Developmental perspectives on risky and impulsive choice

Sensitivity to the Instrumental Value of Choice Increases Across Development

Across development, people tend to demonstrate a preference for contexts in which they have the opportunity to make choices. However, it is not clear how children, adolescents, and adults learn to calibrate this preference based on the costs and benefits of agentic choice. Here, in both a primary, in-person, reinforcement-learning experiment (N = 92; age range = 10-25 years) and a preregistered online replication study (N = 150; age range = 8-25 years), we found that participants overvalued agentic choice but also calibrated their agency decisions to the reward structure of the environment, increasingly selecting agentic choice when choice had greater instrumental value. Regression analyses and computational modeling of participant choices revealed that participants' bias toward agentic choice-reflecting its intrinsic value-remained consistent across age, whereas sensitivity to the instrumental value of agentic choice increased from childhood to early adulthood.

Development of the triadic neural systems involved in risky decision-making during childhood

Risk-taking often occurs in childhood as a compex outcome influenced by individual, family, and social factors. The ability to govern risky decision-making in a balanced manner is a hallmark of the integrity of cognitive and affective development from childhood to adulthood. The Triadic Neural Systems Model posits that the nuanced coordination of motivational approach, avoidance and prefrontal control systems is crucial to regulate adaptive risk-taking and related behaviors. Although widely studied in adolescence and adulthood, how these systems develop in childhood remains elusive. Here, we show heterogenous age-related differences in the triadic neural systems involved in risky decision-making in 218 school-age children relative to 80 young adults. Children were generally less reward-seeking and less risk-taking than adults, and exhibited gradual increases in risk-taking behaviors from 6 to 12 years-old, which are associated with age-related differences in brain activation patterns underlying reward and risk processing. In comparison to adults, children exhibited weaker activation in control-related prefrontal systems, but stronger activation in reward-related striatal systems. Network analyses revealed that children showed greater reward-related functional connectivity within and between the triadic systems. Our findings support an immature and unbalanced developmental view of the core neurocognitive systems involved in risky decision-making and related behaviors in middle to late childhood.

"Help Me Control My Impulses!": Adolescent Impulsivity and Its Negative Individual, Family, Peer, and Community Explanatory Factors

The literature shows that impulsivity, prevalent in adolescence, is negatively linked with a variety of psychosocial factors (e.g., positive interpersonal relationships, emotion regulation); however, there is limited research examining the relative contribution of multiple factors for this trait nor exploring how these factors influence the associations between impulsivity and risk-related outcomes. Drawing on multiple components of the unified theory of development (i.e., psychological variables, peers subsystem, community subsystem, family processes subsystem), this cross-sectional study aims to identify explanatory psychosocial variables (i.e., early memories of warmth and safeness, rational decision-making style, resilience, emotion regulation, coping, parental attachment, social group attachment, satisfaction with school and family-related variables) that are negatively related with impulsivity, in younger (13-15) and older (16-19 years) adolescents, and explore their moderating role in the associations between this trait and some risk-related outcomes (i.e., verbal aggression, anger, self-harm, other high-risk behaviors). A representative sample of 6894 adolescents (52.9% female) living in the Azores (Portugal), with ages ranging from 13 to 19 (M = 15.4), was used. Two stepwise multiple regressions, one for each age group, revealed that only emotion regulation, parental attachment, and social group attachment had a negative effect on impulsivity in both age groups; additionally, satisfaction with teachers also had this effect in younger adolescents. The first three variables weakened the positive associations between impulsivity and the risk-related outcomes. These results suggest that the psychological system and all subsystems of the social context measured play a relevant role in explaining adolescent impulsivity and that it may be reduced by promoting emotion regulation, positive parenting practices, healthier relationships with peers, and healthier relationships with teachers.

Environmental statistics and experience shape risk-taking across adolescence

Adolescents are often portrayed as reckless risk-takers because of their immature brains. Recent research has cast doubt on this portrayal, identifying the environment as a moderator of risk-taking. However, the key features of environments that drive risk-taking behaviors are often underspecified. We call for greater attention to the environment by drawing on research showing that its statistical structure impacts future risk-taking as people learn from outcomes they experience after taking a risk. This opinion shows that adolescents are unlikely to experience harm from many risks because environmental statistics are skewed and favor safe experiences. Environmental statistics and experience suggest entry points for policy interventions by carefully timing risk warnings and leveraging peers' potential to shape the statistics of rewarding experiences.

