1
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Franks VR, Thorogood R, Brekke P. Parental breeding decisions and genetic quality predict social structure of independent offspring. Mol Ecol 2023; 32:4898-4910. [PMID: 37395642 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Across the animal kingdom, newly independent juveniles form social associations that influence later fitness, mate choice and gene flow, but little is known about the ontogeny of social environments, particularly in wild populations. Here we test whether associations among young animals form randomly or are influenced by environmental or genetic conditions established by parents. Parents' decisions determine natal birth sites, which could affect who independent young initially encounter; secondly, mate choice determines genetic condition (e.g. inbreeding) of young and the parental care they receive, which can affect sociability. However, genetic and environmental factors are confounded unless related offspring experience different natal environments. Therefore, we used a long-term genetic pedigree, breeding records and social network data from three cohorts of a songbird with high extra-pair paternity (hihi, Notiomystis cincta) to disentangle (1) how nest location and relatedness contribute to association structure once juveniles disperse away from birth sites, and (2) if juvenile and/or parental inbreeding predicts individual sociability. We detected positive spatial autocorrelation: hihi that fledged closer by were more likely to associate even after dispersing, irrespective of genetic relatedness. Juvenile inbreeding did not predict sociability, but those raised by more inbred fathers formed more, stronger, associations, which did not depend on whether that male was the genetic parent or not. These results suggest that the natal environment created by parents, rather than focal genetic condition, establishes the foundation for social associations. Overall, we highlight how social inheritance may play an important role in population dynamics and evolutionary potential in wild animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria R Franks
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Chester, Chester, UK
| | - Rose Thorogood
- Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Patricia Brekke
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, UK
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2
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Williams B, Campbell J, Kendall C, Tuttle J, Lynch EC. Exploring the behaviors and social preferences of a large, multigenerational herd of zoo-housed southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum). Zoo Biol 2023; 42:476-489. [PMID: 36807929 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
The zoo-housed southern white rhinoceros (SWR) population is of special concern due to their lack of consistent breeding success. An enhanced understanding of SWR social preferences could better inform management planning by promoting natural social relationships, which can positively affect their well-being. The large, multigeneration herd housed at the North Carolina Zoo provides an ideal opportunity to examine rhino sociality across different ages, kin types, and social groupings. Eight female rhinos' social and nonsocial behaviors were recorded from November 2020 through June 2021 across 242 h. Activity budget analyses revealed strong seasonal and temporal variations in grazing and resting behaviors, with no stereotypic behaviors recorded. Bond strength calculations suggested that each female maintained strong social bonds with one to two partners. Beyond mother-nursing calf bonds, we found that the strongest social ties were maintained between calf-less adults and subadults in these dyads. Considering these findings, we recommend that management plans attempt to house immature females with calf-less adult females, as they may be necessary to the social landscape of immature females and, ultimately, improve their welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett Williams
- Department of Biology, NC State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jennifer Campbell
- Department of Biology, NC State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Jade Tuttle
- North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, North Carolina, USA
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3
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Goldenberg SZ, Chege SM, Mwangi N, Craig I, Daballen D, Douglas-Hamilton I, Lamberski N, Lenaipa M, Lendira R, Lesowapir C, Lokooria LP, Mutinda M, Omengo F, Rowe K, Stacy-Dawes J, Wittemyer G, Owen MA. Social integration of translocated wildlife: a case study of rehabilitated and released elephant calves in northern Kenya. Mamm Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s42991-022-00285-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AbstractConservation translocations have the potential to strengthen populations of threatened and endangered species, but facilitating integration of translocated individuals with resident populations remains a substantial challenge. Developing functional social relationships like cooperative partnerships or establishing clear dominance hierarchies may be critical to integration of released individuals. Developing such relationships has not received much attention in translocation research, especially for long-lived, socially complex animals for which establishment and navigation of social environments is often a lengthy process that requires sustained monitoring to understand. Here, we present a case study of the social associations of African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana) calves that have been rehabilitated and released into a fenced wildlife sanctuary in northern Kenya with a resident population of elephants. We use focal follows of interactions pre-release and GPS tracking post-release to quantify social associations of calves with each other and with resident elephants at the release site. We demonstrate how this approach supports translocation monitoring by capturing temporal trends in social patterns within and between release cohorts and among released elephants and wild elephants already resident at the site during a transitional soft release period. Our results show that initial post-release social behavior of rehabilitated calves is related to histories of interaction with familiar individuals and cohort membership and that released calves increased their associations with residents over time. This information provides new behavioral insights for guiding elephant release projects, like the strength of relationships within and among release cohorts, the time to integration with the resident population, and the occurrence and increased incidence of societal fission–fusion. Further, this study provides an example of the utility of animal behavior research to achieve and assess progress towards conservation objectives, and to develop monitoring tools for conservation managers.
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4
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Parker JM, Brown JL, Hobbs NT, Boisseau NP, Letitiya D, Douglas-Hamilton I, Wittemyer G. Social support correlates with glucocorticoid concentrations in wild African elephant orphans. Commun Biol 2022; 5:630. [PMID: 35835816 PMCID: PMC9283395 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03574-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Social relationships have physiological impacts. Here, we investigate whether loss of the mother/offspring relationship has lasting effects on fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations in wild African elephant orphans several years following their mothers’ deaths. We find no difference in fGCM concentrations between orphans and nonorphans, but find lower fGCM concentrations in elephants with more age mates in their family. We also unexpectedly identify lower concentrations in orphans without their natal family versus nonorphans and natal orphans, which we speculate may be due to the development of hypocortisolism following a prolonged period without familial support. An index of plant productivity (i.e. food) shows the largest correlation with fGCM concentrations. Our findings indicate no lasting differences in glucocorticoid concentrations of surviving orphan elephants who are with their family, suggest the presence of age mates may reduce glucocorticoid concentrations in elephants, and emphasize that basic survival needs are the primary regulators of the stress response. Remaining with the family group may reduce long-term stress effects in orphaned African elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Parker
- Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State University, 102 Johnson Hall, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA. .,Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, 1474 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA. .,Save the Elephants, Marula Manor, Marula Lane, Karen, Nairobi, 00200, Kenya.
