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Maki T, Sannomiya N, Hirao T, Fukui D. Scale-dependent influences of environmental, historical, and spatial processes on taxonomic and functional beta diversity of Japanese bat assemblages. Ecol Evol 2024; 14:e11277. [PMID: 38628917 PMCID: PMC11019122 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.11277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the relative influences of environmental, spatial, and historical factors, including the island-specific history of land connectivity, on bat assemblages in the Japanese Archipelago. We collected bat distribution data from 1408 studies and assigned them to Japan's First Standard Grid (approximately 6400 km2). Japanese bat assemblages were analyzed at two scales: the entire Japanese Archipelago comprised 16 islands and exclusively the four main islands. At first, we calculated taxonomic and functional total beta diversity (β total) by Jaccard pairwise dissimilarity and then divided this into turnover (β repl) and richness-difference (β rich) components. We conducted hierarchical clustering of taxonomic beta diversity to examine the influence of the two representative sea straits, Tsugaru and Tokara, which are considered biogeographical borders. Variation partitioning was conducted to evaluate the relative effects of the three factors on the beta diversity. Clustering revealed that the Tokara Strait bordered the two major clades; however, the Tsugaru Strait did not act as a biogeographical border for bats. In the variation partitioning, shared fraction between spatial and historical factors significantly explained taxonomic and functional β total and taxonomic β repl at the entire archipelago scale, but not at the four main islands scale extending only Tsugaru Strait but not Tokara Strait. Pure environmental factors significantly explained functional β total at both scales and taxonomic β total only at the four main islands scale. These results suggest that spatial and historical factors are more pronounced in biogeographical borders, primarily structuring assemblage composition at the entire archipelago scale, especially in taxonomic dimension. However, current environmental factors primarily shape the assemblage composition of Japanese bats at the main island scale. The difference in results between the two scales highlights that the primary processes governing assemblages of both dimensions depend on the quality of the dispersal barriers between terrestrial and aquatic barriers for bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Maki
- Amami Station, International Center for Island StudiesKagoshima UniversityKagoshimaJapan
- The University of Tokyo Forests, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life SciencesThe University of TokyoTokyoJapan
| | - Nozomi Sannomiya
- The University of Tokyo Forests, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life SciencesThe University of TokyoTokyoJapan
| | - Toshihide Hirao
- The University of Tokyo Chichibu Forest, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life SciencesThe University of TokyoSaitamaJapan
| | - Dai Fukui
- Fuji Iyashinomori Woodland Study Center, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life SciencesThe University of TokyoYamanashiJapan
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2
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Macheriotou L, Derycke S, Vanreusel A. Environmental filtering along a bathymetric gradient: A metabarcoding meta-analysis of free-living nematodes. Mol Ecol 2023; 32:6177-6189. [PMID: 37971160 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Identifying and understanding patterns of biological diversity is crucial at a time when even the most remote and pristine marine ecosystems are threatened by resource exploitation such as deep-seabed mining. Metabarcoding provides the means through which one can perform comprehensive investigations of diversity by examining entire assemblages simultaneously. Nematodes commonly represent the most abundant infaunal metazoan group in marine soft sediments. In this meta-analysis, we compiled all publicly available metabarcoding datasets targeting the 18S rRNA v1-v2 region from sediment samples to conduct a global-scale examination of nematode amplicon sequence variant (ASV) alpha diversity patterns and phylogenetic community structure at different depths and habitats. We found that nematode ASV richness followed a parabolic trend, increasing from the intertidal to the shelf, reaching a maximum in the bathyal and decreasing in the abyssal zone. No depth- or habitat-specific assemblages were identified as a large fraction of genera were shared. Contrastingly, the vast majority of ASVs were unique to each habitat and/or depth zone; genetic diversity was thus highly localized. Overwhelmingly, nematode ASVs in all habitats exhibited phylogenetic clustering, pointing to environmental filtering as the primary force defining community assembly rather than competitive interactions. This finding stresses the importance of habitat preservation for the maintenance of marine nematode diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Macheriotou
- Marine Biology Research Group, Department of Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sofie Derycke
- Marine Biology Research Group, Department of Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Aquatic Environment and Quality, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Oostende, Belgium
| | - Ann Vanreusel
- Marine Biology Research Group, Department of Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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3
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Saupe EE. Explanations for latitudinal diversity gradients must invoke rate variation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2306220120. [PMID: 37535654 PMCID: PMC10433455 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2306220120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG) describes the pattern of increasing numbers of species from the poles to the equator. Although recognized for over 200 years, the mechanisms responsible for the largest-scale and longest-known pattern in macroecology are still actively debated. I argue here that any explanation for the LDG must invoke differential rates of speciation, extinction, extirpation, or dispersal. These processes themselves may be governed by numerous abiotic or biotic factors. Hypotheses that claim not to invoke differential rates, such as 'age and area' or 'time for diversification', eschew focus from rate variation that is assumed by these explanations. There is still significant uncertainty in how rates of speciation, extinction, extirpation, and dispersal have varied regionally over Earth history. However, to better understand the development of LDGs, we need to better constrain this variation. Only then will the drivers of such rate variation - be they abiotic or biotic in nature - become clearer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin E. Saupe
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3AN, United Kingdom
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4
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Sinclair EA, Hovey RK, Krauss SL, Anthony JM, Waycott M, Kendrick GA. Historic and contemporary biogeographic perspectives on range-wide spatial genetic structure in a widespread seagrass. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9900. [PMID: 36950371 PMCID: PMC10025079 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Historical and contemporary processes drive spatial patterns of genetic diversity. These include climate-driven range shifts and gene flow mediated by biogeographical influences on dispersal. Assessments that integrate these drivers are uncommon, but critical for testing biogeographic hypotheses. Here, we characterize intraspecific genetic diversity and spatial structure across the entire distribution of a temperate seagrass to test marine biogeographic concepts for southern Australia. Predictive modeling was used to contrast the current Posidonia australis distribution to its historical distribution during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Spatial genetic structure was estimated for 44 sampled meadows from across the geographical range of the species using nine microsatellite loci. Historical and contemporary distributions were similar, with the exception of the Bass Strait. Genetic clustering was consistent with the three currently recognized biogeographic provinces and largely consistent with the finer-scale IMCRA bioregions. Discrepancies were found within the Flindersian province and southwest IMCRA bioregion, while two regions of admixture coincided with transitional IMCRA bioregions. Clonal diversity was highly variable but positively associated with latitude. Genetic differentiation among meadows was significantly associated with oceanographic distance. Our approach suggests how shared seascape drivers have influenced the capacity of P. australis to effectively track sea level changes associated with natural climate cycles over millennia, and in particular, the recolonization of meadows across the Continental Shelf following the LGM. Genetic structure associated with IMCRA bioregions reflects the presence of stable biogeographic barriers, such as oceanic upwellings. This study highlights the importance of biogeography to infer the role of historical drivers in shaping extant diversity and structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A. Sinclair
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of Western AustraliaCrawleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
- Oceans Institute, University of Western AustraliaCrawleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
- Kings Park Science, Department of Biodiversity Conservation and AttractionsKings ParkWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Renae K. Hovey