In search of the functional base of risk-taking: inexperience and safety

This study is aimed at challenging the notion that risk-taking is based merely on some mechanistic foundation like control deficiencies or process imbalances. We hypothesize that risk-taking has an adaptive function and is an optimal strategy for an agent who (1) has scarce knowledge about the current environment or (2) is in a position in which a potential loss is not threatening. We argue that the two above are related to age which, in turn, may explain association between age and risk-taking commonly reported in the developmental literature. We investigate the possible influence of the age-related variables on the risk propensity in two ways: by inducing rich or scarce knowledge and safe or unsafe position in the experimental environment with task parameters and, simultaneously by examining actual differences between adolescents and adults. The results of two experiments that used a novel compound risk task provide support for the first hypothesis concerning knowledge about the environment. On the other hand, the results falsify the second "safe position" hypothesis. Also, the second experiment reveals that one's status relative to resources can influence risk-taking, but it does so in a way that is different from our initial assumption.

Novelty and uncertainty differentially drive exploration across development

Across the lifespan, individuals frequently choose between exploiting known rewarding options or exploring unknown alternatives. A large body of work has suggested that children may explore more than adults. However, because novelty and reward uncertainty are often correlated, it is unclear how they differentially influence decision-making across development. Here, children, adolescents, and adults (ages 8-27 years, N = 122) completed an adapted version of a recently developed value-guided decision-making task that decouples novelty and uncertainty. In line with prior studies, we found that exploration decreased with increasing age. Critically, participants of all ages demonstrated a similar bias to select choice options with greater novelty, whereas aversion to reward uncertainty increased into adulthood. Computational modeling of participant choices revealed that whereas adolescents and adults demonstrated attenuated uncertainty aversion for more novel choice options, children's choices were not influenced by reward uncertainty.

Distinct developmental trajectories for risky and impulsive decision-making in chimpanzees

Human adolescence is characterized by a suite of changes in decision-making and emotional regulation that promote risky and impulsive behavior. Accumulating evidence suggests that behavioral and physiological shifts seen in human adolescence are shared by some primates, yet it is unclear if the same cognitive mechanisms are recruited. We examined developmental changes in risky choice, intertemporal choice, and emotional responses to decision outcomes in chimpanzees, our closest-living relatives. We found that adolescent chimpanzees were more risk-seeking than adults, as in humans. However, chimpanzees showed no developmental change in intertemporal choice, unlike humans, although younger chimpanzees did exhibit elevated emotional reactivity to waiting compared to adults. Comparisons of cortisol and testosterone indicated robust age-related variation in these biomarkers, and patterns of individual differences in choices, emotional reactivity, and hormones also supported a developmental dissociation between risk and choice impulsivity. These results show that some but not all core features of human adolescent decision-making are shared with chimpanzees. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Risk taking for potential losses but not gains increases with time of day

Humans exhibit distinct risk preferences when facing choices involving potential gains and losses. These preferences are believed to be subject to neuromodulatory influence, particularly from dopamine and serotonin. As neuromodulators manifest circadian rhythms, this suggests decision making under risk might be affected by time of day. Here, in a large subject sample collected using a smartphone application, we found that risky options with potential losses were increasingly chosen over the course of the day. We observed this result in both a within-subjects design (N = 2599) comparing risky options chosen earlier and later in the day in the same individuals, and in a between-subjects design (N = 26,720) showing our effect generalizes across ages and genders. Using computational modelling, we show this diurnal change in risk preference reflects a decrease in sensitivity to increasing losses, but no change was observed in the relative impacts of gains and losses on choice (i.e., loss aversion). Thus, our findings reveal a striking diurnal modulation in human decision making, a pattern with potential importance for real-life decisions that include voting, medical decisions, and financial investments.