| | - J L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Road, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - N T Hobbs
- Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State University, 102 Johnson Hall, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.,Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - N P Boisseau
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Road, Front Royal, VA, 22630, USA
| | - D Letitiya
- Save the Elephants, Marula Manor, Marula Lane, Karen, Nairobi, 00200, Kenya
| | - I Douglas-Hamilton
- Save the Elephants, Marula Manor, Marula Lane, Karen, Nairobi, 00200, Kenya.,Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Oxford, OX1 3PS, UK
| | - G Wittemyer
- Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State University, 102 Johnson Hall, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.,Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, 1474 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.,Save the Elephants, Marula Manor, Marula Lane, Karen, Nairobi, 00200, Kenya
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5
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Brambilla A, von Hardenberg A, Canedoli C, Brivio F, Sueur C, Stanley CR. Long term analysis of social structure: evidence of age‐based consistent associations in male Alpine ibex. OIKOS 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.09511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alice Brambilla
- Dept of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, Univ. of Zurich Zurich Switzerland
- Alpine Wildlife Research Center, Gran Paradiso National Park Torino Italy
| | - Achaz von Hardenberg
- Conservation Biology Research Group, Dept of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Chester Chester UK
| | - Claudia Canedoli
- Dept of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Milano Bicocca Milano Italy
| | | | - Cédric Sueur
- Univ. de Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC UMR 7178 Strasbourg France
- Inst. Universitaire de France, Saint‐Michel 103 Paris France
| | - Christina R. Stanley
- Conservation Biology Research Group, Dept of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Chester Chester UK
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6
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Garai ME, Roos T, Eggeling T, Ganswindt A, Pretorius Y, Henley M. Developing welfare parameters for African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in fenced reserves in South Africa. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264931. [PMID: 35324916 PMCID: PMC8947097 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
South Africa has many fenced reserves harbouring small to medium sized populations of African elephant (Loxodonta africana), most of which have been translocated. Elephants on fenced reserves may be exposed to various management interventions and practices (translocation, hunting, darting, high tourism impact, contraception programs, disruption due to infrastructure maintenance, etc.). These factors may impact the welfare of elephants. Poor elephant welfare may have serious consequences such as increased inter- and intra-species aggression that could result in fatalities. This is the first study to attempt to define behavioural and physiological welfare parameters for free-ranging elephants on small to medium sized reserves. The eight study sites incorporated reserves with different social structure combinations, elephant life-histories, reserve sizes, habitat, management, and tourism intensity. Data collection consisted of behavioural observations (10-minute videos) as well as faecal samples. By incorporating both behavioural and physiological (faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentration) parameters, we aimed to investigate whether the two parameters showed similar trends. Five behavioural categories were identified (Arousal, Assessing, Ambivalent, Ambivalent/ Body care, and Frustrated behaviour), with various detailed behaviours demonstrated by the elephants that may indicate the influence of anthropogenic disturbance and possibly impact on animal welfare. The study showed significant differences between the selected detailed behaviours, behavioural categories and fGCM concentrations of elephants across the eight reserves. History seemed to be a decisive factor, as reserves with predominantly ex-captive elephants showed higher frequencies of certain behaviours as well as higher fGCM concentrations. Age, sex, reserve size and season were also found to contribute to our defined welfare indices and fGCM concentrations. This indicates that behavioural parameters, indicative of certain behavioural states, are valuable indicators of welfare, as supported by the physiological response of the elephants. The results also highlight the importance of taking multiple specified behaviours from a category into consideration when evaluating the welfare of elephants, to account for individual variation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tenisha Roos
- Elephant Reintegration Trust, Port Alfred, South Africa
| | | | - André Ganswindt
- Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | | | - Michelle Henley
- Applied Behavioural Ecology and Environmental Research Unit, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
- Elephants Alive, Hoedspruit, Limpopo, South Africa
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7
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du Plessis K, Ganswindt SB, Bertschinger H, Crossey B, Henley MD, Ramahlo M, Ganswindt A. Social and Seasonal Factors Contribute to Shifts in Male African Elephant ( Loxodonta africana) Foraging and Activity Patterns in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11113070. [PMID: 34827802 PMCID: PMC8614333 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) are well-known as ecosystem engineers with the ability to modify vegetation structure. The present study aimed to examine how male elephant foraging behaviour is affected across (a) season (wet versus dry); (b) time of day (before or after noon); (c) presence or absence of other elephants; and (d) reproductive state (musth versus no musth). Six radio-collared adult elephant bulls were observed twice per week from June 2007-June 2008 in Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa. Using generalized linear mixed effect modeling, results indicate that elephant bulls graze more during the wet season and browse more during the dry season. To potentially offset the costs associated with thermoregulation during the heat of the day, KNP elephants spent more time foraging during the morning, and more time resting during the afternoon. Male elephants also foraged significantly less when they were associated with females compared to when they were alone or with other males. This is likely due to male-female associations formed mainly for reproductive purposes, thus impeding on male foraging behaviours. In contrast, the condition of musth, defined by the presence of related physical signs, had no significant effect on foraging behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara du Plessis
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield 0028, South Africa; (S.B.G.); (B.C.); (M.R.); (A.G.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Stefanie Birgit Ganswindt
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield 0028, South Africa; (S.B.G.); (B.C.); (M.R.); (A.G.)
| | - Henk Bertschinger
- Veterinary Population Management Laboratory, Section of Reproduction, Department of Production Animal Studies, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa;
| | - Bruce Crossey
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield 0028, South Africa; (S.B.G.); (B.C.); (M.R.); (A.G.)
| | - Michelle Deborah Henley
- Applied Behavioural Ecology and Ecosystem Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Private Bag X5, Florida 1710, South Africa;
- Elephants Alive, P.O. Box 960, Hoedspruit 1380, South Africa
| | - Mmatsawela Ramahlo
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield 0028, South Africa; (S.B.G.); (B.C.); (M.R.); (A.G.)
| | - André Ganswindt
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield 0028, South Africa; (S.B.G.); (B.C.); (M.R.); (A.G.)