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of Western AustraliaCrawleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
- Oceans Institute, University of Western AustraliaCrawleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Siegfried L. Krauss
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of Western AustraliaCrawleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
- Kings Park Science, Department of Biodiversity Conservation and AttractionsKings ParkWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Janet M. Anthony
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of Western AustraliaCrawleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
- Kings Park Science, Department of Biodiversity Conservation and AttractionsKings ParkWestern AustraliaAustralia
| | - Michelle Waycott
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of Adelaide and State Herbarium of South AustraliaAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Gary A. Kendrick
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of Western AustraliaCrawleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
- Oceans Institute, University of Western AustraliaCrawleyWestern AustraliaAustralia
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5
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Rubalcaba JG, Gouveia SF, Villalobos F, Cruz-Neto AP, Castro MG, Amado TF, Martinez PA, Navas CA, Dobrovolski R, Diniz-Filho JAF, Olalla-Tárraga MÁ. Physical constraints on thermoregulation and flight drive morphological evolution in bats. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2103745119. [PMID: 35377801 PMCID: PMC9169619 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2103745119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Body size and shape fundamentally determine organismal energy requirements by modulating heat and mass exchange with the environment and the costs of locomotion, thermoregulation, and maintenance. Ecologists have long used the physical linkage between morphology and energy balance to explain why the body size and shape of many organisms vary across climatic gradients, e.g., why larger endotherms are more common in colder regions. However, few modeling exercises have aimed at investigating this link from first principles. Body size evolution in bats contrasts with the patterns observed in other endotherms, probably because physical constraints on flight limit morphological adaptations. Here, we develop a biophysical model based on heat transfer and aerodynamic principles to investigate energy constraints on morphological evolution in bats. Our biophysical model predicts that the energy costs of thermoregulation and flight, respectively, impose upper and lower limits on the relationship of wing surface area to body mass (S-MR), giving rise to an optimal S-MR at which both energy costs are minimized. A comparative analysis of 278 species of bats supports the model’s prediction that S-MR evolves toward an optimal shape and that the strength of selection is higher among species experiencing greater energy demands for thermoregulation in cold climates. Our study suggests that energy costs modulate the mode of morphological evolution in bats—hence shedding light on a long-standing debate over bats’ conformity to ecogeographical patterns observed in other mammals—and offers a procedure for investigating complex macroecological patterns from first principles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan G. Rubalcaba
- Department of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1B1, Canada
- Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física y Química Inorgánica, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28933 Madrid, Spain
| | - Sidney F. Gouveia
- Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, 49100-000 Sergipe, Brazil
| | | | - Ariovaldo P. Cruz-Neto
- Departamento de Biodiversidade, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho, 13506‐900 São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mario G. Castro
- Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física y Química Inorgánica, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28933 Madrid, Spain
| | - Talita F. Amado
- Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física y Química Inorgánica, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28933 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pablo A. Martinez
- Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, 49100-000 Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Carlos A. Navas
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociência, Universidade de São Paulo, 05508-090 São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Dobrovolski
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal da Bahia, 40170-115 Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | | | - Miguel Á. Olalla-Tárraga
- Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física y Química Inorgánica, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28933 Madrid, Spain
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6
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Núñez-Novas MS, Torres R, Rodríguez-Durán A, Zorrilla JM. Spatial Distribution of Bat Species on Hispaniola Island, the Greater Antilles. ACTA CHIROPTEROLOGICA 2022. [DOI: 10.3161/15081109acc2021.23.2.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Miguel S. Núñez-Novas
- Museo Nacional de Historia Natural Profesor Eugenio De Jesús Marcano, 10204 Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
| | - Ricardo Torres
- Museo de Zoología, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Armando Rodríguez-Durán
- Mata de Plátano Field Station, Universidad Interamericana, 00957 Bayamón, Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico
| | - Juan M. Zorrilla
- Departamento de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución, Facultad de Biología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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7
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Varzinczak LH. Understanding the relationship between climatic niches and dispersal through the lens of bat wing morphology. J Zool (1987) 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L. H. Varzinczak
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação Universidade Federal do ParanáCentro Politécnico Curitiba Brasil
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8
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Varzinczak LH, Moura MO, Passos FC. Shifts to multiple optima underlie climatic niche evolution in New World phyllostomid bats. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Climate underlies species distribution patterns, especially in species where climate limits distributions, such as the phyllostomid bats, which are mostly restricted to the New World tropics. The evolutionary dynamics that shaped phyllostomid climatic niches remain unclear, and a broad phylogenetic perspective is required to uncover their patterns. We used geographical distributions and evolutionary relationships of 130 species, climate data and phylogenetic comparative methods to uncover dynamics of phyllostomid climatic niche evolution. Diversification of climatic niches began early in phyllostomid evolution (~34 Mya), with most changes taking place ~20 Mya. Although most of these bats were found in tropical regions, shifts towards different evolutionary optima were common. Shifts were mostly towards temperate climates, reflecting complexities in phyllostomid evolution highlighted by the probable role of species-specific adaptations to cope with these climates, the influence of palaeoclimatic events, and biogeographical effects related to the evolution and dispersal of clades in the New World. Our results broaden our understanding of the relationships between phyllostomid bats and climate, filling an important gap in knowledge and suggesting a complex evolution in their occupation of the climatic niche space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz H Varzinczak
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação, Department of Zoology, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Mauricio O Moura
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação, Department of Zoology, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Fernando C Passos
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação, Department of Zoology, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
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9
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Withdrawn as duplicate: Guild-level responses of bats to habitat conversion in a lowland Amazonian rainforest: species composition and biodiversity. J Mammal 2019; 100:e1. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyz008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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10
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Stevens RD, Rowe RJ, Badgley C. Gradients of mammalian biodiversity through space and time. J Mammal 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyz024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Richard D Stevens
- Department of Natural Resources Management and Museum of Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Rebecca J Rowe
- Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA
| | - Catherine Badgley
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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11
