mothers were lower than in control nestlings, indicating a cost of mounting the immune response in the female. Six days after the start of the female treatment, the number of caterpillars and the volume of food items provided by parents to chicks were higher, whereas the number of spiders was lower in nests with SRBC treatment than in control ones. This might be explained by compensational parental feeding after recovery from the inflammation of a female. Thus, the trade-off between parental effort and survival of parents is mediated by the costs incurred for their immunity and can be assessed by the amount and quality of food provided to the nestlings and the offspring condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Grzędzicka
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa Street 7, 30-387 Kraków, Poland.,Institute of Nature Conservation, Polish Academy of Sciences, Al. Mickiewicza 33, 31-120 Kraków, Poland
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46
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Graham J, Mady R, Greives T. Experimental immune activation using a mild antigen decreases reproductive success in free-living female Dark-eyed Juncos (Junco hyemalis). CAN J ZOOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2016-0131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Seasonal animals time breeding so that offspring rearing coincides with favorable conditions. Offspring rearing is energetically demanding; therefore, additional energetic challenges during this life-history stage may allocate energy away from offspring care, decreasing reproductive success. Activation of the immune system may be one such energetic challenge, and may have a disproportionately higher impact on reproductive success earlier in the breeding season when resources are less abundant and thermoregulatory demands are greater. We monitored nestling growth and survival in incubating female Dark-eyed Juncos (Junco hyemalis (L., 1758)) injected with a mild antigen to stimulate antibody production and induce an energetic challenge. We found nests of treated females were more likely than controls to fail prior to 6 days post hatch, coinciding with timing of peak antibody production. No effect of season was detected. Offspring mass did not differ between treatments prior to failure, suggesting that failure was potentially due to differences in behaviour other than nestling feeding. Our findings indicate a trade-off between immunity and nest survival that is not affected by time of season. Based on the results of our study, we suggest that future research be directed toward how immune activation influences behaviours, including nest guarding and predator aggression, and mediates this trade-off.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.L. Graham
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Dakota State University, 1340 Bolley Drive, 201 Stevens Hall, Fargo, ND 58102, USA
| | - R.P. Mady
- Department of Biological Sciences, Towson University, 8000 York Road, 341 Smith Hall, Towson, MD 21252, USA
| | - T.J. Greives
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Dakota State University, 1340 Bolley Drive, 201 Stevens Hall, Fargo, ND 58102, USA
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Evans JK, Buchanan KL, Griffith SC, Klasing KC, Addison B. Ecoimmunology and microbial ecology: Contributions to avian behavior, physiology, and life history. Horm Behav 2017; 88:112-121. [PMID: 28065710 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Revised: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria have had a fundamental impact on vertebrate evolution not only by affecting the evolution of the immune system, but also generating complex interactions with behavior and physiology. Advances in molecular techniques have started to reveal the intricate ways in which bacteria and vertebrates have coevolved. Here, we focus on birds as an example system for understanding the fundamental impact bacteria have had on the evolution of avian immune defenses, behavior, physiology, reproduction and life histories. The avian egg has multiple characteristics that have evolved to enable effective defense against pathogenic attack. Microbial risk of pathogenic infection is hypothesized to vary with life stage, with early life risk being maximal at either hatching or fledging. For adult birds, microbial infection risk is also proposed to vary with habitat and life stage, with molt inducing a period of increased vulnerability. Bacteria not only play an important role in shaping the immune system as well as trade-offs with other physiological systems, but also for determining digestive efficiency and nutrient uptake. The relevance of avian microbiomes for avian ecology, physiology and behavior is highly topical and will likely impact on our understanding of avian welfare, conservation, captive breeding as well as for our understanding of the nature of host-microbe coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica K Evans
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Geelong 3220, Victoria, Australia; Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, 2122, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Katherine L Buchanan
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Geelong 3220, Victoria, Australia
| | - Simon C Griffith
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, 2122, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Kirk C Klasing
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - BriAnne Addison
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Geelong 3220, Victoria, Australia.