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8
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Muller Z, Harris S. A review of the social behaviour of the giraffe
Giraffa camelopardalis
: a misunderstood but socially complex species. Mamm Rev 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/mam.12268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zoe Muller
- School of Biological Sciences University of Bristol Bristol Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue Bristol BS8 1TQ UK
| | - Stephen Harris
- School of Biological Sciences University of Bristol Bristol Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue Bristol BS8 1TQ UK
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9
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Athira TK, Vidya TNC. Elephant Social Systems: What Do We Know and How Have Molecular Tools Helped? J Indian Inst Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s41745-021-00226-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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10
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Salahshour M. Freedom to choose between public resources promotes cooperation. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008703. [PMID: 33556071 PMCID: PMC7895419 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
As cooperation incurs a cost to the cooperator for others to benefit, its evolution seems to contradict natural selection. How evolution has resolved this obstacle has been among the most intensely studied questions in evolutionary theory in recent decades. Here, we show that having a choice between different public resources provides a simple mechanism for cooperation to flourish. Such a mechanism can be at work in many biological or social contexts where individuals can form different groups or join different institutions to perform a collective action task, or when they can choose between collective actions with different profitability. As a simple evolutionary model suggests, defectors tend to join the highest quality resource in such a context. This allows cooperators to survive and out-compete defectors by sheltering in a lower quality resource. Cooperation is maximized, however, when the qualities of the two highest quality resources are similar, and thus, they are almost interchangeable.
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11
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Entry and aggregation at a Central African bai reveal social patterns in the elusive forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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12
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Boucherie PH, Blum C, Bugnyar T. Effect of rearing style on the development of social behaviour in young ravens ( Corvus corax). Ethology 2020; 126:595-609. [PMID: 32612316 PMCID: PMC7317586 DOI: 10.1111/eth.13010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Early social experiences can affect the development and expression of individual social behaviour throughout life. In particular, early-life social deprivations, notably of parental care, can later have deleterious consequences. We can, therefore, expect rearing procedures such as hand-raising-widely used in ethology and socio-cognitive science-to alter the development of individual social behaviour. We investigated how the rearing style later affected (a) variation in relationship strength among peers and (b) individuals' patterns of social interactions, in three captive groups of juvenile non-breeders consisting of either parent-raised or hand-raised birds, or a mix of both rearing styles. In the three groups, irrespectively of rearing style: strongest relationships (i.e., higher rates of association and affiliations) primarily emerged among siblings and familiar partners (i.e., non-relatives encountered in early life), and mixed-sex and male-male partners established relationships of similar strength, indicating that the rearing style does not severely affect the quality and structure of relationships in young ravens. However, compared to parent-raised ravens, hand-raised ravens showed higher connectedness, i.e., number of partners with whom they mainly associated and affiliated, but formed on average relationships of lower strength, indicating that social experience in early life is not without consequences on the development of ravens' patterns of social interaction. The deprivation of parental care associated with the presence of same-age peers during hand-raising seemed to maximize ravens' propensity to interact with others, indicating that besides parents, interactions with same-age peers matter. Opportunities to interact with, and socially learn from peers, might thus be the key to the acquisition of early social competences in ravens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christian Blum
- Department of Cognitive BiologyUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Thomas Bugnyar
- Department of Cognitive BiologyUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
- Haidlhof Research StationUniversity of Vienna and University of Veterinary Medicine ViennaViennaAustria
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13
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Goldenberg SZ, Douglas-Hamilton I, Wittemyer G. Inter-generational change in African elephant range use is associated with poaching risk, primary productivity and adult mortality. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 285:rspb.2018.0286. [PMID: 29794044 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.0286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeated use of the same areas may benefit animals as they exploit familiar sites, leading to consistent home ranges over time that can span generations. Changing risk landscapes may reduce benefits associated with home range fidelity, however, and philopatric animals may alter movement in response to new pressures. Despite the importance of range changes to ecological and evolutionary processes, little tracking data have been collected over the long-term nor has range change been recorded in response to human pressures across generations. Here, we investigate the relationships between ecological, demographic and human variables and elephant ranging behaviour across generations using 16 years of tracking data from nine distinct female social groups in a population of elephants in northern Kenya that was heavily affected by ivory poaching during the latter half of the study. Nearly all groups-including those that did not experience loss of mature adults-exhibited a shift north over time, apparently in response to increased poaching in the southern extent of the study area. However, loss of mature adults appeared to be the primary indicator of range shifts and expansions, as generational turnover was a significant predictor of range size increases and range centroid shifts. Range expansions and northward shifts were associated with higher primary productivity and lower poached carcass densities, while westward shifts exhibited a trend to areas with higher values of primary productivity and higher poached carcass densities relative to former ranges. Together these results suggest a trade-off between resource access, mobility and safety. We discuss the relevance of these results to elephant conservation efforts and directions meriting further exploration in this disrupted society of a keystone species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shifra Z Goldenberg
- Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA .,Save the Elephants, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
| | - Iain Douglas-Hamilton
- Save the Elephants, Nairobi 00200, Kenya.,Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK
| | - George Wittemyer
- Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.,Save the Elephants, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
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14
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15
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16
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Social Interactions in Two Groups of Zoo-Housed Adult Female Asian Elephants ( Elephas maximus) that Differ in Relatedness. Animals (Basel) 2018; 8:ani8080132. [PMID: 30071624 PMCID: PMC6115912 DOI: 10.3390/ani8080132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 07/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Opportunities for positive social interaction are important in captive animals, and social interactions can be used as a welfare indicator. Wild elephants live in related multigenerational herds; however, in captivity they are often managed in less related groups, which could impact the quality of their social interactions, and thus their welfare. Here, we used a limited social network analysis to investigate the social interactions in two groups of four female captive Asian elephants, one of which contained individuals that were all related to one another, whilst the other was a mix of related and unrelated individuals. Data on pairwise social interactions was collected from eight days of video footage using an all-occurrence sampling technique. More affiliative, and fewer agonistic interactions were observed in the related elephant group. Additionally, non-contact displacement was observed at a higher frequency in the related elephant group, which we theorise represents an established functioning hierarchy, avoiding the need for overt aggression over resources. Although kinship is not likely to be the only factor affecting captive elephant social behaviour, these findings support the recommendation that for optimal welfare, elephants should be managed in multigenerational family herds. Evaluations of social interactions such as those conducted here would have wider applicability for aiding the management of any captive social species to identify when groups might be incompatible.