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Willig MR, Presley SJ, Plante JL, Bloch CP, Solari S, Pacheco V, Weaver SC. Guild-level responses of bats to habitat conversion in a lowland Amazonian rainforest: species composition and biodiversity. J Mammal 2019; 100:223-238. [PMID: 30846887 PMCID: PMC6394116 DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyz023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Landscape modification represents one of the most severe threats to biodiversity from local to global scales. Conversion of forest to agricultural production generally results in patches of habitat that subdivide or isolate populations, alter the behavior of species, modify interspecific interactions, reduce biodiversity, and compromise ecosystem processes. Moreover, conversion may increase exposure of humans to zoonoses to which they would otherwise rarely be exposed. We evaluated the effects of forest conversion to agriculture, and its subsequent successional dynamics, on bat communities in a region of the Amazon that was predominantly closed-canopy rainforest. Based on a nonmanipulative experiment, we quantified differences in species composition, community structure, and taxonomic biodiversity among closed-canopy forest (bosque), agricultural lands (chacra), and secondary forest (purma) for two phyllostomid guilds (frugivores and gleaning animalivores) during the wet and dry seasons. Responses were complex and guild-specific. For frugivores, species composition (species abundance distributions) differed between all possible pairs of habitats in both wet and dry seasons. For gleaning animalivores, species composition differed between all possible pairs of habitats in the dry season, but no differences characterized the wet season. Ecological structure (rank abundance distributions) differed among habitats in guild-specific and season-specific manners. For frugivores, mean diversity, evenness, and dominance were greater in bosque than in purma; mean dominance was greater in bosque than in chacra, but local rarity was greater in chacra than in bosque, and no differences were manifest between purma and chacra. For gleaning animalivores, mean diversity and evenness were greater in bosque than in purma, but no differences were manifest between chacra and bosque, or between purma and chacra. Such results have important implications for management, conservation, and the epidemiology of zoonotic diseases. La actual modificación del paisaje, a escalas que van de lo local a lo global, es una de las amenazas más severas a la biodiversidad. De manera general, la conversión de bosques a áreas agrícolas produce parches de hábitat que subdividen o aíslan poblaciones, alteran la conducta de las especies, modifican las interacciones interespecíficas, reducen la biodiversidad y comprometen las funciones de los ecosistemas. Más aún, la transformación de estos ambientes puede incrementar la probabilidad de que las poblaciones humanas interactúen con zoonosis con las que de otra manera raramente entrarían en contacto. Evaluamos los efectos de la conversión de hábitat en comunidades de murciélagos en una región de Amazonia en la que la vegetación dominante es un bosque lluvioso de copas cerradas, y en la cual los efectos de la conversión a usos agrícolas sobre la biodiversidad, y la subsecuente dinámica sucesional, son aún poco comprendidos. Por medio de un experimento no-manipulativo, cuantificamos las diferencias en composición de especies, estructura de la comunidad y diversidad taxonómica entre bosque cerrado (bosque), áreas agrícolas (chacra) y bosque secundario (purma) para dos gremios tróficos de murciélagos filostómidos (frugívoros y forrajeadores de sustrato) durante dos temporadas (secas y lluvias). Las respuestas fueron complejas y diferentes para cada gremio. Para los frugívoros, la composición de especies (distribución de las abundancias) fue diferente para todos los posibles pares de hábitats tanto para secas como para lluvias. Para los forrajeadores de sustrato, la composición de especies difirió entre todos los posibles pares de hábitats en la temporada seca, pero no en la de lluvias. La estructura ecológica (distribuciones rango-abundancia) fue también específica para gremios y temporadas. Para los frugívoros, la diversidad promedio, equidad y dominancia fueron mayores en bosque que en purma; la dominancia promedio fue mayor en bosque que en chacra, pero la rareza local fue mayor en chacra que en bosque, y no se encontraron diferencias entre purma y chacra. Para los forrajeadores de sustrato, la diversidad promedio y la dominancia fueron mayores en bosque que en purma, pero no se detectaron diferencias entre chacra y bosque, o entre purma y chacra. Estos resultados tienen importantes implicaciones para el manejo, conservación y epidemiología de zoonosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Willig
- Center for Environmental Sciences & Engineering and Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Steven J Presley
- Center for Environmental Sciences & Engineering and Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Jean-Luc Plante
- Center for Environmental Sciences & Engineering and Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Christopher P Bloch
- Department of Biological Sciences, Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, MA, USA
| | - Sergio Solari
- Grupo Mastozoología, Instituto de Biología, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Antioquia, Colombia
| | - Victor Pacheco
- Departamento de Mastozooloía, Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima-14, Perú
| | - Scott C Weaver
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, Center for Tropical Diseases, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
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12
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A synthesis of ecological and evolutionary determinants of bat diversity across spatial scales. BMC Ecol 2018; 18:18. [PMID: 29890975 PMCID: PMC5996565 DOI: 10.1186/s12898-018-0174-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Diversity patterns result from ecological to evolutionary processes operating at different spatial and temporal scales. Species trait variation determine the spatial scales at which organisms perceive the environment. Despite this knowledge, the coupling of all these factors to understand how diversity is structured is still deficient. Here, we review the role of ecological and evolutionary processes operating across different hierarchically spatial scales to shape diversity patterns of bats—the second largest mammal order and the only mammals with real flight capability. Main body We observed that flight development and its provision of increased dispersal ability influenced the diversification, life history, geographic distribution, and local interspecific interactions of bats, differently across multiple spatial scales. Niche packing combined with different flight, foraging and echolocation strategies and differential use of air space allowed the coexistence among bats as well as for an increased diversity supported by the environment. Considering distinct bat species distributions across space due to their functional characteristics, we assert that understanding such characteristics in Chiroptera improves the knowledge on ecological processes at different scales. We also point two main knowledge gaps that limit progress on the knowledge on scale-dependence of ecological and evolutionary processes in bats: a geographical bias, showing that research on bats is mainly done in the New World; and the lack of studies addressing the mesoscale (i.e. landscape and metacommunity scales). Conclusions We propose that it is essential to couple spatial scales and different zoogeographical regions along with their functional traits, to address bat diversity patterns and understand how they are distributed across the environment. Understanding how bats perceive space is a complex task: all bats can fly, but their perception of space varies with their biological traits. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12898-018-0174-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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13
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Phylogenetic conservatism of thermal traits explains dispersal limitation and genomic differentiation of Streptomyces sister-taxa. ISME JOURNAL 2018; 12:2176-2186. [PMID: 29880909 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-018-0180-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The latitudinal diversity gradient is a pattern of biogeography observed broadly in plants and animals but largely undocumented in terrestrial microbial systems. Although patterns of microbial biogeography across broad taxonomic scales have been described in a range of contexts, the mechanisms that generate biogeographic patterns between closely related taxa remain incompletely characterized. Adaptive processes are a major driver of microbial biogeography, but there is less understanding of how microbial biogeography and diversification are shaped by dispersal limitation and drift. We recently described a latitudinal diversity gradient of species richness and intraspecific genetic diversity in Streptomyces by using a geographically explicit culture collection. Within this geographically explicit culture collection, we have identified Streptomyces sister-taxa whose geographic distribution is delimited by latitude. These sister-taxa differ in geographic distribution, genomic diversity, and ecological traits despite having nearly identical SSU rRNA gene sequences. Comparative genomic analysis reveals genomic differentiation of these sister-taxa consistent with restricted gene flow across latitude. Furthermore, we show phylogenetic conservatism of thermal traits between the sister-taxa suggesting that thermal trait adaptation limits dispersal and gene flow across climate regimes as defined by latitude. Such phylogenetic conservatism of thermal traits is commonly associated with latitudinal diversity gradients for plants and animals. These data provide further support for the hypothesis that the Streptomyces latitudinal diversity gradient was formed as a result of historical demographic processes defined by dispersal limitation and driven by paleoclimate dynamics.
