The influence of gene flow and drift on genetic and phenotypic divergence in two species of Zosterops in Vanuatu

Fine-scale genetic structure and phenotypic divergence of a passerine bird population inhabiting a continuous Mediterranean woodland

Genetic differentiation between populations inhabiting ecologically different habitats might appear because of limited dispersal and gene flow, which may lead to patterns of phenotypic divergence and local adaptation. In this study, we use dispersal, genotypic (24 microsatellite loci) and phenotypic (body size and clutch size) data to analyse patterns of genetic structuring and phenotypic divergence in a blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus) population inhabiting a continuous and heterogeneous woodland along a valley. The two slopes of the valley differ in their forest formations and environmental conditions. Findings showed that most blue tits reproduced within their natal slope. Accordingly, microsatellite analyses revealed that populations of blue tits established in the two slopes show subtle genetic differentiation. The two genetic populations diverged in clutch size, exceeding the level of differentiation expected based on genetic drift, hence suggesting divergent selection (or other processes promoting divergence) on this life-history trait. Our findings reveal that restricted dispersal and spatial heterogeneity may lead to genetic differentiation among bird populations at a surprisingly small scale. In this respect, it is worth highlighting that such differentiation occurs for an organism with high dispersal capacity and within a continuous woodland. Moreover, we show that small-scale ecological differences, together with limited gene flow, can result in selection favouring different phenotypes even within the same continuum population.

Fine scale diversity in the lava: genetic and phenotypic diversity in small populations of Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus

BACKGROUND

A major goal in evolutionary biology is to understand the processes underlying phenotypic variation in nature. Commonly, studies have focused on large interconnected populations or populations found along strong environmental gradients. However, studies on small fragmented populations can give strong insight into evolutionary processes in relation to discrete ecological factors. Evolution in small populations is believed to be dominated by stochastic processes, but recent work shows that small populations can also display adaptive phenotypic variation, through for example plasticity and rapid adaptive evolution. Such evolution takes place even though there are strong signs of historical bottlenecks and genetic drift. Here we studied 24 small populations of the freshwater fish Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) found in groundwater filled lava caves. Those populations were found within a few km2-area with no apparent water connections between them. We studied the relative contribution of neutral versus non-neutral evolutionary processes in shaping phenotypic divergence, by contrasting patterns of phenotypic and neutral genetic divergence across populations in relation to environmental measurements. This allowed us to model the proportion of phenotypic variance explained by the environment, taking in to account the observed neutral genetic structure.

RESULTS

These populations originated from the nearby Lake Mývatn, and showed small population sizes with low genetic diversity. Phenotypic variation was mostly correlated with neutral genetic diversity with only a small environmental effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Phenotypic diversity in these cave populations appears to be largely the product of neutral processes, fitting the classical evolutionary expectations. However, the fact that neutral processes did not explain fully the phenotypic patterns suggests that further studies can increase our understanding on how neutral evolutionary processes can interact with other forces of selection at early stages of divergence. The accessibility of these populations has provided the opportunity for long-term monitoring of individual fish, allowing tracking how the environment can influence phenotypic and genetic divergence for shaping and maintaining diversity in small populations. Such studies are important, especially in freshwater, as habitat alteration is commonly breaking populations into smaller units, which may or may not be viable.

Candidate gene polymorphisms are linked to dispersive and migratory behaviour: Searching for a mechanism behind the "paradox of the great speciators"

The "paradox of the great speciators" has puzzled evolutionary biologists for over half a century. A great speciator requires excellent dispersal propensity to explain its occurrence on multiple islands, but reduced dispersal ability to explain its high number of subspecies. A rapid reduction in dispersal ability is often invoked to solve this apparent paradox, but a proximate mechanism has not been identified yet. Here, we explored the role of six genes linked to migration and animal personality differences (CREB1, CLOCK, ADCYAP1, NPAS2, DRD4, and SERT) in 20 South Pacific populations of silvereye (Zosterops lateralis) that range from highly sedentary to partially migratory, to determine if genetic variation is associated with dispersal propensity and migration. We detected genetic associations in three of the six genes: (i) in a partial migrant population, migrant individuals had longer microsatellite alleles at the CLOCK gene compared to resident individuals from the same population; (ii) CREB1 displayed longer average microsatellite allele lengths in recently colonized island populations (<200 years), compared to evolutionarily older populations. Bayesian broken stick regression models supported a reduction in CREB1 length with time since colonization; and (iii) like CREB1, DRD4 showed differences in polymorphisms between recent and old colonizations but a larger sample is needed to confirm. ADCYAP1, SERT, and NPAS2 were variable but that variation was not associated with dispersal propensity. The association of genetic variants at three genes with migration and dispersal ability in silvereyes provides the impetus for further exploration of genetic mechanisms underlying dispersal shifts, and the prospect of resolving a long-running evolutionary paradox through a genetic lens.