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17
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Konrad CM, Gero S, Frasier T, Whitehead H. Kinship influences sperm whale social organization within, but generally not among, social units. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:180914. [PMID: 30225081 PMCID: PMC6124104 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.180914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Sperm whales have a multi-level social structure based upon long-term, cooperative social units. What role kinship plays in structuring this society is poorly understood. We combined extensive association data (518 days, during 2005-2016) and genetic data (18 microsatellites and 346 bp mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region sequences) for 65 individuals from 12 social units from the Eastern Caribbean to examine patterns of kinship and social behaviour. Social units were clearly matrilineally based, evidenced by greater relatedness within social units (mean r = 0.14) than between them (mean r = 0.00) and uniform mtDNA haplotypes within social units. Additionally, most individuals (82.5%) had a first-degree relative in their social unit, while we found no first-degree relatives between social units. Generally and within social units, individuals associated more with their closer relatives (matrix correlations: 0.18-0.25). However, excepting a highly related pair of social units that merged over the study period, associations between social units were not correlated with kinship (p > 0.1). These results are the first to robustly demonstrate kinship's contribution to social unit composition and association preferences, though they also reveal variability in association preferences that is unexplained by kinship. Comparisons with other matrilineal species highlight the range of possible matrilineal societies and how they can vary between and even within species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M. Konrad
- Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, 1355 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, CanadaB3H 4J1
| | - Shane Gero
- Department of Zoophysiology, Institute for Bioscience, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 3, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
| | - Timothy Frasier
- Department of Biology, Saint Mary's University, 923 Robie Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, CanadaB3H 3C3
| | - Hal Whitehead
- Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, 1355 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, CanadaB3H 4J1
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18
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Nandini S, Keerthipriya P, Vidya TNC. Group size differences may mask underlying similarities in social structure: a comparison of female elephant societies. Behav Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arx135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
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19
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Van Cise AM, Martien KK, Mahaffy SD, Baird RW, Webster DL, Fowler JH, Oleson EM, Morin PA. Familial social structure and socially driven genetic differentiation in Hawaiian short‐finned pilot whales. Mol Ecol 2017; 26:6730-6741. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Revised: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Karen. K. Martien
- Southwest Fisheries Science Center National Marine Fisheries Service NOAA La Jolla CA USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Erin M. Oleson
- Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center National Marine Fisheries Service NOAA Honolulu HI USA
| | - Phillip A. Morin
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography La Jolla CA USA
- Southwest Fisheries Science Center National Marine Fisheries Service NOAA La Jolla CA USA
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20
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Goldenberg SZ, Wittemyer G. Orphaned female elephant social bonds reflect lack of access to mature adults. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14408. [PMID: 29089603 PMCID: PMC5663962 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14712-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Compensatory social behavior in nonhuman animals following maternal loss has been documented, but understanding of how orphans allocate bonding to reconstruct their social networks is limited. Successful social integration may be critical to survival and reproduction for highly social species and, therefore, may be tied to population persistence. We examined the social partners involved in affiliative interactions of female orphans and non-orphans in an elephant population in Samburu, northern Kenya that experienced heightened adult mortality driven by drought and intense ivory poaching. We contrasted partners across different competitive contexts to gain insight to the influence of resource availability on social interactions. Though the number of partners did not differ between orphans and non-orphans, their types of social partners did. Orphans interacted with sisters and matriarchs less while feeding than did non-orphans, but otherwise their affiliates were similar. While resting under spatially concentrated shade, orphans had markedly less access to mature adults but affiliated instead with sisters, bulls, and age mates. Orphan propensity to strengthen bonds with non-dominant animals appears to offer routes to social integration following maternal loss, but lack of interaction with adult females suggests orphans may experience decreased resource access and associated fitness costs in this matriarchal society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shifra Z Goldenberg
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.
- Save the Elephants, Nairobi, 00200, Kenya.
| | - George Wittemyer
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
- Save the Elephants, Nairobi, 00200, Kenya
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21
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Fritz H. Long-term field studies of elephants: understanding the ecology and conservation of a long-lived ecosystem engineer. J Mammal 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyx023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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22
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Koen EL, Tosa MI, Nielsen CK, Schauber EM. Does landscape connectivity shape local and global social network structure in white-tailed deer? PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173570. [PMID: 28306748 PMCID: PMC5357016 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Intraspecific social behavior can be influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. While much research has focused on how characteristics of individuals influence their roles in social networks, we were interested in the role that landscape structure plays in animal sociality at both individual (local) and population (global) levels. We used female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Illinois, USA, to investigate the potential effect of landscape on social network structure by weighting the edges of seasonal social networks with association rate (based on proximity inferred from GPS collar data). At the local level, we found that sociality among female deer in neighboring social groups (n = 36) was mainly explained by their home range overlap, with two exceptions: 1) during fawning in an area of mixed forest and grassland, deer whose home ranges had low forest connectivity were more social than expected; and 2) during the rut in an area of intensive agriculture, deer inhabiting home ranges with high amount and connectedness of agriculture were more social than expected. At the global scale, we found that deer populations (n = 7) in areas with highly connected forest-agriculture edge, a high proportion of agriculture, and a low proportion of forest tended to have higher weighted network closeness, although low sample size precluded statistical significance. This result implies that infectious disease could spread faster in deer populations inhabiting such landscapes. Our work advances the general understanding of animal social networks, demonstrating how landscape features can underlie differences in social behavior both within and among wildlife social networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin L. Koen
- Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Marie I. Tosa
- Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Zoology and Center for Ecology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Clayton K. Nielsen
- Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Forestry, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Eric M. Schauber
- Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Zoology and Center for Ecology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, United States of America
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23
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Scheiber IBR, Weiß BM, Kingma SA, Komdeur J. The importance of the altricial - precocial spectrum for social complexity in mammals and birds - a review. Front Zool 2017; 14:3. [PMID: 28115975 PMCID: PMC5242088 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-016-0185-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Various types of long-term stable relationships that individuals uphold, including cooperation and competition between group members, define social complexity in vertebrates. Numerous life history, physiological and cognitive traits have been shown to affect, or to be affected by, such social relationships. As such, differences in developmental modes, i.e. the ‘altricial-precocial’ spectrum, may play an important role in understanding the interspecific variation in occurrence of social interactions, but to what extent this is the case is unclear because the role of the developmental mode has not been studied directly in across-species studies of sociality. In other words, although there are studies on the effects of developmental mode on brain size, on the effects of brain size on cognition, and on the effects of cognition on social complexity, there are no studies directly investigating the link between developmental mode and social complexity. This is surprising because developmental differences play a significant role in the evolution of, for example, brain size, which is in turn considered an essential building block with respect to social complexity. Here, we compiled an overview of studies on various aspects of the complexity of social systems in altricial and precocial mammals and birds. Although systematic studies are scarce and do not allow for a quantitative comparison, we show that several forms of social relationships and cognitive abilities occur in species along the entire developmental spectrum. Based on the existing evidence it seems that differences in developmental modes play a minor role in whether or not individuals or species are able to meet the cognitive capabilities and requirements for maintaining complex social relationships. Given the scarcity of comparative studies and potential subtle differences, however, we suggest that future studies should consider developmental differences to determine whether our finding is general or whether some of the vast variation in social complexity across species can be explained by developmental mode. This would allow a more detailed assessment of the relative importance of developmental mode in the evolution of vertebrate social systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella B R Scheiber
- The University of Groningen, Behavioural and Physiological Ecology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Brigitte M Weiß
- Behavioural Ecology Research Group, University of Leipzig, Faculty of Bioscience, Pharmacy and Psychology, Institute of Biology, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sjouke A Kingma
- The University of Groningen, Behavioural and Physiological Ecology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Komdeur
- The University of Groningen, Behavioural and Physiological Ecology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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24
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Monks JM, O'Donnell CFJ. Social implications of a colony collapse in a highly structured vertebrate species (long-tailed bat, Chalinolobus tuberculatus
). Anim Conserv 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. M. Monks
- Science and Policy Group; Department of Conservation; P O Box 5244 Dunedin New Zealand
| | - C. F. J. O'Donnell
- Science and Policy Group; Department of Conservation; Private Bag 4715; Christchurch Mail Centre; Christchurch New Zealand
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25
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de Silva S, Schmid V, Wittemyer G. Fission–fusion processes weaken dominance networks of female Asian elephants in a productive habitat. Behav Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arw153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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26
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Shafer ABA, Northrup JM, Wikelski M, Wittemyer G, Wolf JBW. Forecasting Ecological Genomics: High-Tech Animal Instrumentation Meets High-Throughput Sequencing. PLoS Biol 2016; 14:e1002350. [PMID: 26745372 PMCID: PMC4712824 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advancements in animal tracking technology and high-throughput sequencing are rapidly changing the questions and scope of research in the biological sciences. The integration of genomic data with high-tech animal instrumentation comes as a natural progression of traditional work in ecological genetics, and we provide a framework for linking the separate data streams from these technologies. Such a merger will elucidate the genetic basis of adaptive behaviors like migration and hibernation and advance our understanding of fundamental ecological and evolutionary processes such as pathogen transmission, population responses to environmental change, and communication in natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joseph M. Northrup
- Colorado State University, Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Martin Wikelski
- Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Radolfzell, Germany
- University of Konstanz, Biology, Konstanz, Germany
| | - George Wittemyer
- Colorado State University, Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Jochen B. W. Wolf
- Uppsala University, Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala, Sweden
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27
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Chiyo PI, Obanda V, Korir DK. Illegal tusk harvest and the decline of tusk size in the African elephant. Ecol Evol 2015; 5:5216-5229. [PMID: 30151125 PMCID: PMC6102531 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Revised: 08/08/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Harvesting of wild populations can cause the evolution of morphological, behavioral, and life history traits that may compromise natural or sexual selection. Despite the vulnerability of large mammals to rapid population decline from harvesting, the evolutionary effects of harvesting on mega‐fauna have received limited attention. In elephants, illegal ivory harvesting disproportionately affects older age classes and males because they carry large tusks, but its' effects on tusk size for age or tusk size for stature are less understood. We tested whether severe historical elephant harvests eliminated large tuskers among survivors and whether elephants born thereafter had smaller tusks. Adjusting for the influence of shoulder height – a metric strongly correlated with body size and age and often used as a proxy for age – we compared tusk size for elephants sampled in 1966–1968, prior to severe ivory harvesting in the late 1970s and early 1980s, with tusk size of survivors and elephants born during population recovery in the mid‐1990s. In a regional population, tusk length declined by ˜21% in male and by ˜27% in female elephants born during population recovery, while tusk length declined by 22% in males and 37% in females among survivors. Tusk circumference at lip declined by 5% in males but not in females born during population recovery, whereas tusk circumference reduced by 8% in male and by 11% in female survivors. In a single subpopulation, mean tusk length at mean basal tusk circumference declined by 12.4% in males and 21% in females. Tusk size varied between elephant social groups. Tusk homogeneity within social groups and the often high genetic similarity within social groups suggest that tusk size may be heritable. Our findings support a hypothesis of selection of large tuskers by poachers as a driver of the decline in tusk size for age proxy and contemporary tusk evolution in African elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick I Chiyo
- Department of Biology Duke University Box 90338 Durham North Carolina 27708
| | - Vincent Obanda
- Veterinary Services Department Kenya Wildlife Service P.O. Box 40241-00100 Nairobi Kenya