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14
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Giménez AL, Giannini NP. The endemic Patagonian vespertilionid assemblage is a depauperate ecomorphological vicariant of species-rich neotropical assemblages. Curr Zool 2018; 63:495-505. [PMID: 29492009 PMCID: PMC5804208 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zow100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Vespertilionidae is the most diverse chiropteran family, and its diversity is concentrated in warm regions of the World; however, due to physiological and behavioral adaptations, these bats also dominate bat faunas in temperate regions. Here we performed a comparative study of vespertilionid assemblages from two broad regions of the New World, the cold and harsh Patagonia, versus the remaining temperate-to-subtropical, extra-Patagonian eco-regions of the South American Southern Cone. We took an ecomorphological approach and analyzed the craniodental morphological structure of these assemblages within a phylogenetic framework. We measured 17 craniodental linear variables from 447 specimens of 22 currently recognized vespertilionid species of the study regions. We performed a multivariate analysis to define the morphofunctional space, and calculated the pattern and degree of species packing for each assemblage. We assessed the importance of phylogeny and biogeography, and their impact on depauperate (Patagonian) versus rich (extra-Patagonian) vespertilionid assemblages as determinants of morphospace structuring. We implemented a sensitivity analysis associated to small samples of rare species. The morphological patterns were determined chiefly by the evolutionary history of the family. The Patagonian assemblage can be described as a structurally similar but comparatively depauperate ecomorphological version of those assemblages from neighboring extra-Patagonian eco-regions. The Patagonian assemblage seems to have formed by successively adding populations from Northern regions that eventually speciated in the region, leaving corresponding sisters (vicariants) in extra-Patagonian eco-regions that continued to be characteristically richer. Despite being structurally akin, degree of species packing in Patagonia was comparatively very low, which may reflect the effect of limited dispersal success into a harsh region for bat survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Analía L Giménez
- Centro de Investigación Esquel de Montaña y Estepa Patagónicas (CIEMEP, CONICET-UNPSJB), Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Evolución y Biodiversidad (LIEB), Roca 780, Esquel, Chubut, CP 9200, Argentina
| | - Norberto P Giannini
- Unidad Ejecutora Lillo, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Fundación Miguel Lillo, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, San Miguel de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
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Wiens JJ. Patterns of Local Community Composition Are Linked to Large-Scale Diversification and Dispersal of Clades. Am Nat 2018; 191:184-196. [DOI: 10.1086/695495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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16
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Alves DMCC, Diniz-Filho JAF, Villalobos F. Geographical diversification and the effect of model and data inadequacies: the bat diversity gradient as a case study. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blx030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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17
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Ferrer-Castán D, Morales-Barbero J, Vetaas OR. Water-energy dynamics, habitat heterogeneity, history, and broad-scale patterns of mammal diversity. ACTA OECOLOGICA-INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.actao.2016.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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18
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Choudoir MJ, Doroghazi JR, Buckley DH. Latitude delineates patterns of biogeography in terrestrial Streptomyces. Environ Microbiol 2016; 18:4931-4945. [PMID: 27322415 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The biogeography of Streptomyces was examined at regional spatial scales to identify factors that govern patterns of microbial diversity. Streptomyces are spore forming filamentous bacteria which are widespread in soil. Streptomyces strains were isolated from perennial grass habitats sampled across a spatial scale of more than 6000 km. Previous analysis of this geographically explicit culture collection provided evidence for a latitudinal diversity gradient in Streptomyces species. Here the hypothesis that this latitudinal diversity gradient is a result of evolutionary dynamics associated with historical demographic processes was evaluated. Historical demographic phenomena have genetic consequences that can be evaluated through analysis of population genetics. Population genetic approaches were applied to analyze population structure in six of the most numerically abundant and geographically widespread Streptomyces phylogroups from our culture collection. Streptomyces population structure varied at regional spatial scales, and allelic diversity correlated with geographic distance. In addition, allelic diversity and gene flow are partitioned by latitude. Finally, it was found that nucleotide diversity within phylogroups was negatively correlated with latitude. These results indicate that phylogroup diversification is constrained by dispersal limitation at regional spatial scales, and they are consistent with the hypothesis that historical demographic processes have influenced the contemporary biogeography of Streptomyces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mallory J Choudoir
- School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - James R Doroghazi
- School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Daniel H Buckley
- School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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Abstract
We show that Streptomyces biogeography in soils across North America is influenced by the regional diversification of microorganisms due to dispersal limitation and genetic drift. Streptomyces spp. form desiccation-resistant spores, which can be dispersed on the wind, allowing for a strong test of whether dispersal limitation governs patterns of terrestrial microbial diversity. We employed an approach that has high sensitivity for determining the effects of genetic drift. Specifically, we examined the genetic diversity and phylogeography of physiologically similar Streptomyces strains isolated from geographically distributed yet ecologically similar habitats. We found that Streptomyces beta diversity scales with geographic distance and both beta diversity and phylogenetic diversity manifest in a latitudinal diversity gradient. This pattern of Streptomyces biogeography resembles patterns seen for diverse species of plants and animals, and we therefore evaluated these data in the context of ecological and evolutionary hypotheses proposed to explain latitudinal diversity gradients. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that niche conservatism limits dispersal, and historical patterns of glaciation have limited the time for speciation in higher-latitude sites. Most notably, higher-latitude sites have lower phylogenetic diversity, higher phylogenetic clustering, and evidence of range expansion from lower latitudes. In addition, patterns of beta diversity partition with respect to the glacial history of sites. Hence, the data support the hypothesis that extant patterns of Streptomyces biogeography have been driven by historical patterns of glaciation and are the result of demographic range expansion, dispersal limitation, and regional diversification due to drift. Biogeographic patterns provide insight into the evolutionary and ecological processes that govern biodiversity. However, the evolutionary and ecological processes that govern terrestrial microbial diversity remain poorly characterized. We evaluated the biogeography of the genus Streptomyces to show that the diversity of terrestrial bacteria is governed by many of the same processes that govern the diversity of many plant and animal species. While bacteria of the genus Streptomyces are a preeminent source of antibiotics, their evolutionary history, biogeography, and biodiversity remain poorly characterized. The observations we describe provide insight into the drivers of Streptomyces biodiversity and the processes that underlie microbial diversification in terrestrial habitats.
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Algar AC, Kerr JT, Currie DJ. Evolutionary constraints on regional faunas: whom, but not how many. Ecol Lett 2015; 12:57-65. [PMID: 19049512 DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01260.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The latitudinal diversity gradient has been hypothesized to reflect past evolutionary dynamics driven by climatic niche conservation during cladogenesis, i.e. the tropical conservatism hypothesis. Here we show that the species diversity of treefrogs (Hylidae) across the western hemisphere is actually independent of evolutionary niche dynamics. We evaluated three key predictions of the tropical conservatism hypothesis that relate to the relationships between climate, species richness and the phylogenetic structure of regional treefrog faunas across the continental Americas. Species composition was dependent on the inability of some lineages to evolve cold tolerance, but the actual number of species in a region was strongly predicted by precipitation, not temperature. Moreover, phylogenetic structure was independent of precipitation. Thus, species in low-richness areas were no more closely related than species in highly diverse regions. These results provide no support for the tropical conservatism hypothesis. Instead, they show that regional species composition and richness are constrained by different climatic components, demonstrating that global biodiversity gradients can be independent of niche stasis during cladogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam C Algar
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
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Pyron RA, Wiens JJ. Large-scale phylogenetic analyses reveal the causes of high tropical amphibian diversity. Proc Biol Sci 2013; 280:20131622. [PMID: 24026818 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2013.1622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many groups show higher species richness in tropical regions but the underlying causes remain unclear. Despite many competing hypotheses to explain latitudinal diversity gradients, only three processes can directly change species richness across regions: speciation, extinction and dispersal. These processes can be addressed most powerfully using large-scale phylogenetic approaches, but most previous studies have focused on small groups and recent time scales, or did not separate speciation and extinction rates. We investigate the origins of high tropical diversity in amphibians, applying new phylogenetic comparative methods to a tree of 2871 species. Our results show that high tropical diversity is explained by higher speciation in the tropics, higher extinction in temperate regions and limited dispersal out of the tropics compared with colonization of the tropics from temperate regions. These patterns are strongly associated with climate-related variables such as temperature, precipitation and ecosystem energy. Results from models of diversity dependence in speciation rate suggest that temperate clades may have lower carrying capacities and may be more saturated (closer to carrying capacity) than tropical clades. Furthermore, we estimate strikingly low tropical extinction rates over geological time scales, in stark contrast to the dramatic losses of diversity occurring in tropical regions presently.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Alexander Pyron
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, , 2023 G Street NW, Washington, DC 20052, USA, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, , Tucson, AZ 85721-0088, USA
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Ramos Pereira MJ, Palmeirim JM. Latitudinal diversity gradients in New World bats: are they a consequence of niche conservatism? PLoS One 2013; 8:e69245. [PMID: 23935963 PMCID: PMC3720615 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 06/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The increase in species diversity from the Poles to the Equator is a major biogeographic pattern, but the mechanisms underlying it remain obscure. Our aim is to contribute to their clarification by describing the latitudinal gradients in species richness and in evolutionary age of species of New World bats, and testing if those patterns may be explained by the niche conservatism hypothesis. Maps of species ranges were used to estimate species richness in a 100 x 100 km grid. Root distances in a molecular phylogeny were used as a proxy for the age of species, and the mean root distance of the species in each cell of the grid was estimated. Generalised additive models were used to relate latitude with both species richness and mean root distance. This was done for each of the three most specious bat families and for all Chiroptera combined. Species richness increases towards the Equator in the whole of the Chiroptera and in the Phyllostomidae and Molossidae, families that radiated in the tropics, but the opposite trend is observed in the Vespertilionidae, which has a presumed temperate origin. In the whole of the Chiroptera, and in the three main families, there were more basal species in the higher latitudes, and more derived species in tropical areas. In general, our results were not consistent with the predictions of niche conservatism. Tropical niche conservatism seems to keep bat clades of tropical origin from colonizing temperate zones, as they lack adaptations to survive cold winters, such as the capacity to hibernate. However, the lower diversity of Vespertilionidae in the Neotropics is better explained by competition with a diverse pre-existing community of bats than by niche conservatism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Ramos Pereira
- Department of Biology and Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.
