Gutsy moves in mice: cellular and molecular dynamics of endoderm morphogenesis

Cellular protrusions in 3D: Orchestrating early mouse embryogenesis

Cellular protrusions generated by the actin cytoskeleton are central to the process of building the body of the embryo. Problems with cellular protrusions underlie human diseases and syndromes, including implantation defects and pregnancy loss, congenital birth defects, and cancer. Cells use protrusive activity together with actin-myosin contractility to create an ordered body shape of the embryo. Here, I review how actin-rich protrusions are used by two major morphological cell types, epithelial and mesenchymal cells, during collective cell migration to sculpt the mouse embryo body. Pre-gastrulation epithelial collective migration of the anterior visceral endoderm is essential for establishing the anterior-posterior body axis. Gastrulation mesenchymal collective migration of the mesoderm wings is crucial for body elongation, and somite and heart formation. Analysis of mouse mutants with disrupted cellular protrusions revealed the key role of protrusions in embryonic morphogenesis and embryo survival. Recent technical approaches have allowed examination of the mechanisms that control cell and tissue movements in vivo in the complex 3D microenvironment of living mouse embryos. Advancing our understanding of protrusion-driven morphogenesis should provide novel insights into human developmental disorders and cancer metastasis.

Cellular dynamics of EMT: lessons from live in vivo imaging of embryonic development

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) refers to a process in which epithelial cells lose apical-basal polarity and loosen cell-cell junctions to take on mesenchymal cell morphologies and invasive properties that facilitate migration through extracellular matrix. EMT-and the reverse mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET)-are evolutionarily conserved processes that are used throughout embryonic development to drive tissue morphogenesis. During adult life, EMT is activated to close wounds after injury, but also can be used by cancers to promote metastasis. EMT is controlled by several mechanisms that depend on context. In response to cell-cell signaling and/or interactions with the local environment, cells undergoing EMT make rapid changes in kinase and adaptor proteins, adhesion and extracellular matrix molecules, and gene expression. Many of these changes modulate localization, activity, or expression of cytoskeletal proteins that mediate cell shape changes and cell motility. Since cellular changes during EMT are highly dynamic and context-dependent, it is ideal to analyze this process in situ in living organisms. Embryonic development of model organisms is amenable to live time-lapse microscopy, which provides an opportunity to watch EMT as it happens. Here, with a focus on functions of the actin cytoskeleton, I review recent examples of how live in vivo imaging of embryonic development has led to new insights into mechanisms of EMT. At the same time, I highlight specific developmental processes in model embryos-gastrulation in fly and mouse embryos, and neural crest cell development in zebrafish and frog embryos-that provide in vivo platforms for visualizing cellular dynamics during EMT. In addition, I introduce Kupffer's vesicle in the zebrafish embryo as a new model system to investigate EMT and MET. I discuss how these systems have provided insights into the dynamics of adherens junction remodeling, planar cell polarity signaling, cadherin functions, and cytoskeletal organization during EMT, which are not only important for understanding development, but also cancer progression. These findings shed light on mechanisms of actin cytoskeletal dynamics during EMT, and feature live in vivo imaging strategies that can be exploited in future work to identify new mechanisms of EMT and MET. Video Abstract.

Spatiotemporal sequence of mesoderm and endoderm lineage segregation during mouse gastrulation

Anterior mesoderm (AM) and definitive endoderm (DE) progenitors represent the earliest embryonic cell types that are specified during germ layer formation at the primitive streak (PS) of the mouse embryo. Genetic experiments indicate that both lineages segregate from Eomes-expressing progenitors in response to different Nodal signaling levels. However, the precise spatiotemporal pattern of the emergence of these cell types and molecular details of lineage segregation remain unexplored. We combined genetic fate labeling and imaging approaches with single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to follow the transcriptional identities and define lineage trajectories of Eomes-dependent cell types. Accordingly, all cells moving through the PS during the first day of gastrulation express Eomes AM and DE specification occurs before cells leave the PS from Eomes-positive progenitors in a distinct spatiotemporal pattern. ScRNA-seq analysis further suggested the immediate and complete separation of AM and DE lineages from Eomes-expressing cells as last common bipotential progenitor.