Environmental Adaptation of Genetically Uniform Organisms with the Help of Epigenetic Mechanisms-An Insightful Perspective on Ecoepigenetics

Organisms adapt to different environments by selection of the most suitable phenotypes from the standing genetic variation or by phenotypic plasticity, the ability of single genotypes to produce different phenotypes in different environments. Because of near genetic identity, asexually reproducing populations are particularly suitable for the investigation of the potential and molecular underpinning of the latter alternative in depth. Recent analyses on the whole-genome scale of differently adapted clonal animals and plants demonstrated that epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone modifications and non-coding RNAs are among the molecular pathways supporting phenotypic plasticity and that epigenetic variation is used to stably adapt to different environments. Case studies revealed habitat-specific epigenetic fingerprints that were maintained over subsequent years pointing at the existence of epigenetic ecotypes. Environmentally induced epimutations and corresponding gene expression changes provide an ideal means for fast and directional adaptation to changing or new conditions, because they can synchronously alter phenotypes in many population members. Because microorganisms inclusive of human pathogens also exploit epigenetically mediated phenotypic variation for environmental adaptation, this phenomenon is considered a universal biological principle. The production of different phenotypes from the same DNA sequence in response to environmental cues by epigenetic mechanisms also provides a mechanistic explanation for the "general-purpose genotype hypothesis" and the "genetic paradox of invasions".

Analysing landscape effects on dispersal networks and gene flow with genetic graphs

Graph-theoretic approaches have relevant applications in landscape genetic analyses. When species form populations in discrete habitat patches, genetic graphs can be used (a) to identify direct dispersal paths followed by propagules or (b) to quantify landscape effects on multi-generational gene flow. However, the influence of their construction parameters remains to be explored. Using a simulation approach, we constructed genetic graphs using several pruning methods (geographical distance thresholds, topological constraints, statistical inference) and genetic distances to weight graph links (F_ST , D_PS , Euclidean genetic distances). We then compared the capacity of these different graphs to (a) identify the precise topology of the dispersal network and (b) to infer landscape resistance to gene flow from the relationship between cost-distances and genetic distances. Although not always clear-cut, our results showed that methods based on geographical distance thresholds seem to better identify dispersal networks in most cases. More interestingly, our study demonstrates that a sub-selection of pairwise distances through graph pruning (thereby reducing the number of data points) can counter-intuitively lead to improved inferences of landscape effects on dispersal. Finally, we showed that genetic distances such as the D_PS or Euclidean genetic distances should be preferred over the F_ST for landscape effect inference as they respond faster to landscape changes.

Geographical and social isolation drive the evolution of Austronesian languages

The origins of linguistic diversity remain controversial. Studies disagree on whether group features such as population size or social structure accelerate or decelerate linguistic differentiation. While some analyses of between-group factors highlight the role of geographical isolation and reduced linguistic exchange in differentiation, others suggest that linguistic divergence is driven primarily by warfare among neighbouring groups and the use of language as marker of group identity. Here we provide the first integrated test of the effects of five historical sociodemographic and geographic variables on three measures of linguistic diversification among 50 Austronesian languages: rates of word gain, loss and overall lexical turnover. We control for their shared evolutionary histories through a time-calibrated phylogenetic sister-pairs approach. Results show that languages spoken in larger communities create new words at a faster pace. Within-group conflict promotes linguistic differentiation by increasing word loss, while warfare hinders linguistic differentiation by decreasing both rates of word gain and loss. Finally, we show that geographical isolation is a strong driver of lexical evolution mainly due to a considerable drift-driven acceleration in rates of word loss. We conclude that the motor of extreme linguistic diversity in Austronesia may have been the dispersal of populations across relatively isolated islands, favouring strong cultural ties amongst societies instead of warfare and cultural group marking.