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Galassi D, Stoch F, Brancelj A. Dissecting copepod diversity at different spatial scales in southern European groundwater. J NAT HIST 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2012.738834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Stevens RD, Tello JS, Gavilanez MM. Stronger tests of mechanisms underlying geographic gradients of biodiversity: insights from the dimensionality of biodiversity. PLoS One 2013; 8:e56853. [PMID: 23451099 PMCID: PMC3581556 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Accepted: 01/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Inference involving diversity gradients typically is gathered by mechanistic tests involving single dimensions of biodiversity such as species richness. Nonetheless, because traits such as geographic range size, trophic status or phenotypic characteristics are tied to a particular species, mechanistic effects driving broad diversity patterns should manifest across numerous dimensions of biodiversity. We develop an approach of stronger inference based on numerous dimensions of biodiversity and apply it to evaluate one such putative mechanism: the mid-domain effect (MDE). Species composition of 10,000-km(2) grid cells was determined by overlaying geographic range maps of 133 noctilionoid bat taxa. We determined empirical diversity gradients in the Neotropics by calculating species richness and three indices each of phylogenetic, functional and phenetic diversity for each grid cell. We also created 1,000 simulated gradients of each examined metric of biodiversity based on a MDE model to estimate patterns expected if species distributions were randomly placed within the Neotropics. For each simulation run, we regressed the observed gradient onto the MDE-expected gradient. If a MDE drives empirical gradients, then coefficients of determination from such an analysis should be high, the intercept no different from zero and the slope no different than unity. Species richness gradients predicted by the MDE fit empirical patterns. The MDE produced strong spatially structured gradients of taxonomic, phylogenetic, functional and phenetic diversity. Nonetheless, expected values generated from the MDE for most dimensions of biodiversity exhibited poor fit to most empirical patterns. The MDE cannot account for most empirical patterns of biodiversity. Fuller understanding of latitudinal gradients will come from simultaneous examination of relative effects of random, environmental and historical mechanisms to better understand distribution and abundance of the current biota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard D Stevens
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America.
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Villalobos F, Rangel TF, Diniz-Filho JAF. Phylogenetic fields of species: cross-species patterns of phylogenetic structure and geographical coexistence. Proc Biol Sci 2013; 280:20122570. [PMID: 23390100 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2012.2570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Differential coexistence among species underlies geographical patterns of biodiversity. Understanding such patterns has relied either on ecological or historical approaches applied separately. Recently, macroecology and community phylogenetics have tried to integrate both ecological and historical approaches. However, macroecology is mostly non-phylogenetic, whereas community phylogenetics is largely focused on local scales. Here, we propose a conceptual framework to link macroecology and community phylogenetics by exploring the evolutionary context of large-scale species coexistence, introducing the phylogenetic field concept. This is defined as the phylogenetic structure of species co-occurrence within a focal species' geographical range. We developed concepts and methods for analysing phylogenetic fields and applied them to study coexistence patterns of the bat family Phyllostomidae. Our analyses showed that phyllostomid bats coexist mostly with closely related species, revealing a north-south gradient from overdispersed to clustered phylogenetic fields. Patterns at different phylogenetic levels (i.e. all species versus close relatives only) presented the same gradient. Results support the tropical niche conservatism hypothesis, potentially mediated by higher speciation rates in the region of origin coupled with shared environmental preferences among species. The phylogenetic field approach enables species-based community phylogenetics, instead of those that are site-based, allowing the description of historical processes at more appropriate macroecological and biogeographic scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabricio Villalobos
- Depto. Ecologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Campus II/UFG, CxP 131, 74001-970 Goiânia, Goiás, Brasil.
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Wang YC, Srivathsan A, Feng CC, Salim A, Shekelle M. Asian primate species richness correlates with rainfall. PLoS One 2013; 8:e54995. [PMID: 23383023 PMCID: PMC3559791 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2012] [Accepted: 12/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies of meta-analyses found significantly positive correlations between primate species richness and rainfall for Africa, Madagascar and the Neotropics, with the exception of Asia, leaving the open question whether that anomaly is the result of sampling bias, biogeography, or some other factor. This study re-examines the question using modelled data, with primate species richness data from the Southeast Asian Mammals Databank and rainfall data from the Climatic Research Unit. Data processing with Geographical Information Systems resulted in 390 sample points. Reduced major axis and ordinary least squares regressions were employed to examine the relationship for six regions, including the whole study area of Southeast Asia, and the subareas of Huxley West, Huxley East, Mainland Southeast Asia, Borneo, and Sumatra. The results showed a significant positive relationship between primate species richness and mean annual rainfall for Southeast Asia (r = 0.26, P<0.001). Comparing the results for the large islands and Mainland Southeast Asia showed that Sumatra had the highest correlation (r = 0.58; P<0.05). After controlling for the major biogeographic effect associated with Huxley’s Line, our results showed that primate species richness is positively associated with mean annual rainfall in Southeast Asia. Our findings contrast to prior studies of meta-analyses that showed no relationship between rainfall and primate species richness in Asia, and thereby bring Asia into agreement with results showing significant positive correlations between rainfall and primate species richness everywhere else in the world. The inference is that previous anomalous results for Asia were result of sampling bias in the meta-analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Chen Wang
- Department of Geography, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Amrita Srivathsan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chen-Chieh Feng
- Department of Geography, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Agus Salim
- Hatfield Consultants, North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Myron Shekelle
- Department of Biology, Museum of Vertebrate Biology, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Wiens JJ. The niche, biogeography and species interactions. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2011; 366:2336-50. [PMID: 21768150 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2011.0059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, I review the relevance of the niche to biogeography, and what biogeography may tell us about the niche. The niche is defined as the combination of abiotic and biotic conditions where a species can persist. I argue that most biogeographic patterns are created by niche differences over space, and that even 'geographic barriers' must have an ecological basis. However, we know little about specific ecological factors underlying most biogeographic patterns. Some evidence supports the importance of abiotic factors, whereas few examples exist of large-scale patterns created by biotic interactions. I also show how incorporating biogeography may offer new perspectives on resource-related niches and species interactions. Several examples demonstrate that even after a major evolutionary radiation within a region, the region can still be invaded by ecologically similar species from another clade, countering the long-standing idea that communities and regions are generally 'saturated' with species. I also describe the somewhat paradoxical situation where competition seems to limit trait evolution in a group, but does not prevent co-occurrence of species with similar values for that trait (called here the 'competition-divergence-co-occurrence conundrum'). In general, the interface of biogeography and ecology could be a major area for research in both fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Wiens
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5245, USA.