| | - David K Korir
- Biodiversity Monitoring & Research Division Kenya Wildlife Service Masai Mara Research Station P.O. Box 72-20500 Narok Kenya
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28
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O’ Donnell CFJ, Richter S, Dool S, Monks JM, Kerth G. Genetic diversity is maintained in the endangered New Zealand long-tailed bat (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) despite a closed social structure and regular population crashes. CONSERV GENET 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10592-015-0763-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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29
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Kopp GH, Fischer J, Patzelt A, Roos C, Zinner D. Population genetic insights into the social organization of Guinea baboons (Papio papio): Evidence for female-biased dispersal. Am J Primatol 2015; 77:878-89. [PMID: 25864569 PMCID: PMC4654240 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Revised: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Sex differences in philopatry and dispersal have important consequences on the genetic structure of populations, social groups, and social relationships within groups. Among mammals, male dispersal and female philopatry are most common and closely related taxa typically exhibit similar dispersal patterns. However, among four well-studied species of baboons, only hamadryas baboons exhibit female dispersal, thus differing from their congenerics, which show female philopatry and close-knit female social relationships. Until recently, knowledge of the Guinea baboon social system and dispersal pattern remained sparse. Previous observations suggested that the high degree of tolerance observed among male Guinea baboons could be due to kinship. This led us to hypothesize that this species exhibits male philopatry and female dispersal, conforming to the hamadryas pattern. We genotyped 165 individuals from five localities in the Niokolo-Koba National Park, Senegal, at 14 autosomal microsatellite loci and sequenced a fragment of the mitochondrial hypervariable region I (HVRI) of 55 individuals. We found evidence for higher population structuring in males than in females, as expected if males are the more philopatric sex. A comparison of relatedness between male-male and female-female dyads within and among communities did not yield conclusive results. HVRI diversity within communities was high and did not differ between the sexes, also suggesting female gene flow. Our study is the first comprehensive analysis of the genetic population structure in Guinea baboons and provides evidence for female-biased dispersal in this species. In conjunction with their multilevel social organization, this finding parallels the observations for human hunter-gatherers and strengthens baboons as an intriguing model to elucidate the processes that shaped the highly cooperative societies of Homo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisela H Kopp
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Julia Fischer
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Annika Patzelt
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christian Roos
- Gene Bank of Primates and Primate Genetics Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Dietmar Zinner
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
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30
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Body G, Weladji RB, Holand Ø, Nieminen M. Measuring variation in the frequency of group fission and fusion from continuous monitoring of group sizes. J Mammal 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyv084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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31
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Roca AL, Ishida Y, Brandt AL, Benjamin NR, Zhao K, Georgiadis NJ. Elephant Natural History: A Genomic Perspective. Annu Rev Anim Biosci 2015; 3:139-67. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-animal-022114-110838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alfred L. Roca
- Department of Animal Sciences,
- Institute for Genomic Biology, and
| | | | | | - Neal R. Benjamin
- Department of Animal Sciences,
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801; , , , , ,
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32
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Spencer PB, Hampton JO, Pacioni C, Kennedy MS, Saalfeld K, Rose K, Woolnough AP. Genetic relationships within social groups influence the application of the Judas technique: A case study with wild dromedary camels. J Wildl Manage 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter B.S. Spencer
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences; Murdoch University; Western Australia 6150 Australia
| | - Jordan O. Hampton
- Ecotone Wildlife Veterinary Services; P.O. Box 1126; Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Carlo Pacioni
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences; Murdoch University; Western Australia 6150 Australia
| | - Malcolm S. Kennedy
- Invasive Species Science; Department of Agriculture and Food; Forrestfield Western Australia 6058 Australia
| | - Keith Saalfeld
- Wildlife Use; Department of Natural Resources; Environment; the Arts and Sport; Northern Territory Government; Alice Springs Northern Territory Australia
| | - Ken Rose
- Invasive Species Science; Department of Agriculture and Food; Forrestfield Western Australia 6058 Australia
| | - Andrew P. Woolnough
- Vertebrate Pest Research Section; Department of Agriculture and Food; Forrestfield Western Australia 6058 Australia
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33
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Snyder-Mackler N, Alberts SC, Bergman TJ. The socio-genetics of a complex society: female gelada relatedness patterns mirror association patterns in a multilevel society. Mol Ecol 2014; 23:6179-91. [PMID: 25362869 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 10/18/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Multilevel societies with fission-fusion dynamics--arguably the most complex animal societies--are defined by two or more nested levels of organization. The core of these societies are modular social units that regularly fission and fuse with one another. Despite convergent evolution in disparate taxa, we know strikingly little about how such societies form and how fitness benefits operate. Understanding the kinship structure of complex societies could inform us about the origins of the social structure as well as about the potential for individuals in these societies to accrue indirect fitness benefits. Here, we combined genetic and behavioural data on geladas (Theropithecus gelada), an Old World Monkey, to complete the most comprehensive socio-genetic analysis of a multilevel society to date. In geladas, individuals in the core social 'units', associate at different frequencies to form 'teams', 'bands' and, the largest aggregations, 'communities'. Units were composed of closely related females, and females remained with their close kin during permanent fissions of units. Interestingly, female-female relatedness also significantly predicted between-unit, between-team and between-band association patterns, while male-male relatedness did not. Thus, it is likely that the socio-genetic structure of gelada society results from females maintaining associations with their female relatives during successive unit fissions--possibly in an attempt to balance the direct and indirect fitness benefits of group living. Overall, the persistence of associations among related females across generations appears to drive the formation of higher levels of gelada society, suggesting that females seek kin for inclusive fitness benefits at multiple levels of gelada society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah Snyder-Mackler
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, 130 Science Dr., Durham, NC, USA
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34
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Schuttler SG, Whittaker A, Jeffery KJ, Eggert LS. African forest elephant social networks: fission-fusion dynamics, but fewer associations. ENDANGER SPECIES RES 2014. [DOI: 10.3354/esr00618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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35