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Langeloh L, Behrmann-Godel J, Seppälä O. Natural selection on immune defense: A field experiment. Evolution 2017; 71:227-237. [PMID: 27925174 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Predicting the evolution of phenotypic traits requires an understanding of natural selection on them. Despite its indispensability in the fight against parasites, selection on host immune defense has remained understudied. Theory predicts immune traits to be under stabilizing selection due to associated trade-offs with other fitness-related traits. Empirical studies, however, report mainly positive directional selection. This discrepancy could be caused by low phenotypic variation in the examined individuals and/or variation in host resource level that confounds trade-offs in empirical studies. In a field experiment where we maintained Lymnaea stagnalis snails individually in cages in a lake, we investigated phenotypic selection on two immune defense traits, phenoloxidase (PO)-like activity and antibacterial activity, in hemolymph. We used a diverse laboratory population and manipulated snail resource level by limiting their food supply. For six weeks, we followed immune activity, growth, and two fitness components, survival and fecundity of snails. We found that PO-like activity and growth were under stabilizing selection, while antibacterial activity was under positive directional selection. Selection on immune traits was mainly driven by variation in survival. The form of selection on immune defense apparently depends on the particular trait, possibly due to its importance for countering the present parasite community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Langeloh
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zürich, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Otto Seppälä
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zürich, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
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49
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Segner H, Verburg-van Kemenade BML, Chadzinska M. The immunomodulatory role of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis: Proximate mechanism for reproduction-immune trade offs? DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 66:43-60. [PMID: 27404794 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2016.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Revised: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The present review discusses the communication between the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonad (HPG) axis and the immune system of vertebrates, attempting to situate the HPG-immune interaction into the context of life history trade-offs between reproductive and immune functions. More specifically, (i) we review molecular and cellular interactions between hormones of the HPG axis, and, as far as known, the involved mechanisms on immune functions, (ii) we evaluate whether the HPG-immune crosstalk serves as proximate mechanism mediating reproductive-immune trade-offs, and (iii) we ask whether the nature of the HPG-immune interaction is conserved throughout vertebrate evolution, despite the changes in immune functions, reproductive modes, and life histories. In all vertebrate classes studied so far, HPG hormones have immunomodulatory functions, and indications exist that they contribute to reproduction-immunity resource trade-offs, although the very limited information available for most non-mammalian vertebrates makes it difficult to judge how comparable or different the interactions are. There is good evidence that the HPG-immune crosstalk is part of the proximate mechanisms underlying the reproductive-immune trade-offs of vertebrates, but it is only one factor in a complex network of factors and processes. The fact that the HPG-immune interaction is flexible and can adapt to the functional and physiological requirements of specific life histories. Moreover, the assumption of a relatively fixed pattern of HPG influence on immune functions, with, for example, androgens always leading to immunosuppression and estrogens always being immunoprotective, is probably oversimplified, but the HPG-immune interaction can vary depending on the physiological and envoironmental context. Finally, the HPG-immune interaction is not only driven by resource trade-offs, but additional factors such as, for instance, the evolution of viviparity shape this neuroendocrine-immune relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helmut Segner
- Centre for Fish and Wildlife Health, Dept of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, P.O. Box, CH-3001, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - B M Lidy Verburg-van Kemenade
- Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Magdalena Chadzinska
- Department of Evolutionary Immunology, Institute of Zoology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 9, 30-387, Krakow, Poland
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50
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Lisovski S, Hoye BJ, Klaassen M. Geographic variation in seasonality and its influence on the dynamics of an infectious disease. OIKOS 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.03796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Simeon Lisovski
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences Deakin Univ. Victoria Geelong Australia
- Dept of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior Univ. of California One Shields Avenue Davis CA 95616 USA
| | - Bethany J. Hoye
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences Deakin Univ. Victoria Geelong Australia
| | - Marcel Klaassen
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences Deakin Univ. Victoria Geelong Australia
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