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Algar AC, Kerr JT, Currie DJ. Quantifying the importance of regional and local filters for community trait structure in tropical and temperate zones. Ecology 2011; 92:903-14. [PMID: 21661553 DOI: 10.1890/10-0606.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The influence of regional and local processes on community structure is a major focus of ecology. Classically, ecologists have used local-regional richness regressions to evaluate the role of local and regional processes in determining community structure, an approach that has numerous flaws. Here, we implemented a novel trait-based approach that treats local and regional influences as a continuum, rather than a dichotomy. Using hylid frogs (Hylidae), we compared trait dispersion among members of local species assemblages to the trait dispersion in the regional assemblage from which they were drawn. Similarly, we compared trait dispersion in the regional assemblages to dispersion in the continental species pool. We estimated the contributions of local and regional filters, and we compared their strength in temperate and tropical zones. We found that regional and local filters explained 80% of the total variation among local assemblages in community body size dispersion. Overall, regional filters reduced trait dispersion, and local filters increased it, a pattern driven by particularly strong antagonistic effects in temperate zones that reduced the realized total variation by more than 40%. In contrast, local and regional filters acted in concert in tropical regions. Patterns within the tropics did not differ from the random expectation based on a null model, but within the temperate zone, local community filtering was stronger than expected by chance. Furthermore, in temperate regions, antagonistic regional and local filtering masked from 76% to 90% of the total variation in trait dispersion. Together, these results suggest that there are fundamental differences in the scale and identity of the processes determining community structure in temperate and tropical regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam C Algar
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Pvt, Ottawa, Ontario KIN6N5, Canada.
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A Holarctic Biogeographical Analysis of the Collembola (Arthropoda, Hexapoda) Unravels Recent Post-Glacial Colonization Patterns. INSECTS 2011; 2:273-96. [PMID: 26467728 PMCID: PMC4553544 DOI: 10.3390/insects2030273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2011] [Revised: 06/01/2011] [Accepted: 06/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We aimed to describe the main Arctic biogeographical patterns of the Collembola, and analyze historical factors and current climatic regimes determining Arctic collembolan species distribution. Furthermore, we aimed to identify possible dispersal routes, colonization sources and glacial refugia for Arctic collembola. We implemented a Gaussian Mixture Clustering method on species distribution ranges and applied a distance- based parametric bootstrap test on presence-absence collembolan species distribution data. Additionally, multivariate analysis was performed considering species distributions, biodiversity, cluster distribution and environmental factors (temperature and precipitation). No clear relation was found between current climatic regimes and species distribution in the Arctic. Gaussian Mixture Clustering found common elements within Siberian areas, Atlantic areas, the Canadian Arctic, a mid-Siberian cluster and specific Beringian elements, following the same pattern previously described, using a variety of molecular methods, for Arctic plants. Species distribution hence indicate the influence of recent glacial history, as LGM glacial refugia (mid-Siberia, and Beringia) and major dispersal routes to high Arctic island groups can be identified. Endemic species are found in the high Arctic, but no specific biogeographical pattern can be clearly identified as a sign of high Arctic glacial refugia. Ocean currents patterns are suggested as being an important factor shaping the distribution of Arctic Collembola, which is consistent with Antarctic studies in collembolan biogeography. The clear relations between cluster distribution and geographical areas considering their recent glacial history, lack of relationship of species distribution with current climatic regimes, and consistency with previously described Arctic patterns in a series of organisms inferred using a variety of methods, suggest that historical phenomena shaping contemporary collembolan distribution can be inferred through biogeographical analysis.
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Wiens J. The Causes Of Species Richness Patterns Across Space, Time, And Clades And The Role Of “Ecological Limits”. QUARTERLY REVIEW OF BIOLOGY 2011; 86:75-96. [DOI: 10.1086/659883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Wiens JJ, Pyron RA, Moen DS. Phylogenetic origins of local-scale diversity patterns and the causes of Amazonian megadiversity. Ecol Lett 2011; 14:643-52. [PMID: 21535341 DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01625.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
What explains the striking variation in local species richness across the globe and the remarkable diversity of rainforest sites in Amazonia? Here, we apply a novel phylogenetic approach to these questions, using treefrogs (Hylidae) as a model system. Hylids show dramatic variation in local richness globally and incredible local diversity in Amazonia. We find that variation in local richness is not explained primarily by climatic factors, rates of diversification (speciation and extinction) nor morphological variation. Instead, local richness patterns are explained predominantly by the timing of colonization of each region, and Amazonian megadiversity is linked to the long-term sympatry of multiple clades in that region. Our results also suggest intriguing interactions between clade diversification, trait evolution and the accumulation of local richness. Specifically, sympatry between clades seems to slow diversification and trait evolution, but prevents neither the accumulation of local richness over time nor the co-occurrence of similar species.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Wiens
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5245, USA.
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Stevens RD. Relative effects of time for speciation and tropical niche conservatism on the latitudinal diversity gradient of phyllostomid bats. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 278:2528-36. [PMID: 21208951 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.2341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Determinants of contemporary patterns of diversity, particularly those spanning extensive latitudinal gradients, are some of the most intensely debated issues in ecology. Recently, focus has shifted from a contemporary environmental perspective to a historical one in an attempt to better understand the construction of latitudinal gradients. Although the vast majority of research on historical mechanisms has focused on tropical niche conservatism (TNC), other historical scenarios could produce similar latitudinal gradients. Herein, I formalize predictions to distinguish between two such historical processes--namely time for speciation (TFS) and TNC--and test relative support based on diversity gradients of New World bats. TFS and TNC are distinctly spatial and environmental mechanisms, respectively. Nonetheless, because of the way that environmental characteristics vary spatially, these two mechanisms are hard to distinguish. Evidence provided herein suggests that TNC has had a more important effect than TFS in determining diversity gradients of New World bats. Indeed, relative effects of different historical mechanisms, as well as relative effects of historical and contemporary environmental determinants, are probably context-dependent. Future research should move away from attempting to identify the mechanism with primacy and instead attempt to understand the particular contexts in which different mechanisms have greater influence on diversity gradients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard D Stevens
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA.
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Pavoine S, Bonsall MB. Measuring biodiversity to explain community assembly: a unified approach. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2010; 86:792-812. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185x.2010.00171.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 402] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Wiens JJ, Ackerly DD, Allen AP, Anacker BL, Buckley LB, Cornell HV, Damschen EI, Jonathan Davies T, Grytnes JA, Harrison SP, Hawkins BA, Holt RD, McCain CM, Stephens PR. Niche conservatism as an emerging principle in ecology and conservation biology. Ecol Lett 2010; 13:1310-24. [PMID: 20649638 DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01515.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 777] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John J Wiens
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA.
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37
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Goldie X, Gillman L, Crisp M, Wright S. Evolutionary speed limited by water in arid Australia. Proc Biol Sci 2010; 277:2645-53. [PMID: 20410038 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.0439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The covariation of biodiversity with climate is a fundamental pattern in nature. However, despite the ubiquity of this relationship, a consensus on the ultimate cause remains elusive. The evolutionary speed hypothesis posits direct mechanistic links between ambient temperature, the tempo of micro-evolution and, ultimately, species richness. Previous research has demonstrated faster rates of molecular evolution in warmer climates for a broad range of poikilothermic and homeothermic organisms, in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. In terrestrial systems, species richness increases with both temperature and water availability and the interaction of those terms: productivity. However, the influence of water availability as an independent variable on micro-evolutionary processes has not been examined previously. Here, using methodology that limits the potentially confounding role of cladogenetic and demographic processes, we report, to our knowledge, the first evidence that woody plants living in the arid Australian Outback are evolving more slowly than related species growing at similar latitudes in moist habitats on the mesic continental margins. These results support a modified evolutionary speed explanation for the relationship between the water-energy balance and plant diversity patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Goldie
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1020, New Zealand.