Puberty and risky decision-making in male adolescents

Pubertal development is a potential trigger for increases in risk-taking behaviours during adolescence. Here, we sought to investigate the relationship between puberty and neural activation during risky decision-making in males using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Forty-seven males aged 12.5-14.5 years completed an fMRI risk-taking task (BART) and reported their tendencies for risky decision-making using a self-report questionnaire. Puberty was assessed through self-reported pubertal status and salivary testosterone levels. Testosterone concentration, but not physical pubertal status, was positively correlated with self-reported risk-taking behaviour, while neither was correlated with BART performance. Across the whole sample, participants had greater activation of the bilateral nucleus accumbens and right caudate on trials when they made a successful risky decision compared to trials when they made a safe choice or when their risky decision was unsuccessful. There was a negative correlation between pubertal stage and brain activation during unsuccessful risky decision-making trials compared within unsuccessful control trials. Males at a lower stage of pubertal development showed increased activation in the left insula, right cingulate cortex, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), right putamen and right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) relative to more pubertally mature males during trials when they chose to take a risk and the balloon popped compared to when they watched the computer make an unsuccessful risky decision. Less pubertally mature males also showed greater activation in brain regions including the dmPFC, right temporal and frontal cortices, right OFC, right hippocampus and occipital cortex in unsuccessful risky trials compared to successful risky trials. These results suggest a puberty-related shift in neural activation within key brain regions when processing outcomes of risky decisions, which may reduce their sensitivity to negative feedback, and in turn contribute to increases in adolescent risk-taking behaviours.

Environmental uncertainty and the advantage of impulsive choice strategies

Choice impulsivity is characterized by the choice of immediate, smaller reward options over future, larger reward options, and is often thought to be associated with negative life outcomes. However, some environments make future rewards more uncertain, and in these environments impulsive choices can be beneficial. Here we examined the conditions under which impulsive vs. non-impulsive decision strategies would be advantageous. We used Markov Decision Processes (MDPs) to model three common decision-making tasks: Temporal Discounting, Information Sampling, and an Explore-Exploit task. We manipulated environmental variables to create circumstances where future outcomes were relatively uncertain. We then manipulated the discount factor of an MDP agent, which affects the value of immediate versus future rewards, to model impulsive and non-impulsive behavior. This allowed us to examine the performance of impulsive and non-impulsive agents in more or less predictable environments. In Temporal Discounting, we manipulated the transition probability to delayed rewards and found that the agent with the lower discount factor (i.e. the impulsive agent) collected more average reward than the agent with a higher discount factor (the non-impulsive agent) by selecting immediate reward options when the probability of receiving the future reward was low. In the Information Sampling task, we manipulated the amount of information obtained with each sample. When sampling led to small information gains, the impulsive MDP agent collected more average reward than the non-impulsive agent. Third, in the Explore-Exploit task, we manipulated the substitution rate for novel options. When the substitution rate was high, the impulsive agent again performed better than the non-impulsive agent, as it explored the novel options less and instead exploited options with known reward values. The results of these analyses show that impulsivity can be advantageous in environments that are unexpectedly uncertain.

Group decision-making on risky choice in adolescents and young adults

Adolescence, a period during which risk-taking behaviors frequently occur, is susceptible to peer influence. However, the direction of peer influence on group decision-making among adolescents and whether it increases group decision-making risk-seeking or risk-aversion is still unclear. This study recruited 84 adolescents (age = 14.44, 48 girls) and 99 young adults (M age = 20.48, 48 women) and adopted two framing tasks (life and money problems) to examine the differences between individual decision-making and group decision-making (of three members each), as well as the strategies for reaching consensus in group discussion. Results showed no evidence that adolescents are more risk seeking than adults in individual decision-making, and the adolescents were even more risk averse toward money problems than adults. We also found that the adolescents were more risk seeking for life problems but more risk averse for money problems in group decision-making than in individual decision-making under the loss frame. Further analysis of group discussion showed that the adolescents were more likely to apply the strategy of "one person puts forward an idea and then the others follow" to reach an agreement, while the adults tended to vote. This study indicated that peers' influence on group decision-making is domain specific, especially among adolescents.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-022-04027-5.