Rapid morphological divergence following a human-mediated introduction: the role of drift and directional selection

Theory predicts that when populations are established by few individuals, random founder effects can facilitate rapid phenotypic divergence even in the absence of selective processes. However, empirical evidence from historically documented colonisations suggest that, in most cases, drift alone is not sufficient to explain the rate of morphological divergence. Here, using the human-mediated introduction of the silvereye (Zosterops lateralis) to French Polynesia, which represents a potentially extreme example of population founding, we reassess the potential for morphological shifts to arise via drift alone. Despite only 80 years of separation from their New Zealand ancestors, French Polynesian silvereyes displayed significant changes in body and bill size and shape, most of which could be accounted for by drift, without the need to invoke selection. However, signatures of selection at genes previously identified as candidates for bill size and body shape differences in a range of bird species, also suggests a role for selective processes in driving morphological shifts within this population. Twenty-four SNPs in our RAD-Seq dataset were also found to be strongly associated with phenotypic variation. Hence, even under population founding extremes, when it is difficult to reject drift as the sole mechanism based on rate tests of phenotypic shifts, the additional role of divergent natural selection in novel environments can be revealed at the level of the genome.

The climatic association of population divergence and future extinction risk of Solanum pimpinellifolium

Under intraspecific differentiation driven by differential climatic adaptation, it may be expected that intraspecific genetic groups occur at distinct environments. Populations occupying different niches may therefore differ in their ability to cope with climate change. Here, we addressed this hypothesis with a wild tomato, Solanum pimpinellifolium. This species is distributed from the west side of Andes to the coastal region in Peru and Ecuador and occupies a wide environmental diversity. This environmental diversity is related to the genetic structure of the species providing an ideal material to investigate the isolation by environment hypothesis. While previous hypothesis stated that S. pimpinellifolium originated from northern Peru and migrated northwards and southwards, our results support that S. pimpinellifolium originated from Ecuador and expanded to northern and southern Peru, and during this process, the niche space of S. pimpinellifolium became more associated with cold and drought. We further predicted its fate under anthropogenic climate change. According to our predictions, the northern group will maintain its current extent or even expand to the entire western region of Ecuador. In contrast, we predicted low habitat suitability for the southern group which could potentially lead to the shrinkage of its distribution. In conclusion, we revealed the distinct fates among the differentiated populations driven by environment under global warming conditions.

Drift versus selection as drivers of phenotypic divergence at small spatial scales: The case of Belgjarskógur threespine stickleback

Divergence in phenotypic traits is facilitated by a combination of natural selection, phenotypic plasticity, gene flow, and genetic drift, whereby the role of drift is expected to be particularly important in small and isolated populations. Separating the components of phenotypic divergence is notoriously difficult, particularly for multivariate phenotypes. Here, we assessed phenotypic divergence of threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) across 19 semi-interconnected ponds within a small geographic region (~7.5 km2) using comparisons of multivariate phenotypic divergence (PST), neutral genetic (FST), and environmental (EST) variation. We found phenotypic divergence across the ponds in a suite of functionally relevant phenotypic traits, including feeding, defense, and swimming traits, and body shape (geometric morphometric). Comparisons of PSTs with FSTs suggest that phenotypic divergence is predominantly driven by neutral processes or stabilizing selection, whereas phenotypic divergence in defensive traits is in accordance with divergent selection. Comparisons of population pairwise PSTs with ESTs suggest that phenotypic divergence in swimming traits is correlated with prey availability, whereas there were no clear associations between phenotypic divergence and environmental difference in the other phenotypic groups. Overall, our results suggest that phenotypic divergence of these small populations at small geographic scales is largely driven by neutral processes (gene flow, drift), although environmental determinants (natural selection or phenotypic plasticity) may play a role.