Effects of Natural Progesterone and Synthetic Progestin on Germ Layer Gene Expression in a Human Embryoid Body Model

Natural progesterone and synthetic progestin are widely used for the treatment of threatened abortion or in in vitro fertilization (IVF) cycles. This in vitro study aimed to assess whether the treatment with natural progesterone or synthetic progestin influences the germ layer gene expression on the early human embryonic development using human embryonic stem cells (hESCs)-derived embryoid bodies (hEBs) as a surrogate of early stage human embryonic development. Human EBs derived from hESCs were cultured for nine days, and were treated with natural progesterone (P4) or synthetic progestin, medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) at 10–7 M for five days. To reverse the effects of treatment, mifepristone (RU486) as progesterone antagonist was added to the hEBs for four days starting one day after the initiation of treatment. Mouse blastocysts (mBLs) were cultured in vitro for 24 h, and P4 or MPA at 10⁻⁷ M was treated for an additional 24 h. The treated embryos were further transferred onto in vitro cultured endometrial cells to evaluate chorionic gonadotropin (CG) expression. To analyze the effects of P4 or MPA, the expression of differentiation genes representing the three germ layers was investigated, GATA-binding factor 4 (GATA4), α-fetoprotein (AFP), hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF)-3β, hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF)-4α (endoderm), Brachyury, cardiac actin (cACT) (mesoderm), and Nestin (ectoderm), using quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) and immunostaining. Significantly lower expressions of HNF-3β, HNF-4α, Brachyury, and Nestin were observed in MPA-treated hEBs (all p < 0.05), which was negated by RU486 treatment. This inhibitory effect of MPA was also observed in mouse embryos. Conclusively, the effects of natural progesterone and synthetic progestin may differ in the germ layer gene expression in the hEB model, which suggests that caution is necessary in the use of progestogen.

TAK1/Map3k7 enhances differentiation of cardiogenic endoderm from mouse embryonic stem cells

Specification of the primary heart field in mouse embryos requires signaling from the anterior visceral endoderm (AVE). The nature of these signals is not known. We hypothesized that the TGFβ-activated kinase (TAK1/Map3k7) may act as a cardiogenic factor, based on its expression in heart-inducing endoderm and its requirement for cardiac differentiation of p19 cells. To test this, mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells overexpressing Map3k7 were isolated and differentiated as embryoid bodies (EBs). Map3k7-overexpressing EBs showed increased expression of AVE markers but interestingly, showed little effect on mesoderm formation and had no impact on overall cardiomyocyte formation. To test whether the pronounced expansion of endoderm masks an expansion of cardiac lineages, chimeric EBs were made consisting of Map3k7-overexpressing ES and wild type ES cells harboring a cardiac reporter transgene, MHCα::GFP, allowing cardiac differentiation to be assessed specifically in wild type ES cells. Wild type ES cells co-cultured with Map3k7-overexpressing cells had a 4-fold increase in expression of the cardiac reporter, supporting the hypothesis that Map3k7 increases the formation of cardiogenic endoderm. To further examine the role of Map3k7 in early lineage specification, other endodermal markers were examined. Interestingly, markers that are expressed in both the VE and later in gut development were expanded, whereas transcripts that specifically mark the early definitive (streak-derived) endoderm (DE) were not. To determine if Map3k7 is necessary for endoderm differentiation, EBs were grown in the presence of the Map3k7 specific inhibitor 5Z-7-oxozeaenol. Endoderm differentiation was dramatically decreased in these cells. Western blot analysis showed that known downstream targets of Map3k7 (Jnk, Nemo-like kinase (NLK) and p38 MAPK) were all inhibited. By contrast, transcripts for another TGFβ target, Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) were markedly upregulated, as were transcripts for Gli2 (but not Gli1 and Gli3). Together these data support the hypothesis that Map3k7 governs the formation, or proliferation of cardiogenic endoderm.

Understanding the Mechanobiology of Early Mammalian Development through Bioengineered Models

Research in developmental biology has been recently enriched by a multitude of in vitro models recapitulating key milestones of mammalian embryogenesis. These models obviate the challenge posed by the inaccessibility of implanted embryos, multiply experimental opportunities, and favor approaches traditionally associated with organoids and tissue engineering. Here, we provide a perspective on how these models can be applied to study the mechano-geometrical contributions to early mammalian development, which still escape direct verification in species that develop in utero. We thus outline new avenues for robust and scalable perturbation of geometry and mechanics in ways traditionally limited to non-implanting developmental models.

Wnt signaling: implications in endoderm development and pancreas organogenesis

The pancreas is derived from the foregut endoderm during embryonic development. After gastrulation and endoderm germ layer formation complex morphogenetic events coupled with cell differentiation programs pattern the gut tube and induce pancreas organogenesis. This results in formation of exocrine, ductal and hormone-producing endocrine cells. Among these, endocrine cells are responsible for blood glucose homeostasis and their malfunction leads to diabetes mellitus, which cannot be stopped or reversed by the current standard treatments. Thus, intense efforts to regenerate or replace the lost or dysfunctional insulin-producing β-cells are on the way. This depends on identifying the factors that coordinate pancreas organogenesis. Here, we highlight the contribution of canonical and non-canonical Wnt signaling branches in orchestrating endoderm formation, pancreatic morphogenesis as well as endocrine cell formation and function.