Real-World Exploration Increases Across Adolescence and Relates to Affect, Risk Taking, and Social Connectivity

Cross-species research suggests that exploratory behaviors increase during adolescence and relate to the social, affective, and risky behaviors characteristic of this developmental stage. However, how these typical adolescent behaviors manifest and relate in real-world settings remains unclear. Using geolocation tracking to quantify exploration—variability in daily movement patterns—over a 3-month period in 58 adolescents and adults (ages 13–27) in New York City, we investigated whether daily exploration varied with age and whether exploration related to social connectivity, risk taking, and momentary positive affect. In our cross-sectional sample, we found an association between daily exploration and age, with individuals near the transition to legal adulthood exhibiting the highest exploration levels. Days of higher exploration were associated with greater positive affect irrespective of age. Higher mean exploration was associated with greater social connectivity in all participants but was linked to higher risk taking selectively among adolescents. Our results highlight the interplay of exploration and socioemotional behaviors across development and suggest that societal norms may modulate their expression in naturalistic contexts.

How Does the Parent–Adolescent Relationship Affect Adolescent Internet Addiction? Parents’ Distinctive Influences

Although previous research has demonstrated that parent–adolescent relationships have a significant effect on adolescent Internet Addiction (IA), the mechanisms underlying these associations and parental differences in these effects have received insufficient attention. We investigated the mediating role of Perceived Social Support and Dual System of Self-Control (DSSC) in the relationship between Father-Adolescent Relationships/Mother-Adolescent Relationships (FAR/MAR) and adolescent IA, as well as the differences in the effects of FAR and MAR. A cross-sectional survey of 732 Chinese adolescents was conducted using the Adolescent Pathological Internet Use Scale, Parent–Adolescent Relationship Scale, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and Dual System of Self-Control Scale. Multiple linear regression analysis, Pearson correlation analysis and structural equation modeling were used. The results of structural modeling analysis showed that neither FAR nor MAR directly predicted adolescent IA. In contrast, FAR/MAR had an impact on adolescent IA mainly through the mediating effects of Perceived Social Support and Impulsive System. Furthermore, in the relationship between FAR/MAR and adolescent IA, the Impulsive System and Perceived Social Support both served as chain mediators, as did Perceived Social Support and the Reflective System. And more importantly, unlike FAR, MAR affects adolescent IA through the mediating effect of the Reflective System. Multiple linear regression showed that the regression coefficient of MAR on adolescent IA had stronger significance compared to FAR, MAR is deserving of more attention than FAR. These findings contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the association between FAR/MAR and adolescent IA and suggest that family relationship-focused training approaches are critical for suppressing adolescent IA. These interventions should be tailored to the unique circumstances of each family.

Differential Effects of Fundamental and Longitudinal Life History Trade-Offs on Delay Discounting: An Evolutionary Framework

We synthesized life history theory and the antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis to form an integrative framework for understanding delay discounting (DD). We distinguished between fundamental and longitudinal life history trade-offs to explain individual and age differences of DD. Fundamental life history trade-offs are characterized by life history strategies (LHS), describing how individuals adjust reproductive timing according to childhood environments, while longitudinal life history trade-offs characterize how individuals make trade-offs between early- vs. late-life reproduction as a function of age. Results of a life-span sample (242 Chinese participants) supported several theoretical predictions: (a) slower LHS predicted lower DD; (b) the relationship between chronological age and DD was U-shaped; (c) the effects of age and LHS were differential. Mechanisms underlying fundamental and longitudinal trade-offs were explored. Regarding fundamental trade-offs, LHS mediated the effects of childhood environment on DD. Regarding longitudinal trade-offs, the U-shaped relationship was more evident between physical age and DD: older adults who were in poorer physical health felt older and exhibited a higher DD. Neither the time perspective nor anticipatory time perception mediated the effect of life history trade-offs. We concluded that DD was a product of two distinct life history trade-offs, reflecting both the trait-like quality and age-related development.

Peer feedback decreases impulsive choice in adolescents with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Background

Impulsivity is a core feature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Previous work using the delay discounting task to assess impulsivity reveals that adolescents with ADHD tend to prefer a smaller-immediate reward over a larger-delayed reward, and this relates to problematic choices in daily life. To gain a better understanding of daily decision-making in adolescence, it is important to examine the social context, as peers have a major influence on decisions. Peer influence often has a negative connotation, but also provides an opportunity to promote positive outcomes. To date, it is unclear if peers affect impulsive decision-making in adolescents with ADHD, for better or for worse.