The geographical configuration of a language area influences linguistic diversity

Like the transfer of genetic variation through gene flow, language changes constantly as a result of its use in human interaction. Contact between speakers is most likely to happen when they are close in space, time, and social setting. Here, we investigated the role of geographical configuration in this process by studying linguistic diversity in Japan, which comprises a large connected mainland (less isolation, more potential contact) and smaller island clusters of the Ryukyuan archipelago (more isolation, less potential contact). We quantified linguistic diversity using dialectometric methods, and performed regression analyses to assess the extent to which distance in space and time predict contemporary linguistic diversity. We found that language diversity in general increases as geographic distance increases and as time passes-as with biodiversity. Moreover, we found that (I) for mainland languages, linguistic diversity is most strongly related to geographic distance-a so-called isolation-by-distance pattern, and that (II) for island languages, linguistic diversity reflects the time since varieties separated and diverged-an isolation-by-colonisation pattern. Together, these results confirm previous findings that (linguistic) diversity is shaped by distance, but also goes beyond this by demonstrating the critical role of geographic configuration.

Molecular systematics and biogeography of lowland antpittas (Aves, Grallariidae): The role of vicariance and dispersal in the diversification of a widespread Neotropical lineage

We infer phylogenetic relationships, divergence times, and the diversification history of the avian Neotropical antpitta genera Hylopezus and Myrmothera (Grallariidae), based on sequence data (3,139 base pairs) from two mitochondrial (ND2 and ND3) and three nuclear nuclear introns (TGFB2, MUSK and FGB-I5) from 142 individuals of the 12 currently recognized species in Hylopezus and Myrmothera and 5 outgroup species. Phylogenetic analyses recovered 19 lineages clustered into two major clades, both distributed in Central and South America. Hylopezus nattereri, previously considered a subspecies of H. ochroleucus, was consistently recovered as the most divergent lineage within the Grallaricula/Hylopezus/Myrmothera clade. Ancestral range estimation suggested that modern lowland antpittas probably originated in the Amazonian Sedimentary basin during the middle Miocene, and that most lineages within the Hylopezus/Myrmothera clade appeared in the Plio-Pleistocene. However, the rate of diversification in the Hylopezus/Myrmothera clade appeared to have remained constant through time, with no major shifts over the 20 million years. Although the timing when most modern lineages of the Hylopezus/Myrmothera clade coincides with a period of intense landscape changes in the Neotropics (Plio-Pleistocene), the absence of any significant shifts in diversification rates over the last 20 million years challenges the view that there is a strict causal relationship between intensification of landscape changes and cladogenesis. The relative old age of the Hylopezus/Myrmothera clade coupled with an important role ascribed to dispersal for its diversification, favor an alternative scenario whereby long-term persistence and dispersal across an ever-changing landscape might explain constant rates of cladogenesis through time.

Non-sister Sri Lankan white-eyes (genus Zosterops) are a result of independent colonizations

Co-occurrence of closely related taxa on islands could be attributed to sympatric speciation or multiple colonization. Sympatric speciation is considered to be rare in small islands, however multiple colonizations are known to be common in both oceanic and continental islands. In this study we investigated the phylogenetic relatedness and means of origin of the two sympatrically co-occurring Zosterops white-eyes, the endemic Zosterops ceylonensis and its widespread regional congener Z. palpebrosus, in the island of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka is a continental island in the Indian continental shelf of the Northern Indian Ocean. Our multivariate morphometric analyses confirmed the phenotypic distinctness of the two species. Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses with ~2000bp from two mitochondrial (ND2 and ND3) and one nuclear (TGF) gene indicated that they are phylogenetically distinct, and not sister to each other. The two subspecies of the peninsula India; Z. p. egregius of Sri Lanka and India and Z. p. nilgiriensis of Western Ghats (India) clustered within the Z. palpebrosus clade having a common ancestor. In contrast, the divergence of the endemic Z. ceylonensis appears to be much deeper and is basal to the other Zosterops white-eyes. Therefore we conclude that the two Zosterops species originated in the island through independent colonizations from different ancestral lineages, and not through island speciation or multiple colonization from the same continental ancestral population. Despite high endemism, Sri Lankan biodiversity is long considered to be a subset of southern India. This study on a speciose group with high dispersal ability and rapid diversification rate provide evidence for the contribution of multiple colonizations in shaping Sri Lanka’s biodiversity. It also highlights the complex biogeographic patterns of the South Asian region, reflected even in highly vagile groups such as birds.