The endoderm: a divergent cell lineage with many commonalities

The endoderm is a progenitor tissue that, in humans, gives rise to the majority of internal organs. Over the past few decades, genetic studies have identified many of the upstream signals specifying endoderm identity in different model systems, revealing them to be divergent from invertebrates to vertebrates. However, more recent studies of the cell behaviours driving endodermal morphogenesis have revealed a surprising number of shared features, including cells undergoing epithelial-to-mesenchymal transitions (EMTs), collective cell migration, and mesenchymal-to-epithelial transitions (METs). In this Review, we highlight how cross-organismal studies of endoderm morphogenesis provide a useful perspective that can move our understanding of this fascinating tissue forward.

Distinct mesoderm migration phenotypes in extra-embryonic and embryonic regions of the early mouse embryo

In mouse embryo gastrulation, epiblast cells delaminate at the primitive streak to form mesoderm and definitive endoderm, through an epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Mosaic expression of a membrane reporter in nascent mesoderm enabled recording cell shape and trajectory through live imaging. Upon leaving the streak, cells changed shape and extended protrusions of distinct size and abundance depending on the neighboring germ layer, as well as the region of the embryo. Embryonic trajectories were meandrous but directional, while extra-embryonic mesoderm cells showed little net displacement. Embryonic and extra-embryonic mesoderm transcriptomes highlighted distinct guidance, cytoskeleton, adhesion, and extracellular matrix signatures. Specifically, intermediate filaments were highly expressed in extra-embryonic mesoderm, while live imaging for F-actin showed abundance of actin filaments in embryonic mesoderm only. Accordingly, Rhoa or Rac1 conditional deletion in mesoderm inhibited embryonic, but not extra-embryonic mesoderm migration. Overall, this indicates separate cytoskeleton regulation coordinating the morphology and migration of mesoderm subpopulations.

Lineage tracing using a Cas9-deaminase barcoding system targeting endogenous L1 elements

Determining cell lineage and function is critical to understanding human physiology and pathology. Although advances in lineage tracing methods provide new insight into cell fate, defining cellular diversity at the mammalian level remains a challenge. Here, we develop a genome editing strategy using a cytidine deaminase fused with nickase Cas9 (nCas9) to specifically target endogenous interspersed repeat regions in mammalian cells. The resulting mutation patterns serve as a genetic barcode, which is induced by targeted mutagenesis with single-guide RNA (sgRNA), leveraging substitution events, and subsequent read out by a single primer pair. By analyzing interspersed mutation signatures, we show the accurate reconstruction of cell lineage using both bulk cell and single-cell data. We envision that our genetic barcode system will enable fine-resolution mapping of organismal development in healthy and diseased mammalian states.

A single-cell molecular map of mouse gastrulation and early organogenesis

Across the animal kingdom, gastrulation represents a key developmental event during which embryonic pluripotent cells diversify into lineage-specific precursors that will generate the adult organism. Here we report the transcriptional profiles of 116,312 single cells from mouse embryos collected at nine sequential time points ranging from 6.5 to 8.5 days post-fertilization. We construct a molecular map of cellular differentiation from pluripotency towards all major embryonic lineages, and explore the complex events involved in the convergence of visceral and primitive streak-derived endoderm. Furthermore, we use single-cell profiling to show that Tal1-/- chimeric embryos display defects in early mesoderm diversification, and we thus demonstrate how combining temporal and transcriptional information can illuminate gene function. Together, this comprehensive delineation of mammalian cell differentiation trajectories in vivo represents a baseline for understanding the effects of gene mutations during development, as well as a roadmap for the optimization of in vitro differentiation protocols for regenerative medicine.

Signals and forces shaping organogenesis of the small intestine

The adult gastrointestinal tract (GI) is a series of connected organs (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon) that develop via progressive regional specification of a continuous tubular embryonic organ anlage. This chapter focuses on organogenesis of the small intestine. The intestine arises by folding of a flat sheet of endodermal cells into a tube of highly proliferative pseudostratified cells. Dramatic elongation of this tube is driven by rapid epithelial proliferation. Then, epithelial-mesenchymal crosstalk and physical forces drive a stepwise cascade that results in convolution of the tubular surface into finger-like projections called villi. Concomitant with villus formation, a sharp epithelial transcriptional boundary is defined between stomach and intestine. Finally, flask-like depressions called crypts are established to house the intestinal stem cells needed throughout life for epithelial renewal. New insights into these events are being provided by in vitro organoid systems, which hold promise for future regenerative engineering of the small intestine.