Methods

The aim of this preregistered study was to examine the effect of peer feedback on impulsive choice in male adolescents with and without ADHD (ages 13-23; N = 113). We utilized an adapted delay discounting task that was administered alone, in a social condition, and alone again. In the social condition, adolescents received either (between-subjects) manipulated impulsive or non-impulsive peer feedback. Impulsive peer feedback consisted of likes for choosing the smaller immediate reward, whereas non-impulsive peers endorsed choosing the larger delayed reward.

Results

Preregistered analyses showed that non-impulsive peer feedback resulted in decreased impulsive choice, whereas impulsive peer feedback did not alter decision-making in adolescents with and without ADHD. Explorative analyses of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms in the total sample, irrespective of diagnosis, showed that lower hyperactivity-impulsivity and more inattention symptoms were associated with increased susceptibility to non-impulsive peer feedback.

Conclusions

Together, these findings indicate that peers may provide an opportunity to decrease impulsivity and emphasize individual differences in susceptibility to non-impulsive peer feedback related to inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity. Therefore, peer feedback may be a promising component in behavioral peer-supported interventions in adolescents with ADHD.

Developmental differences in description-based versus experience-based decision making under risk in children

The willingness to take a risk is shaped by temperaments and cognitive abilities, both of which develop rapidly during childhood. In the adult developmental literature, a distinction is drawn between description-based tasks, which provide explicit choice-reward information, and experience-based tasks, which require decisions from past experience, each emphasizing different cognitive demands. Although developmental trends have been investigated for both types of decisions, few studies have compared description-based and experience-based decision making in the same sample of children. In the current study, children (N = 112; 5-9 years of age) completed both description-based and experience-based decision tasks tailored for use with young children. Child temperament was reported by the children's primary teacher. Behavioral measures suggested that the willingness to take a risk in a description-based task increased with age, whereas it decreased in an experience-based task. However, computational modeling alongside further inspection of the behavioral data suggested that these opposite developmental trends across the two types of tasks both were associated with related capacities: older (vs. younger) children's higher sensitivity to experienced losses and higher outcome sensitivity to described rewards and losses. From the temperamental characteristics, higher attentional focusing was linked with a higher learning rate on the experience-based task and a bias to accept gambles in the gain domain on the description-based task. Our findings demonstrate the importance of comparing children's behavior across qualitatively different tasks rather than studying a single behavior in isolation.

Valence biases in reinforcement learning shift across adolescence and modulate subsequent memory

As individuals learn through trial and error, some are more influenced by good outcomes, while others weight bad outcomes more heavily. Such valence biases may also influence memory for past experiences. Here, we examined whether valence asymmetries in reinforcement learning change across adolescence, and whether individual learning asymmetries bias the content of subsequent memory. Participants ages 8-27 learned the values of 'point machines,' after which their memory for trial-unique images presented with choice outcomes was assessed. Relative to children and adults, adolescents overweighted worse-than-expected outcomes during learning. Individuals' valence biases modulated incidental memory, such that those who prioritized worse- (or better-) than-expected outcomes during learning were also more likely to remember images paired with these outcomes, an effect reproduced in an independent dataset. Collectively, these results highlight age-related changes in the computation of subjective value and demonstrate that a valence-asymmetric valuation process influences how information is prioritized in episodic memory.

Adolescent Brain Development and Contextual Influences: A Decade in Review

Adolescence is a developmental period characterized by substantial psychological, biological, and neurobiological changes. This review discusses the past decade of research on the adolescent brain, as based on the overarching framework that development is a dynamic process both within the individual and between the individual and external inputs. As such, this review focuses on research showing that the development of the brain is influenced by multiple ongoing and dynamic elements. It highlights the implications this body of work on behavioral development and offers areas of opportunity for future research in the coming decade.

Impulsive and risky decision-making in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): The need for a developmental perspective

Impulsive and risky decision-making peaks in adolescence, and is consistently associated with the neurodevelopmental disorder Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), regardless of age. In this brief review, we demonstrate the similarity of theoretical models explaining impulsive and risky decision-making that originate in two relatively distinct literatures (i.e., on adolescence and on ADHD). We summarize research thus far and conclude that the presence of ADHD during adolescence further exacerbates the tendency that is already present in adolescents to make impulsive and risky decisions. We also conclude that much is still unknown about the developmental trajectories of individuals with ADHD with regard to impulsive and risky decision making, and we therefore provide several hypotheses that warrant further longitudinal research.