Genetic Diversity in Nannotrigona testaceicornis (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Aggregations in Southeastern Brazil

The Meliponini, also known as stingless bees, are distributed in tropical and subtropical areas of the world and plays an essential role in pollinating many wild plants and crops These bees can build nests in cavities of trees or walls, underground or in associations with ants or termites; interestingly, these nests are sometimes found in aggregations. In order to assess the genetic diversity and structure in aggregates of Nannotrigona testaceicornis (Lepeletier), samples of this species were collected from six aggregations and genetically analyzed for eight specific microsatellite loci. We observed in this analysis that the mean genetic diversity value among aggregations was 0.354, and the mean expected and observed heterozygosity values was 0.414 and 0.283, respectively. The statistically significant Fis value indicated an observed heterozygosity lower than the expected heterozygosity in all loci studied resulting in high homozygosis level in these populations. In addition, the low number of private alleles observed reinforces the absence of structuring that is seen in the aggregates. These results can provide relevant information about genetic diversity in aggregations of N. testaceicornis and contribute to the management and conservation of these bees' species that are critical for the pollination process.

Importance of dispersal routes that minimize open-ocean movement to the genetic structure of island populations

Islands present a unique scenario in conservation biology, offering refuge yet imposing limitations on insular populations. The Kimberley region of northwestern Australia has more than 2500 islands that have recently come into focus as substantial conservation resources. It is therefore of great interest for managers to understand the driving forces of genetic structure of species within these island archipelagos. We used the ubiquitous bar-shouldered skink (Ctenotus inornatus) as a model species to represent the influence of landscape factors on genetic structure across the Kimberley islands. On 41 islands and 4 mainland locations in a remote area of Australia, we genotyped individuals across 18 nuclear (microsatellite) markers. Measures of genetic differentiation and diversity were used in two complementary analyses. We used circuit theory and Mantel tests to examine the influence of the landscape matrix on population connectivity and linear regression and model selection based on Akaike's information criterion to investigate landscape controls on genetic diversity. Genetic differentiation between islands was best predicted with circuit-theory models that accounted for the large difference in resistance to dispersal between land and ocean. In contrast, straight-line distances were unrelated to either resistance distances or genetic differentiation. Instead, connectivity was determined by island-hopping routes that allow organisms to minimize the distance of difficult ocean passages. Island populations of C. inornatus retained varying degrees of genetic diversity (NA = 1.83 - 7.39), but it was greatest on islands closer to the mainland, in terms of resistance-distance units. In contrast, genetic diversity was unrelated to island size. Our results highlight the potential for islands to contribute to both theoretical and applied conservation, provide strong evidence of the driving forces of population structure within undisturbed landscapes, and identify the islands most valuable for conservation based on their contributions to gene flow and genetic diversity.

The role of East Asian monsoon system in shaping population divergence and dynamics of a constructive desert shrub Reaumuria soongarica

Both of the uplift of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) and the development of East Asian monsoon system (EAMS) could have comprehensively impacted the formation and evolution of Arid Central Asia (ACA). To understand how desert plants endemic to ACA responded to these two factors, we profiled the historical population dynamics and distribution range shift of a constructive desert shrub Reaumuria soongarica (Tamaricaceae) based on species wide investigation of sequence variation of chloroplast DNA and nuclear ribosomal ITS. Phylogenetic analysis uncovered a deep divergence occurring at ca. 2.96 Mya between the western and eastern lineages of R. soongarica, and ecological niche modeling analysis strongly supported that the monsoonal climate could have fragmented its habitats in both glacial and interglacial periods and impelled its intraspecific divergence. Additionally, the population from the east monsoonal zone expanded rapidly, suggesting that the local monsoonal climate significantly impacted its population dynamics. The isolation by distance tests supported strong maternal gene flow along the direction of the East Asian winter monsoon, whose intensification induced the genetic admixture along the latitudinal populations of R. soongarica. Our results presented a new case that the development of EAMS had prominently impacted the intraspecific divergence and population dynamics of this desert plant.