A Gata4 nuclear GFP transcriptional reporter to study endoderm and cardiac development in the mouse

The GATA zinc-finger transcription factor GATA4 is expressed in a variety of tissues during mouse embryonic development and in adult organs. These include the primitive endoderm of the blastocyst, visceral endoderm of the early post-implantation embryo, as well as lateral plate mesoderm, developing heart, liver, lung and gonads. Here, we generate a novel Gata4 targeted allele used to generate both a Gata4^H2B-GFP transcriptional reporter and a Gata4^FLAG fusion protein to analyse dynamic expression domains. We demonstrate that the Gata4^H2B-GFP transcriptional reporter faithfully recapitulates known sites of Gata4 mRNA expression and correlates with endogenous GATA4 protein levels. This reporter labels nuclei of Gata4 expressing cells and is suitable for time-lapse imaging and single cell analyses. As such, this Gata4^H2B-GFP allele will be a useful tool for studying Gata4 expression and transcriptional regulation.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

The Head's Tale: Anterior-Posterior Axis Formation in the Mouse Embryo

The establishment of the anterior-posterior (A-P) axis is a fundamental event during early development and marks the start of the process by which the basic body plan is laid down. This axial information determines where gastrulation, that generates and positions cells of the three-germ layers, occurs. A-P patterning requires coordinated interactions between multiple tissues, tight spatiotemporal control of signaling pathways, and the coordination of tissue growth with morphogenetic movements. In the mouse, a specialized population of cells, the anterior visceral endoderm (AVE) undergoes a migration event critical for correct A-P pattern. In this review, we summarize our understanding of the generation of anterior pattern, focusing on the role of the AVE. We will also outline some of the many questions that remain regarding the mechanism by which the first axial asymmetry is established, how the AVE is induced, and how it moves within the visceral endoderm epithelium.

Visualizing endoderm cell populations and their dynamics in the mouse embryo with a Hex-tdTomato reporter

Live imaging is the requisite tool for studying cell behaviors driving embryonic development and tissue formation. Genetically encoded reporters expressed under cell type-specific cis-regulatory elements that drive fluorescent protein expression at sufficient levels for visualization in living specimens have become indispensable for these studies. Increasingly dual-color (red-green) imaging is used for studying the coordinate behaviors of two cell populations of interest, identifying and characterizing subsets within broader cell populations or subcellular features. Many reporters have been generated using green fluorescent protein (GFP) due to its brightness and developmental neutrality. To compliment the large cohort of available GFP reporters that label cellular populations in early mouse embryos, we have generated a red fluorescent protein (RFP)-based transgenic reporter using the red fluorescent tdTomato protein driven by cis-regulatory elements from the mouse Hex locus. The Hex-tdTomato reporter predominantly labels endodermal cells. It is a bright RFP-based reporter of the distal visceral endoderm (DVE)/anterior visceral endoderm (AVE), a migratory population within the early post-implantation embryo. It also labels cells of the definitive endoderm (DE), which emerges at gastrulation. Dual-color visualization of these different early endodermal populations will provide a detailed understanding of the cellular behaviors driving key morphogenetic events involving the endoderm.

Summary: A red fluorescent reporter under the regulatory control of the mouse Hex gene permits identification of different endodermal populations and visualization of dynamic cellular behaviors driving endoderm specification and morphogenesis.

Notochord morphogenesis in mice: Current understanding & open questions

The notochord is a structure common to all chordates, and the feature that the phylum Chordata has been named after. It is a rod-like mesodermal structure that runs the anterior-posterior length of the embryo, adjacent to the ventral neural tube. The notochord plays a critical role in embryonic tissue patterning, for example the dorsal-ventral patterning of the neural tube. The cells that will come to form the notochord are specified at gastrulation. Axial mesodermal cells arising at the anterior primitive streak migrate anteriorly as the precursors of the notochord and populate the notochordal plate. Yet, even though a lot of interest has centered on investigating the functional and structural roles of the notochord, we still have a very rudimentary understanding of notochord morphogenesis. The events driving the formation of the notochord are rapid, taking place over the period of approximately a day in mice. In this commentary, we provide an overview of our current understanding of mouse notochord morphogenesis, from the initial specification of axial mesendodermal cells at the primitive streak, the emergence of these cells at the midline on the surface of the embryo, to their submergence and organization of the stereotypically positioned notochord. We will also discuss some key open questions. Developmental Dynamics 245:547-557, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Concepts of Cell Lineage in Mammalian Embryos