Children are more exploratory and learn more than adults in an approach-avoid task

Intuitively, children appear to be more exploratory than adults, and this exploration seems to help children learn,. However, there have been few clear tests of these ideas. We test whether exploration and learning change across development using a task that presents a "learning trap." In this task, exploitation-maximizing immediate reward and avoiding costs-may lead the learner to draw incorrect conclusions, while exploration may lead to better learning but be more costly. In Studies 1, 2, and 3 we find that preschoolers and early school-aged children explore more than adults and learn the true structure of the environment better. Study 3 demonstrates that children explore more than adults even though they, like adults, predict that exploration will be costly, and it shows that exploration and learning are correlated. Study 4 shows that children's and adults' learning depends on the evidence they generate during exploration: children exposed to adult-like evidence learn like adults, and adults exposed to child-like evidence learn like children. Together, these studies support the idea that children may be more exploratory than adults, and this increased exploration influences learning.

Do adolescents always take more risks than adults? A within-subjects developmental study of context effects on decision making and processing

Adolescents take more risks than adults in the real world, but laboratory experiments do not consistently demonstrate this pattern. In the current study, we examine the possibility that age differences in decision making vary as a function of the nature of the task (e.g., how information about risk is learned) and contextual features of choices (e.g., the relative favorability of choice outcomes), due to age differences in psychological constructs and physiological processes related to choice (e.g., weighting of rare probabilities, sensitivity to expected value, sampling, pupil dilation). Adolescents and adults made the same 24 choices between risky and safe options twice: once based on descriptions of each option, and once based on experience gained from sampling the options repeatedly. We systematically varied contextual features of options, facilitating a fine-grained analysis of age differences in response to these features. Eye-tracking and experience-sampling measures allowed tests of age differences in predecisional processes. Results in adolescent and adult participants were similar in several respects, including mean risk-taking rates and eye-gaze patterns. However, adolescents’ and adults’ choice behavior and process measures varied as a function of decision context. Surprisingly, age differences were most pronounced in description, with only marginal differences in experience. Results suggest that probability weighting, expected-value sensitivity, experience sampling and pupil dilation patterns may change with age. Overall, results are consistent with the notion that adolescents are more prone than adults to take risks when faced with unlikely but costly negative outcomes, and broadly point to complex interactions between multiple psychological constructs that develop across adolescence.

Assessing Impulsivity in Humans and Rodents: Taking the Translational Road

Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct encompassing domains of behavioral inhibition as well as of decision making. It is often adaptive and associated with fast responses, being in that sense physiological. However, abnormal manifestations of impulsive behavior can be observed in contexts of drug abuse and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), among others. A number of tools have therefore been devised to assess the different facets of impulsivity in both normal and pathological contexts. In this narrative review, we systematize behavioral and self-reported measures of impulsivity and critically discuss their constructs and limitations, establishing a parallel between assessments in humans and rodents. The first rely on paradigms that are typically designed to assess a specific dimension of impulsivity, within either impulsive action (inability to suppress a prepotent action) or impulsive choice, which implies a decision that weighs the costs and benefits of the options. On the other hand, self-reported measures are performed through questionnaires, allowing assessment of impulsivity dimensions that would be difficult to mimic in an experimental setting (e.g., positive/negative urgency and lack of premeditation) and which are therefore difficult (if not impossible) to measure in rodents.

Brain and Behavior Correlates of Risk Taking in Pediatric Anxiety Disorders

Avoidant behavior is a defining feature of pediatric anxiety disorders. Although prior research has examined it from the perspective of early information processing events, there has been relatively less consideration of the processes by which anxious youth make avoidant decisions and how these choices are reinforced over time. Studies of risk taking are valuable in this regard because they consider how individuals identify the pros and cons of their choices, how they weigh potential gains and losses and estimate their respective probabilities, and how they tolerate the uncertainty intrinsic to any decision. In this review, we place risk taking within existing models of information processing in pediatric anxiety disorders and highlight the particular value of this construct for informing models of developmental psychopathology and individual differences in outcome over time. We review existing behavioral and neurobiological studies of risk taking in anxious youth and conclude by identifying directions for future research.