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Chiyo PI, Grieneisen LE, Wittemyer G, Moss CJ, Lee PC, Douglas-Hamilton I, Archie EA. The influence of social structure, habitat, and host traits on the transmission of Escherichia coli in wild elephants. PLoS One 2014; 9:e93408. [PMID: 24705319 PMCID: PMC3976290 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Social structure is proposed to influence the transmission of both directly and environmentally transmitted infectious agents. However in natural populations, many other factors also influence transmission, including variation in individual susceptibility and aspects of the environment that promote or inhibit exposure to infection. We used a population genetic approach to investigate the effects of social structure, environment, and host traits on the transmission of Escherichia coli infecting two populations of wild elephants: one in Amboseli National Park and another in Samburu National Reserve, Kenya. If E. coli transmission is strongly influenced by elephant social structure, E. coli infecting elephants from the same social group should be genetically more similar than E. coli sampled from members of different social groups. However, we found no support for this prediction. Instead, E. coli was panmictic across social groups, and transmission patterns were largely dominated by habitat and host traits. For instance, habitat overlap between elephant social groups predicted E. coli genetic similarity, but only in the relatively drier habitat of Samburu, and not in Amboseli, where the habitat contains large, permanent swamps. In terms of host traits, adult males were infected with more diverse haplotypes, and males were slightly more likely to harbor strains with higher pathogenic potential, as compared to adult females. In addition, elephants from similar birth cohorts were infected with genetically more similar E. coli than elephants more disparate in age. This age-structured transmission may be driven by temporal shifts in genetic structure of E. coli in the environment and the effects of age on bacterial colonization. Together, our results support the idea that, in elephants, social structure often will not exhibit strong effects on the transmission of generalist, fecal-oral transmitted bacteria. We discuss our results in the context of social, environmental, and host-related factors that influence transmission patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick I. Chiyo
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Laura E. Grieneisen
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
| | - George Wittemyer
- Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
- Save the Elephants, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Phyllis C. Lee
- Amboseli Trust for Elephants, Langata, Nairobi, Kenya
- Behaviour and Evolution Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Stirling, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | | | - Elizabeth A. Archie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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36
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Best EC, Dwyer RG, Seddon JM, Goldizen AW. Associations are more strongly correlated with space use than kinship in female eastern grey kangaroos. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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37
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Schuttler SG, Philbrick JA, Jeffery KJ, Eggert LS. Fine-scale genetic structure and cryptic associations reveal evidence of kin-based sociality in the African forest elephant. PLoS One 2014; 9:e88074. [PMID: 24505381 PMCID: PMC3914907 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 01/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Spatial patterns of relatedness within animal populations are important in the evolution of mating and social systems, and have the potential to reveal information on species that are difficult to observe in the wild. This study examines the fine-scale genetic structure and connectivity of groups within African forest elephants, Loxodonta cyclotis, which are often difficult to observe due to forest habitat. We tested the hypothesis that genetic similarity will decline with increasing geographic distance, as we expect kin to be in closer proximity, using spatial autocorrelation analyses and Tau Kr tests. Associations between individuals were investigated through a non-invasive genetic capture-recapture approach using network models, and were predicted to be more extensive than the small groups found in observational studies, similar to fission-fusion sociality found in African savanna (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) species. Dung samples were collected in Lopé National Park, Gabon in 2008 and 2010 and genotyped at 10 microsatellite loci, genetically sexed, and sequenced at the mitochondrial DNA control region. We conducted analyses on samples collected at three different temporal scales: a day, within six-day sampling sessions, and within each year. Spatial autocorrelation and Tau Kr tests revealed genetic structure, but results were weak and inconsistent between sampling sessions. Positive spatial autocorrelation was found in distance classes of 0–5 km, and was strongest for the single day session. Despite weak genetic structure, individuals within groups were significantly more related to each other than to individuals between groups. Social networks revealed some components to have large, extensive groups of up to 22 individuals, and most groups were composed of individuals of the same matriline. Although fine-scale population genetic structure was weak, forest elephants are typically found in groups consisting of kin and based on matrilines, with some individuals having more associates than observed from group sizes alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie G. Schuttler
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jessica A. Philbrick
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Kathryn J. Jeffery
- Agence Nationale des Parcs Nationaux, Libreville, Gabon
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland
- Institut de Recherche en Ecologie Tropicale, Libreville, Gabon
| | - Lori S. Eggert
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
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38
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Wittemyer G, Daballen D, Douglas-Hamilton I. Comparative demography of an at-risk African elephant population. PLoS One 2013; 8:e53726. [PMID: 23341984 PMCID: PMC3547063 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge of population processes across various ecological and management settings offers important insights for species conservation and life history. In regard to its ecological role, charisma and threats from human impacts, African elephants are of high conservation concern and, as a result, are the focus of numerous studies across various contexts. Here, demographic data from an individually based study of 934 African elephants in Samburu, Kenya were summarized, providing detailed inspection of the population processes experienced by the population over a fourteen year period (including the repercussions of recent increases in illegal killing). These data were compared with those from populations inhabiting a spectrum of xeric to mesic ecosystems with variable human impacts. In relation to variability in climate and human impacts (causing up to 50% of recorded deaths among adults), annual mortality in Samburu fluctuated between 1 and 14% and, unrelatedly, natality between 2 and 14% driving annual population increases and decreases. Survivorship in Samburu was significantly lower than other populations with age-specific data even during periods of low illegal killing by humans, resulting in relatively low life expectancy of males (18.9 years) and females (21.8 years). Fecundity (primiparous age and inter-calf interval) were similar to those reported in other human impacted or recovering populations, and significantly greater than that of comparable stable populations. This suggests reproductive effort of African savanna elephants increases in relation to increased mortality (and resulting ecological ramifications) as predicted by life history theory. Further comparison across populations indicated that elongated inter-calf intervals and older ages of reproductive onset were related to age structure and density, and likely influenced by ecological conditions. This study provides detailed empirical data on elephant population dynamics strongly influenced by human impacts (laying the foundation for modeling approaches), supporting predictions of evolutionary theory regarding demographic responses to ecological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Wittemyer
- Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America.