Cell lineage is the framework for understanding cellular diversity, stability of differentiation, and its relationship to pluripotency. The special condition of in utero development in mammals has presented challenges to developmental biologists in tracing cell lineages but modern imaging and cell marking techniques have allowed the gradual elucidation of lineage relationships. Early experimental embryology approaches had limited resolution and relied of suboptimal cell markers and considerable disturbance to the embryos. Transgenic technology introduced genetic markers, particularly fluorescent proteins that, combined with sophisticated imaging modalities, greatly increase resolution and allow clonal analysis within lineages. The concept of cell lineage has also undergone evolution as it became possible to trace the lineage of cells based not only on their physical location or attributes but also on their gene expression pattern, thus opening up mechanistic lines of investigation into the determinants of cell lineage.

A loss-of-function and H2B-Venus transcriptional reporter allele for Gata6 in mice

Background

The GATA-binding factor 6 (Gata6) gene encodes a zinc finger transcription factor that often functions as a key regulator of lineage specification during development. It is the earliest known marker of the primitive endoderm lineage in the mammalian blastocyst. During gastrulation, GATA6 is expressed in early cardiac mesoderm and definitive endoderm progenitors, and is necessary for development of specific mesoderm and endoderm-derived organs including the heart, liver, and pancreas. Furthermore, reactivation or silencing of the Gata6 locus has been associated with certain types of cancer affecting endodermal organs.

Results

We have generated a Gata6^H2B-Venus knock-in reporter mouse allele for the purpose of labeling GATA6-expressing cells with a bright nuclear-localized fluorescent marker that is suitable for live imaging at single-cell resolution.

Conclusions

Expression of the Venus reporter was characterized starting from embryonic stem (ES) cells, through mouse embryos and adult animals. The Venus reporter was not expressed in ES cells, but was activated upon endoderm differentiation. Gata6^{H2B-Venus/H2B-Venus} homozygous embryos did not express GATA6 protein and failed to specify the primitive endoderm in the blastocyst. However, null blastocysts continued to express high levels of Venus in the absence of GATA6 protein, suggesting that early Gata6 transcription is independent of GATA6 protein expression. At early post-implantation stages of embryonic development, there was a strong correlation of Venus with endogenous GATA6 protein in endoderm and mesoderm progenitors, then later in the heart, midgut, and hindgut. However, there were discrepancies in reporter versus endogenous protein expression in certain cells, such as the body wall and endocardium. During organogenesis, detection of Venus in specific organs recapitulated known sites of endogenous GATA6 expression, such as in the lung bud epithelium, liver, pancreas, gall bladder, stomach epithelium, and vascular endothelium. In adults, Venus was observed in the lungs, pancreas, liver, gall bladder, ovaries, uterus, bladder, skin, adrenal glands, small intestine and corpus region of the stomach. Overall, Venus fluorescent protein under regulatory control of the Gata6 locus was expressed at levels that were easily visualized directly and could endure live and time-lapse imaging techniques. Venus is co-expressed with endogenous GATA6 throughout development to adulthood, and should provide an invaluable tool for examining the status of the Gata6 locus during development, as well as its silencing or reactivation in cancer or other disease states.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12861-015-0086-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Single cells get together: High-resolution approaches to study the dynamics of early mouse development

Embryonic development is a complex and highly dynamic process during which individual cells interact with one another, adopt different identities and organize themselves in three-dimensional space to generate an entire organism. Recent technical developments in genomics and high-resolution quantitative imaging are making it possible to study cellular populations at single-cell resolution and begin to integrate different inputs, for example genetic, physical and chemical factors, that affect cell differentiation over spatial and temporal scales. The preimplantation mouse embryo allows the analysis of cell fate decisions in vivo with high spatiotemporal resolution. In this review we highlight how the application of live imaging and single-cell resolution analysis pipelines is providing an unprecedented level of insight on the processes that shape the earliest stages of mammalian development.

Heading forwards: anterior visceral endoderm migration in patterning the mouse embryo

The elaboration of anterior–posterior (A–P) pattern is one of the earliest events during development and requires the precisely coordinated action of several players at the level of molecules, cells and tissues. In mammals, it is controlled by a specialized population of migratory extraembryonic epithelial cells, the anterior visceral endoderm (AVE). The AVE is a signalling centre that is responsible for several important patterning events during early development, including specifying the orientation of the A–P axis and the position of the heart with respect to the brain. AVE cells undergo a characteristic stereotypical migration which is crucial to their functions.