The Genome of the "Great Speciator" Provides Insights into Bird Diversification

Among birds, white-eyes (genus Zosterops) have diversified so extensively that Jared Diamond and Ernst Mayr referred to them as the "great speciator." The Zosterops lineage exhibits some of the fastest rates of species diversification among vertebrates, and its members are the most prolific passerine island colonizers. We present a high-quality genome assembly for the silvereye (Zosterops lateralis), a white-eye species consisting of several subspecies distributed across multiple islands. We investigate the genetic basis of rapid diversification in white-eyes by conducting genomic analyses at varying taxonomic levels. First, we compare the silvereye genome with those of birds from different families and searched for genomic features that may be unique to Zosterops. Second, we compare the genomes of different species of white-eyes from Lifou island (South Pacific), using whole genome resequencing and restriction site associated DNA. Third, we contrast the genomes of two subspecies of silvereye that differ in plumage color. In accordance with theory, we show that white-eyes have high rates of substitutions, gene duplication, and positive selection relative to other birds. Below genus level, we find that genomic differentiation accumulates rapidly and reveals contrasting demographic histories between sympatric species on Lifou, indicative of past interspecific interactions. Finally, we highlight genes possibly involved in color polymorphism between the subspecies of silvereye. By providing the first whole-genome sequence resources for white-eyes and by conducting analyses at different taxonomic levels, we provide genomic evidence underpinning this extraordinary bird radiation.

Vicariance and marine migration in continental island populations of a frog endemic to the Atlantic Coastal forest

The theory of island biogeography is most often studied in the context of oceanic islands where all island inhabitants are descendants from founding events involving migration from mainland source populations. Far fewer studies have considered predictions of island biogeography in the case of continental islands, where island formation typically splits continuous populations and thus vicariance also contributes to the diversity of island populations. We examined one such case on continental islands in southeastern Brazil, to determine how classic island biogeography predictions and past vicariance explain the population genetic diversity of Thoropa taophora, a frog endemic to the Atlantic Coastal Forest. We used nuclear microsatellite markers to examine the genetic diversity of coastal and island populations of this species. We found that island isolation has a role in shaping the genetic diversity of continental island species, with island populations being significantly less diverse than coastal populations. However, area of the island and distance from coast had no significant effect on genetic diversity. We also found no significant differences between migration among coastal populations and migration to and from islands. We discuss how vicariance and the effects of continued migration between coastal and island populations interact to shape evolutionary patterns on continental islands.

Niche divergence promotes rapid diversification of East African sky island white-eyes (Aves: Zosteropidae)

The Eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot composed of highly fragmented forested highlands (sky islands) harbours exceptional diversity and endemicity, particularly within birds. To explain their elevated diversity within this region, models founded on niche conservatism have been offered, although detailed phylogeographic studies are limited to a few avian lineages. Here, we focus on the recent songbird genus Zosterops, represented by montane and lowland members, to test the roles of niche conservatism versus niche divergence in the diversification and colonization of East Africa's sky islands. The species-rich white-eyes are a typically homogeneous family with an exceptional colonizing ability, but in contrast to their diversity on oceanic islands, continental diversity is considered depauperate and has been largely neglected. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of ~140 taxa reveals extensive polyphyly among different montane populations of Z. poliogastrus. These larger endemic birds are shown to be more closely related to taxa with divergent habitat types, altitudinal distributions and dispersal abilities than they are to populations of restricted endemics that occur in neighbouring montane forest fragments. This repeated transition between lowland and highland habitats over time demonstrate that diversification of the focal group is explained by niche divergence. Our results also highlight an underestimation of diversity compared to morphological studies that has implications for their taxonomy and conservation. Molecular dating suggests that the spatially extensive African radiation arose exceptionally rapidly (1-2.5 Ma) during the fluctuating Plio-Pleistocene climate, which may have provided the primary driver for lineage diversification.