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Ahlering MA, Maldonado JE, Fleischer RC, Western D, Eggert LS. Fine-scale group structure and demography of African savanna elephants recolonizing lands outside protected areas. DIVERS DISTRIB 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2012.00896.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
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de Silva S, Wittemyer G. A Comparison of Social Organization in Asian Elephants and African Savannah Elephants. INT J PRIMATOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-011-9564-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Boettiger AN, Wittemyer G, Starfield R, Volrath F, Douglas-Hamilton I, Getz WM. Inferring ecological and behavioral drivers of African elephant movement using a linear filtering approach. Ecology 2011; 92:1648-57. [PMID: 21905431 DOI: 10.1890/10-0106.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the environmental factors influencing animal movements is fundamental to theoretical and applied research in the field of movement ecology. Studies relating fine-scale movement paths to spatiotemporally structured landscape data, such as vegetation productivity or human activity, are particularly lacking despite the obvious importance of such information to understanding drivers of animal movement. In part, this may be because few approaches provide the sophistication to characterize the complexity of movement behavior and relate it to diverse, varying environmental stimuli. We overcame this hurdle by applying, for the first time to an ecological question, a finite impulse-response signal-filtering approach to identify human and natural environmental drivers of movements of 13 free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana) from distinct social groups collected over seven years. A minimum mean-square error (MMSE) estimation criterion allowed comparison of the predictive power of landscape and ecological model inputs. We showed that a filter combining vegetation dynamics, human and physical landscape features, and previous movement outperformed simpler filter structures, indicating the importance of both dynamic and static landscape features, as well as habit, on movement decisions taken by elephants. Elephant responses to vegetation productivity indices were not uniform in time or space, indicating that elephant foraging strategies are more complex than simply gravitation toward areas of high productivity. Predictions were most frequently inaccurate outside protected area boundaries near human settlements, suggesting that human activity disrupts typical elephant movement behavior. Successful management strategies at the human-elephant interface, therefore, are likely to be context specific and dynamic. Signal processing provides a promising approach for elucidating environmental factors that drive animal movements over large time and spatial scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alistair N Boettiger
- Biophysics Graduate Program, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-3112, USA
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ORTEGA-ORTIZ JOELG, ENGELHAUPT DANIEL, WINSOR MARTHA, MATE BRUCER, RUS HOELZEL A. Kinship of long-term associates in the highly social sperm whale. Mol Ecol 2011; 21:732-44. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2011.05274.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Archie EA, Chiyo PI. Elephant behaviour and conservation: social relationships, the effects of poaching, and genetic tools for management. Mol Ecol 2011; 21:765-78. [PMID: 21880086 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2011.05237.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Genetic tools are increasingly valuable for understanding the behaviour, evolution, and conservation of social species. In African elephants, for instance, genetic data provide basic information on the population genetic causes and consequences of social behaviour, and how human activities alter elephants' social and genetic structures. As such, African elephants provide a useful case study to understand the relationships between social behaviour and population genetic structure in a conservation framework. Here, we review three areas where genetic methods have made important contributions to elephant behavioural ecology and conservation: (1) understanding kin-based relationships in females and the effects of poaching on the adaptive value of elephant relationships, (2) understanding patterns of paternity in elephants and how poaching can alter these patterns, and (3) conservation genetic tools to census elusive populations, track ivory, and understand the behavioural ecology of crop-raiding. By comparing studies from populations that have experienced a range of poaching intensities, we find that human activities have a large effect on elephant behaviour and genetic structure. Poaching disrupts kin-based association patterns, decreases the quality of elephant social relationships, and increases male reproductive skew, with important consequences for population health and the maintenance of genetic diversity. In addition, we find that genetic tools to census populations or gather forensic information are almost always more accurate than non-genetic alternatives. These results contribute to a growing understanding of poaching on animal behaviour, and how genetic tools can be used to understand and conserve social species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Archie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
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Kelley JL, Morrell LJ, Inskip C, Krause J, Croft DP. Predation risk shapes social networks in fission-fusion populations. PLoS One 2011; 6:e24280. [PMID: 21912627 PMCID: PMC3166168 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2011] [Accepted: 08/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Predation risk is often associated with group formation in prey, but recent advances in methods for analysing the social structure of animal societies make it possible to quantify the effects of risk on the complex dynamics of spatial and temporal organisation. In this paper we use social network analysis to investigate the impact of variation in predation risk on the social structure of guppy shoals and the frequency and duration of shoal splitting (fission) and merging (fusion) events. Our analyses revealed that variation in the level of predation risk was associated with divergent social dynamics, with fish in high-risk populations displaying a greater number of associations with overall greater strength and connectedness than those from low-risk sites. Temporal patterns of organisation also differed according to predation risk, with fission events more likely to occur over two short time periods (5 minutes and 20 minutes) in low-predation fish and over longer time scales (>1.5 hours) in high-predation fish. Our findings suggest that predation risk influences the fine-scale social structure of prey populations and that the temporal aspects of organisation play a key role in defining social systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Kelley
- School of Animal Biology, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.
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de Silva S, Ranjeewa ADG, Kryazhimskiy S. The dynamics of social networks among female Asian elephants. BMC Ecol 2011; 11:17. [PMID: 21794147 PMCID: PMC3199741 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6785-11-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Accepted: 07/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Patterns in the association of individuals can shed light on the underlying conditions and processes that shape societies. Here we characterize patterns of association in a population of wild Asian Elephants at Uda Walawe National Park in Sri Lanka. We observed 286 individually-identified adult female elephants over 20 months and examined their social dynamics at three levels of organization: pairs of individuals (dyads), small sets of direct companions (ego-networks), and the population level (complete networks). Results Corroborating previous studies of this and other Asian elephant populations, we find that the sizes of elephant groups observed in the field on any particular day are typically small and that rates of association are low. In contrast to earlier studies, our longitudinal observations reveal that individuals form larger social units that can be remarkably stable across years while associations among such units change across seasons. Association rates tend to peak in dry seasons as opposed to wet seasons, with some cyclicity at the level of dyads. In addition, we find that individuals vary substantially in their fidelity to companions. At the ego-network level, we find that despite these fluctuations, individuals associate with a pool of long-term companions. At the population level, social networks do not exhibit any clear seasonal structure or hierarchical stratification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shermin de Silva
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Chiyo PI, Archie EA, Hollister-Smith JA, Lee PC, Poole JH, Moss CJ, Alberts SC. Association patterns of African elephants in all-male groups: the role of age and genetic relatedness. Anim Behav 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Kerth G, Perony N, Schweitzer F. Bats are able to maintain long-term social relationships despite the high fission-fusion dynamics of their groups. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 278:2761-7. [PMID: 21307051 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.2718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Elephants, dolphins, as well as some carnivores and primates maintain social links despite their frequent splitting and merging in groups of variable composition, a phenomenon known as fission-fusion. Information on the dynamics of social links and interactions among individuals is of high importance to the understanding of the evolution of animal sociality, including that of humans. However, detailed long-term data on such dynamics in wild mammals with fully known demography and kin structures are scarce. Applying a weighted network analysis on 20,500 individual roosting observations over 5 years, we show that in two wild Bechstein's bat colonies with high fission-fusion dynamics, individuals of different age, size, reproductive status and relatedness maintain long-term social relationships. In the larger colony, we detected two stable subunits, each comprising bats from several family lineages. Links between these subunits were mainly maintained by older bats and persisted over all years. Moreover, we show that the full details of the social structure become apparent only when large datasets are used. The stable multi-level social structures in Bechstein's bat colonies resemble that of elephants, dolphins and some primates. Our findings thus may shed new light on the link between social complexity and social cognition in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald Kerth
- Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, 82319 Seewiesen, Germany.
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