Neurobiological changes in striatal glutamate are associated with trait impulsivity of differential reinforcement of low-rate-response behavior in male rats

Impulsive action can be measured using rat's responses on a differential reinforcement of low-rate-response (DRL) task in which performance may be varied between rats. Nevertheless, neurobiological profiles underlying the trait impulsivity of DRL behavior remain largely unknown. Here, in vivo non-invasive proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) and Western blot assay were performed to assess neurobiological changes in the dorsal striatum (DS) and nucleus accumbens (NAc) in relation to individual differences in DRL behavior. A cohort of rats was subjected to acquire a DRL task over 14 daily sessions. High impulsive (HI) and low impulsive (LI) rats were screened by behavioral measures displaying a lower response efficiency and performing more nonreinforced responses in HI rats and vice versa. MRS measurements indicated that the HI group had a lower NAc glutamate (Glu) level than did the LI group, whereas no such difference was found in the other five metabolites in this area. Moreover, no intergroup difference was observed in any metabolite in the DS. The results of Western blot assay revealed that protein expressions of GluN1 (but not GluN2B) subunit of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in the DS and NAc were higher in the HI group than in the LI group. This inherent timing impulsivity was not attributed to risky behavioral propensity because both Hl and LI rats could acquire a risk-dependent choice. The findings of this study, supported by certain correlations among behavioral, brain imaging, and neuroreceptor indices, provide evidence of the neurobiological changes of striatal Glu underlying trait impulsive action of DRL behavior.

Adolescents exhibit reduced Pavlovian biases on instrumental learning

Multiple learning systems allow individuals to flexibly respond to opportunities and challenges present in the environment. An evolutionarily conserved "Pavlovian" learning mechanism couples valence and action, promoting a tendency to approach cues associated with reward and to inhibit action in the face of anticipated punishment. Although this default response system may be adaptive, these hard-wired reactions can hinder the ability to learn flexible "instrumental" actions in pursuit of a goal. Such constraints on behavioral flexibility have been studied extensively in adults. However, the extent to which these valence-specific response tendencies bias instrumental learning across development remains poorly characterized. Here, we show that while Pavlovian response biases constrain flexible action learning in children and adults, these biases are attenuated in adolescents. This adolescent-specific reduction in Pavlovian bias may promote unbiased exploration of approach and avoidance responses, facilitating the discovery of rewarding behavior in the many novel contexts that adolescents encounter.

Sex differences and brain development during puberty and adolescence

Sex differences in behavior, and whether these behavioral differences are related to sex differences in brain development, has been a longstanding topic of debate. Presumably, sex differences can provide critically important leads for explaining the etiology of various illnesses that show (i) large sex differences in prevalence and (ii) have an origin before or during adolescence. The general aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of scientific studies on sex differences in normative brain and behavioral development across puberty and adolescence, including the (sex) hormone-driven transition phase of puberty. Moreover, we describe the literature on brain and behavioral development in gender dysphoria, a severe and persistent incongruence between the self-identified gender and the assigned sex at birth. From the literature it becomes clear there is evidence for a specific link between pubertal maturation and developmental changes in arousal, motivation, and emotion. However, this link is rather similar between boys and girls. Moreover, although there is substantial evidence for sex differences in mean brain structure, these have not always been linked to sex differences in behavior, cognition, or psychopathology. Furthermore, there is little evidence for sex differences in brain development and thus, studies so far have been unable to explain sex differences in cognition. Suggestions for future research and methodologic considerations are provided.

The role of inhibition capacities in the Iowa gambling test performance in young tattooed women

Background

Using the Iowa Gambling Test (IGT), we demonstrated previously impaired decision- making process in young tattooed women. The purpose of the present study was to explore the associations among the three facets of impaired inhibition (response inhibition, reflection inhibition and interference inhibition) and decision-making processes in this population.

Methods

To this end, the participants of the previous study (60 tattooed women and 60 non-tattooed women) were assessed in the Go/NoGo task, a measure of response inhibition, the Matched Familiar Figure Test (MFFT), a measure of reflection inhibition and the Stroop task a measure of interference inhibition.