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38
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Buckley LB, Davies TJ, Ackerly DD, Kraft NJB, Harrison SP, Anacker BL, Cornell HV, Damschen EI, Grytnes JA, Hawkins BA, McCain CM, Stephens PR, Wiens JJ. Phylogeny, niche conservatism and the latitudinal diversity gradient in mammals. Proc Biol Sci 2010; 277:2131-8. [PMID: 20335205 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.0179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Biologists have long searched for mechanisms responsible for the increase in species richness with decreasing latitude. The strong correlation between species richness and climate is frequently interpreted as reflecting a causal link via processes linked to energy or evolutionary rates. Here, we investigate how the aggregation of clades, as dictated by phylogeny, can give rise to significant climate-richness gradients without gradients in diversification or environmental carrying capacity. The relationship between climate and species richness varies considerably between clades, regions and time periods in a global-scale phylogenetically informed analysis of all terrestrial mammal species. Many young clades show negative richness-temperature slopes (more species at cooler temperatures), with the ages of these clades coinciding with the expansion of temperate climate zones in the late Eocene. In carnivores, we find steeply positive richness-temperature slopes in clades with restricted distributions and tropical origins (e.g. cat clade), whereas widespread, temperate clades exhibit shallow, negative slopes (e.g. dog-bear clade). We show that the slope of the global climate-richness gradient in mammals is driven by aggregating Chiroptera (bats) with their Eutherian sister group. Our findings indicate that the evolutionary history should be accounted for as part of any search for causal links between environment and species richness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren B Buckley
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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39
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Kamilar JM. Environmental and geographic correlates of the taxonomic structure of primate communities. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2009; 139:382-93. [PMID: 19115399 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has shown that both environmental and historical factors influence the taxonomic structure of animal communities; yet, the relative importance of these effects is not known for primates. Environmental characteristics shape the possible niches in a community, providing suitable habitats for some species and not others. Therefore, communities found in similar environments should display similar species compositions. Additionally, geography may be viewed as a surrogate for historical processes. For instance, as the geographic distance between communities increases, dispersal between sites is more limited, and the probability of historical vicariance increases. Therefore, communities in close proximity to each other should exhibit similar species compositions. The geographic location, environmental characteristics, and species composition of 168 primate communities were gathered from the literature. Canonical correspondence analyses were conducted to examine the relative effects of geographic distance and environmental variables on the taxonomic structure of communities. In addition, UPGMA cluster analyses were conducted to better visualize the taxonomic similarity of communities. Spatial variables were significant predictors of community structure in all regions. Rainfall patterns explained African, Malagasy, and Neotropical community structure. In addition, maximum temperature was also correlated with community structure in Madagascar and the Neotropics. No climatic variables predicted Asian community structure. These results demonstrate that both historical and environmental factors play a significant role in structuring modern primate communities; yet, the importance of environmental factors depend on the region in question.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M Kamilar
- Department of Anthropology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130-4899, USA.
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40
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Wiens JJ, Sukumaran J, Pyron RA, Brown RM. Evolutionary and biogeographic origins of high tropical diversity in old world frogs (Ranidae). Evolution 2009; 63:1217-31. [PMID: 19154386 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00610.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Differences in species richness between regions are ultimately explained by patterns of speciation, extinction, and biogeographic dispersal. Yet, few studies have considered the role of all three processes in generating the high biodiversity of tropical regions. A recent study of a speciose group of predominately New World frogs (Hylidae) showed that their low diversity in temperate regions was associated with relatively recent colonization of these regions, rather than latitudinal differences in diversification rates (rates of speciation-extinction). Here, we perform parallel analyses on the most species-rich group of Old World frogs (Ranidae; approximately 1300 species) to determine if similar processes drive the latitudinal diversity gradient. We estimate a time-calibrated phylogeny for 390 ranid species and use this phylogeny to analyze patterns of biogeography and diversification rates. As in hylids, we find a strong relationship between the timing of colonization of each region and its current diversity, with recent colonization of temperate regions from tropical regions. Diversification rates are similar in tropical and temperate clades, suggesting that neither accelerated tropical speciation rates nor greater temperate extinction rates explain high tropical diversity in this group. Instead, these results show the importance of historical biogeography in explaining high species richness in both the New World and Old World tropics.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Wiens
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, USA.
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41
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Abstract
The spatial and temporal patterns of plant species radiations are largely unknown. I used a nonlinear regression to estimate speciation and extinction rates from all relevant dated clades. Both are surprisingly high. A high species richness can be the result of either little extinction, thus preserving the diversity that dates from older radiations (a 'mature radiation'), or a 'recent and rapid radiation'. The analysis of radiations from different regions (Andes, New Zealand, Australia, southwest Africa, tropics and Eurasia) revealed that the diversity of Australia may be largely the result of mature radiations. This is in sharp contrast to New Zealand, where the flora appears to be largely the result of recent and rapid radiations. Mature radiations are characteristic of regions that have been climatically and geologically stable throughout the Neogene, whereas recent and rapid radiations are more typical of younger (Pliocene) environments. The hyperdiverse Cape and Neotropical floras are the result of the combinations of mature as well as recent and rapid radiations. Both the areas contain stable environments (the Amazon basin and the Cape Fold Mountains) as well as dynamic landscapes (the Andes and the South African west coast). The evolution of diversity can only be understood in the context of the local environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Peter Linder
- Institute of Systematic Botany, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, Zurich 8008, Switzerland.
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Bjorholm S, Svenning JC, Skov F, Balslev H. To what extent does Tobler's 1st law of geography apply to macroecology? A case study using American palms (Arecaceae). BMC Ecol 2008; 8:11. [PMID: 18498661 PMCID: PMC2424035 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6785-8-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2007] [Accepted: 05/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tobler's first law of geography, 'Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things' also applies to biological systems as illustrated by a general and strong occurrence of geographic distance decay in ecological community similarity. Using American palms (Arecaceae) as an example, we assess the extent to which Tobler's first law applies to species richness and species composition, two fundamental aspects of ecological community structure. To shed light on the mechanisms driving distance decays in community structure, we also quantify the relative contribution of geographic distance per se and environmental changes as drivers of spatial turnover in species richness and composition. RESULTS Across the Americas, similarity in species composition followed a negative exponential decay curve, while similarity in species richness exhibited a parabolic relationship with geographic distance. Within the four subregions geographic distance decays were observed in both species composition and richness, though the decays were less regular for species richness than for species composition. Similarity in species composition showed a faster, more consistent decay with distance than similarity in species richness, both across the Americas and within the subregions. At both spatial extents, geographic distance decay in species richness depended more on environmental distance than on geographic distance, while the opposite was true for species composition. The environmentally complex or geographically fragmented subregions exhibited stronger distance decays than the more homogenous subregions. CONCLUSION Similarity in species composition exhibited a strong geographic distance decay, in agreement with Tobler's first law of geography. In contrast, similarity in species richness did not exhibit a consistent distance decay, especially not at distances >4000 kilometers. Therefore, the degree to which Tobler's first law of geography applies to community structure depends on which aspect hereof is considered - species composition or species richness. Environmentally complex or geographically fragmented regions exhibited the strongest distance decays. We conclude that Tobler's law may be most applicable when dispersal is a strong determinant of spatial turnover and less so when environmental control predominates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stine Bjorholm
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Aarhus, Build, 1540, DK-8000 Aarhus C., Denmark.