Genetic, morphological, and acoustic evidence reveals lack of diversification in the colonization process in an island bird

Songbirds with recently (i.e., early Holocene) founded populations are suitable models for studying incipient differentiation in oceanic islands. On such systems each colonization event represents a different evolutionary episode that can be studied by addressing sets of diverging phenotypic and genetic traits. We investigate the process of early differentiation in the spectacled warbler (Sylvia conspicillata) in 14 populations separated by sea barriers from three Atlantic archipelagos and from continental regions spanning from tropical to temperate latitudes. Our approach involved the study of sexual acoustic signals, morphology, and genetic data. Mitochondrial DNA did not provide clear population structure. However, microsatellites analyses consistently identified two genetic groups, albeit without correspondence to subspecies classification and little correspondence to geography. Coalescent analyses showed significant evidence for gene flow between the two genetic groups. Discriminant analyses could not correctly assign morphological or acoustic traits to source populations. Therefore, although theory predicting that in isolated populations genetic, morphological, or acoustic traits can lead to radiation, we have strikingly failed to document differentiation on these attributes in a resident passerine throughout three oceanic archipelagos.

Colonisation and diversification of the Zenaida Dove (Zenaida aurita) in the Antilles: phylogeography, contemporary gene flow and morphological divergence

Caribbean avifaunal biogeography has been mainly studied based on mitochondrial DNA. Here, we investigated both past and recent island differentiation and micro-evolutionary changes in the Zenaida Dove (Zenaida aurita) based on combined information from one mitochondrial (Cytochrome c Oxydase subunit I, COI) and 13 microsatellite markers and four morphological characters. This Caribbean endemic and abundant species has a large distribution, and two subspecies are supposed to occur: Z. a. zenaida in the Greater Antilles (GA) and Z. a. aurita in the Lesser Antilles (LA). Doves were sampled on two GA islands (Puerto Rico and the British Virgin Islands) and six LA islands (Saint Barthélemy, Guadeloupe, Les Saintes, Martinique, Saint Lucia and Barbados). Eleven COI haplotypes were observed that could be assembled in two distinct lineages, with six specific to GA, four to LA, the remaining one occurring in all islands. However, the level of divergence between those two lineages was too moderate to fully corroborate the existence of two subspecies. Colonisation of the studied islands appeared to be a recent process. However, both phenotypic and microsatellite data suggest that differentiation is already under way between all of them, partly associated with the existence of limited gene flow. No isolation by distance was observed. Differentiation for morphological traits was more pronounced than for neutral markers. These results suggest that despite recent colonisation, genetic drift and/or restricted gene flow are promoting differentiation for neutral markers. Variation in selective pressures between islands may explain the observed phenotypic differentiation.

Speciation on oceanic islands: rapid adaptive divergence vs. cryptic speciation in a Guadalupe Island songbird (Aves: Junco)

The evolutionary divergence of island populations, and in particular the tempo and relative importance of neutral and selective factors, is of central interest to the study of speciation. The rate of phenotypic evolution upon island colonization can vary greatly among taxa, and cases of convergent evolution can further confound the inference of correct evolutionary histories. Given the potential lability of phenotypic characters, molecular dating of insular lineages analyzed in a phylogenetic framework provides a critical tool to test hypotheses of phenotypic divergence since colonization. The Guadalupe junco is the only insular form of the polymorphic dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis), and shares eye and plumage color with continental morphs, yet presents an enlarged bill and reduced body size. Here we use variation in mtDNA sequence, morphological traits and song variables to test whether the Guadalupe junco evolved rapidly following a recent colonization by a mainland form of the dark-eyed junco, or instead represents a well-differentiated "cryptic" lineage adapted to the insular environment through long-term isolation, with plumage coloration a result of evolutionary convergence. We found high mtDNA divergence of the island lineage with respect to both continental J. hyemalis and J. phaeonotus, representing a history of isolation of about 600,000 years. The island lineage was also significantly differentiated in morphological and male song variables. Moreover, and contrary to predictions regarding diversity loss on small oceanic islands, we document relatively high levels of both haplotypic and song-unit diversity on Guadalupe Island despite long-term isolation in a very small geographic area. In contrast to prevailing taxonomy, the Guadalupe junco is an old, well-differentiated evolutionary lineage, whose similarity to mainland juncos in plumage and eye color is due to evolutionary convergence. Our findings confirm the role of remote islands in driving divergence and speciation, but also their potential role as repositories of ancestral diversity.