Results

Tattooed women were significantly slower than non-tattooed women in the Go/NoGo performance; however, no differences were detected in the MFFT and the Stroop task. A hierarchical regression analysis did not reveal any significant main effects of these inhibition measures on the IGT performance.

Conclusions

These findings do not support the hypothesis that risky decision in young tattooed women is due to impaired inhibitory control. Further studies are needed to identify the cognitive mechanisms involved in the tendency to risky decisions in young tattooed women.

Longitudinal changes in brain structures related to appetitive reactivity and regulation across development

In the United States over one-third of the population, including children and adolescents, are overweight or obese. Despite the prevalence of obesity, few studies have examined how food cravings and the ability to regulate them change throughout development. Here, we addressed this gap in knowledge by examining structural brain and behavioral changes associated with regulation of craving across development. In a longitudinal design, individuals ages 6-26 completed two structural scans as well as a behavioral task where they used a cognitive regulatory strategy to decrease the appetitive value of foods. Behaviorally, we found that the ability to regulate craving improved with age. Neurally, improvements in regulatory ability were associated with cortical thinning in medial and lateral prefrontal cortex. We also found that models with cortical thickness measurements and age chosen by a lasso-based variable selection method could predict an individual's regulation behavior better than age and other behavioral factors alone. Additionally, when controlling for age, smaller ventral striatal volumes were associated with higher body mass index and predicted greater increases in weight two years later. Taken together, these results demonstrate a role for structural brain changes in supporting the ability to resist cravings for appetitive foods across development.

Risk taking and impulsive behaviour: fundamental discoveries, theoretical perspectives and clinical implications

Our willingness to take risks, our ability to wait or the speed with which to make decisions are central features of our personality. However, it is now recognized that impulsive and risk-taking behaviours are not a unitary construct, and different aspects can be both psychologically and neurally dissociated. The range of neurochemicals and brain systems that govern these behaviours is extensive, and this may be a contributing factor to the phenotypic range seen in the human population. However, this variety can also be pathological as extremes in risk-taking and impulsive behaviours are characteristics of many neuropsychiatric and indeed neurodegenerative disorders. This spans obsessive-compulsive disorder, where behaviour becomes ridged and non-spontaneous, to the nonsensical risk-taking seen in gambling and drug taking. This article is part of the theme issue 'Risk taking and impulsive behaviour: fundamental discoveries, theoretical perspectives and clinical implications'.

Moderated mediation of the link between parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent risk-taking: The role of physiological regulation and hostile behavior in an experimentally controlled investigation

Compared to childhood and adulthood, adolescence is a time of greater risk-taking behavior, potentially resulting in serious consequences. Theories of adolescent brain development highlight the imbalance between neural circuitry for reward vs. regulation. Although this imbalance may make adolescents more vulnerable to impaired decision-making in the context of heightened arousal, not all adolescents exhibit problematic risk behavior, suggesting other factors are involved. Relatedly, parent-adolescent conflict increases in mid-adolescence, and is linked to negative outcomes like substance use related risk-taking. However, the mechanism by which parent-adolescent conflict and risk-taking are linked is still unknown. Therefore, we investigated this association using a multi-method experimental design. Parent-adolescent dyads were randomly assigned to complete a discussion task together on the topic of either the adolescent's dream vacation or an adolescent-identified conflict topic. During the task, adolescent peripheral psychophysiology was measured for later calculation of heart rate variability (HRV), an index of self-regulation. Immediately after the discussion task, adolescents completed a performance-based measure of risk-taking propensity that indexes real-world risk behaviors. We hypothesized that parent-adolescent conflict would predict greater adolescent risk-taking propensity, and that increased behavioral arousal in the context of conflict, coupled with impaired self-regulation, would explain this link. Results indicated no direct effect of parent-adolescent conflict on adolescent risk-taking propensity. However, there was a significant conditional indirect effect: lower HRV, indexing worse regulatory ability, mediated the relation between conflict and risk-taking propensity but only for adolescents exhibiting behavioral arousal during the discussion task. We discuss implications for understanding adolescent risk-taking behavior.