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Dionne M, Miller KM, Dodson JJ, Caron F, Bernatchez L. Clinal variation in MHC diversity with temperature: evidence for the role of host-pathogen interaction on local adaptation in Atlantic salmon. Evolution 2007; 61:2154-64. [PMID: 17767587 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00178.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In vertebrates, variability at genes of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) represents an important adaptation for pathogen resistance, whereby high allelic diversity confers resistance to a greater number of pathogens. Pathogens can maintain diversifying selection pressure on their host's immune system that can vary in intensity based on pathogen richness, pathogen virulence, and length of the cohabitation period, which tend to increase with temperature. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that genetic diversity of MHC increases with temperature along a latitudinal gradient in response to pathogen selective pressure in the wild. A total of 1549 Atlantic salmon from 34 rivers were sampled between 46 degrees N and 58 degrees N in Eastern Canada. The results supported our working hypothesis. In contrast to the overall pattern observed at microsatellites, MHC class II allelic diversity increased with temperature, thus creating a latitudinal gradient. The observed temperature gradient was more pronounced for MHC amino acids of the peptide-binding region (PBR), a region that specifically binds to pathogens, than for the non-PBR. For the subset of rivers analyzed for bacterial diversity, MHC amino acid diversity of the PBR also increased significantly with bacterial diversity in each river. A comparison of the relative influence of temperature and bacterial diversity revealed that the latter could have a predominant role on MHC PBR variability. However, temperature was also identified as an important selective agent maintaining MHC diversity in the wild. Based on the bacteria results and given the putative role of temperature in shaping large-scale patterns of pathogen diversity and virulence, bacterial diversity is a plausible selection mechanism explaining the observed association between temperature and MHC variability. Therefore, we propose that genetic diversity at MHC class II represents local adaptation to cope with pathogen diversity in rivers associated with different thermal regimes. This study illuminates the link between selection pressure from the environment, host immune adaptation, and the large-scale genetic population structure for a nonmodel vertebrate in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Dionne
- Département de Biologie, Université Laval, Québec, G1K 7P4, Canada.
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44
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Krug AZ, Jablonski D, Valentine JW. Contrarian clade confirms the ubiquity of spatial origination patterns in the production of latitudinal diversity gradients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:18129-34. [PMID: 17989214 PMCID: PMC2084308 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0709202104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG), wherein the number of species and higher taxa peaks in the tropics and decreases toward the poles, is the best-documented large-scale diversity pattern on Earth, but hypotheses explaining the standard LDG must also account for rare "contrarian" taxa that show diversity maxima outside of the tropics. For marine bivalves, one of the few groups that provide spatially explicit temporal data on a global scale, we show that a major contrarian group, the Anomalodesmata, unexpectedly exhibits the same large-scale dynamics as related clades having normal LDGs in two key respects. First, maxima in standing genus diversity and genus origination rates coincide spatially. Second, the strength of a clade's present-day LDG is significantly related to the proportion of its living genera that originated in the tropics during the late Cenozoic, with the contrarian gradient strength at both species and genus level predicted quantitatively by the values for the other clades. Geologic age distributions indicate that the anomalous LDG results from origination that is damped in the tropics rather than heightened in the temperate zones. The pervasive role of spatial origination patterns in shaping LDGs, regardless of the position of their diversity maxima, corroborates hypotheses based on clades showing standard gradients and underscores the insights that contrarian groups can provide into general principles of diversity dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Z. Krug
- *Department of Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago, 5734 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637; and
| | - David Jablonski
- *Department of Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago, 5734 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637; and
| | - James W. Valentine
- Department of Integrative Biology and Museum of Paleontology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3140
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45
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Hawkins BA, Diniz-Filho JAF, Jaramillo CA, Soeller SA. Climate, Niche Conservatism, and the Global Bird Diversity Gradient. Am Nat 2007; 170 Suppl 2:S16-27. [PMID: 17874382 DOI: 10.1086/519009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
We tested the proposition that there are more species in the tropics because basal clades adapted to warm paleoclimates have been lost in regions now experiencing cool climates. Molecular phylogenies were used to classify species as "basal" and "derived" based on their family, and their richness patterns were contrasted. Path models also evaluated environmental predictors of richness patterns. As predicted, basal clades are more diverse in the lowland tropics, whereas derived clades are more diverse in the extratropics and high-altitude tropics. Seventy-four percent of the variation in bird richness was explained by environmental variables, but models differed for basal and derived groups. The overall gradient is described by the spatial pattern of basal clades, although there are differences in the Old and New Worlds. We conclude that in ecological time, the global richness gradient reflects birds' responses to climatic gradients, partially operating via plants. Over evolutionary time, the gradient primarily reflects the extirpation of species in older clades from parts of the world that have become cooler in the present. A strong secondary effect arises from dispersal of clades from centers of origin and subsequent radiations. Overall, the diversity gradient is well explained by niche conservatism and the "time-for-speciation" hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradford A Hawkins
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, California 92697 USA.
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46
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Roy K, Goldberg EE. Origination, Extinction, and Dispersal: Integrative Models for Understanding Present‐Day Diversity Gradients. Am Nat 2007; 170 Suppl 2:S71-85. [PMID: 17874386 DOI: 10.1086/519403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Species diversity gradients seen today are, to a large degree, a product of history. Spatially nonrandom originations, extinctions, and changes in geographic distributions can create gradients in species and higher-taxon richness, but the relative roles of each of these processes remain poorly documented. Existing explanations of diversity gradients have tended to focus on either macroevolutionary or biogeographic processes; integrative models that include both are largely lacking. We used simple models that incorporate origination and extinction rates along with dispersal of taxa between regions to show that dispersal not only affects regional richness patterns but also has a strong influence on the average age of taxa present in a region. Failure to take into account the effects of dispersal can, in principle, lead to biased estimates of diversification rates and potentially wrong conclusions regarding processes driving latitudinal and other gradients in diversity. Thus, it is critical to include the effects of dispersal when formulating and testing hypotheses about the causes of large-scale gradients in diversity. Finally, the model results, in conjunction with the results of existing empirical studies, suggest that the nature of macroevolutionary and biogeographic processes may differ between terrestrial and marine diversity gradients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaustuv Roy
- Section of Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA.
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47
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Mittelbach GG, Schemske DW, Cornell HV, Allen AP, Brown JM, Bush MB, Harrison SP, Hurlbert AH, Knowlton N, Lessios HA, McCain CM, McCune AR, McDade LA, McPeek MA, Near TJ, Price TD, Ricklefs RE, Roy K, Sax DF, Schluter D, Sobel JM, Turelli M. Evolution and the latitudinal diversity gradient: speciation, extinction and biogeography. Ecol Lett 2007; 10:315-31. [PMID: 17355570 DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01020.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 737] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A latitudinal gradient in biodiversity has existed since before the time of the dinosaurs, yet how and why this gradient arose remains unresolved. Here we review two major hypotheses for the origin of the latitudinal diversity gradient. The time and area hypothesis holds that tropical climates are older and historically larger, allowing more opportunity for diversification. This hypothesis is supported by observations that temperate taxa are often younger than, and nested within, tropical taxa, and that diversity is positively correlated with the age and area of geographical regions. The diversification rate hypothesis holds that tropical regions diversify faster due to higher rates of speciation (caused by increased opportunities for the evolution of reproductive isolation, or faster molecular evolution, or the increased importance of biotic interactions), or due to lower extinction rates. There is phylogenetic evidence for higher rates of diversification in tropical clades, and palaeontological data demonstrate higher rates of origination for tropical taxa, but mixed evidence for latitudinal differences in extinction rates. Studies of latitudinal variation in incipient speciation also suggest faster speciation in the tropics. Distinguishing the roles of history, speciation and extinction in the origin of the latitudinal gradient represents a major challenge to future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary G Mittelbach
- W.K. Kellogg Biological Station and Department of Zoology, Michigan State University, Hickory Corners, MI 49060, USA.
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