Genetic effects of recent habitat fragmentation in the Thousand-Island Lake region of southeast China on the distylous herb Hedyotis chrysotricha (Rubiaceae)

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

Known-age artificial-lake islands provide ideal model systems to elucidate the genetic and evolutionary consequences of anthropogenic habitat fragmentation on very recent time scales. Here, we studied a distylous herb, Hedyotis chrysotricha (Rubiaceae), in the artificially created Thousand-Island Lake (TIL) region of southeast China to explore the genetic consequences of islanding for this species. •

METHODS

Seven microsatellite loci were used to genotype 384 individuals of H. chrysotricha from 18 populations to estimate genetic diversity, population structure, and demographic parameters. •

KEY RESULTS

Island populations had significantly lower mean genetic diversity than those from the western/eastern mainland (e.g., H(E) = 0.381 vs. 0.461) and also displayed higher mean subdivision (F(ST) = 0.12 vs. 0.042/0.051). BayesAss analyses indicated moderate levels of migration rates among most populations, whereas Bottleneck did not provide strong evidence for such effects. In consequence, 2MOD strongly favored a gene flow-drift model over a pure drift model in the study area, but concomitantly revealed a relatively greater influence of drift in the island populations as evidenced by their significantly higher probabilities of allelic coancestry (F = 0.184 vs. 0.085). •

CONCLUSIONS

The observed genetic patterns in H. chrysotricha indicate that recent anthropogenic habitat fragmentation in the TIL region can lead to significant loss of genetic diversity in isolated fragments (islands) due to ongoing drift. By contrast, patterns of random mating, gene flow, and population connectivity have not greatly been modified yet, possibly owing to the species' fruit (seed) dispersal capabilities providing resilience in the face of habitat fragmentation.

A multi-locus phylogeny reveals a complex pattern of diversification related to climate and habitat heterogeneity in southern African white-eyes

The recent, rapid radiation of Zosteropidae, coupled with their high levels of colonizing ability and phenotypic diversity, makes species delimitation within this family problematic. Given these problems, challenges to establish the mechanisms driving diversity and speciation within this group have arisen. Four morphologically distinct southern African Zosterops taxa, with a contentious taxonomic past, provide such a challenge. Here, supplemented with morphological and environmental analytical techniques, a combination of mitochondrial and nuclear markers were analyzed using Bayesian and Likelihood methods to determine their speciation patterns and to establish the phylogenetic relationships of these four morphologically diverse southern African Zosterops taxa. Nearly all individuals were phenotypically diagnosable, even those individuals collected in areas of contact between taxa. Localities where two or more taxa co-occur appear to possess intermediate environmental characteristics. Initial Bayesian and Likelihood mitochondrial DNA analyses and Bayesian structure analyses of the combined nuclear markers indicated levels of hybridization in areas of sympatry. A combined mtDNA and nuclear DNA analysis and a species tree analysis (with hybrids excluded) placed Z. pallidus as sister to the other southern African taxa, with Z. senegalensis the putative sister taxon to a clade comprising Z. capensis and Z. virens. The grouping of taxon-specific sampling localities and the apparent intermediate nature of birds from areas of sympatry points toward an influence of habitat type and the associated climatic conditions in driving Zosterops diversification in southern Africa.

Darwin's Galapagos finches in modern biology

One of the classic examples of adaptive radiation under natural selection is the evolution of 15 closely related species of Darwin's finches (Passeriformes), whose primary diversity lies in the size and shape of their beaks. Since Charles Darwin and other members of the Beagle expedition collected these birds on the Galápagos Islands in 1835 and introduced them to science, they have been the subjects of intense research. Many biology textbooks use Darwin's finches to illustrate a variety of topics of evolutionary theory, such as speciation, natural selection and niche partitioning. Today, as this Theme Issue illustrates, Darwin's finches continue to be a very valuable source of biological discovery. Certain advantages of studying this group allow further breakthroughs in our understanding of changes in recent island biodiversity, mechanisms of speciation and hybridization, evolution of cognitive behaviours, principles of beak/jaw biomechanics as well as the underlying developmental genetic mechanisms in generating morphological diversity. Our objective was to bring together some of the key workers in the field of ecology and evolutionary biology who study Darwin's finches or whose studies were inspired by research on Darwin's finches. Insights provided by papers collected in this Theme Issue will be of interest to a wide audience.