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HSV-1's contribution as a vector for gene therapy. Nat Biotechnol 2022; 40:1316. [PMID: 36085499 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-022-01449-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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2
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Deng J, Wu Z, Liu J, Ji Q, Ju C. The Role of Latency-Associated Transcripts in the Latent Infection of Pseudorabies Virus. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071379. [PMID: 35891360 PMCID: PMC9320458 DOI: 10.3390/v14071379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudorabies virus (PRV) can cause neurological, respiratory, and reproductive diseases in pigs and establish lifelong latent infection in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Latent infection is a typical feature of PRV, which brings great difficulties to the prevention, control, and eradication of pseudorabies. The integral mechanism of latent infection is still unclear. Latency-associated transcripts (LAT) gene is the only transcriptional region during latent infection of PRV which plays the key role in regulating viral latent infection and inhibiting apoptosis. Here, we review the characteristics of PRV latent infection and the transcriptional characteristics of the LAT gene. We also analyzed the function of non-coding RNA (ncRNA) produced by the LAT gene and its importance in latent infection. Furthermore, we provided possible strategies to solve the problem of latent infection of virulent PRV strains in the host. In short, the detailed mechanism of PRV latent infection needs to be further studied and elucidated.
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Yin XT, Baugnon NK, Krishnan R, Potter CA, Yarlagadda S, Keadle TL, Stuart PM. CD137 costimulation is associated with reduced herpetic stromal keratitis and with developing normal CD8 + T cells in trigeminal ganglia. J Gen Virol 2022; 103. [PMID: 35766977 PMCID: PMC10027025 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Costimulatory interactions can be critical in developing immune responses to infectious agents. We recently reported that herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) infections of the cornea require a functional CD28-CD80/86 interaction to not only reduce the likelihood of encephalitis, but also to mediate herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK) following viral reactivation. In this same spirit we decided to determine the role that CD137 costimulation plays during HSK. Using both B6-CD137L-/- mice, as well as antagonistic and agonistic antibodies to CD137 we characterize the immune response and to what extent CD137 plays an important role during this disease. Immune responses were measured in both the cornea and in the trigeminal ganglia where the virus forms a latent infection. We demonstrate that CD137 costimulation leads to reduced corneal disease. Interestingly, we observed that lack of CD137 costimulation resulted in significantly reduced CD8+ T expansion and function in the trigeminal ganglia. Finally, we showed that viruses that have been genetically altered to express CD137 display significantly reduced corneal disease, though they did present similar levels of trigeminal infection and peripheral virus production following reactivation of a latent infection. CD137 interactions lead to reduced HSK and are necessary to develop robust trigeminal CD8+ T cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Tang Yin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Nicholas K Baugnon
- Department of Ophthalmology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rohini Krishnan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Chloe A Potter
- Department of Ophthalmology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Sudha Yarlagadda
- Department of Ophthalmology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Tammie L Keadle
- Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Patrick M Stuart
- Department of Ophthalmology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
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Zhang Y, Zeng LS, Wang J, Cai WQ, Cui W, Song TJ, Peng XC, Ma Z, Xiang Y, Cui SZ, Xin HW. Multifunctional Non-Coding RNAs Mediate Latent Infection and Recurrence of Herpes Simplex Viruses. Infect Drug Resist 2021; 14:5335-5349. [PMID: 34934329 PMCID: PMC8684386 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s334769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex viruses (HSVs) often cause latent infection for a lifetime, leading to repeated recurrence. HSVs have been engineered as oncolytic HSVs. The mechanism of the latent infection and recurrence remains largely unknown, which brings great challenges and limitations to eliminate HSVs in clinic and engineer safe oHSVs. Here, we systematically reviewed the latest development of the multi-step complex process of HSV latency and reactivation. Significantly, we first summarized the three HSV latent infection pathways, analyzed the structure and expression of the LAT1 and LAT2 of HSV-1 and HSV-2, proposed the regulation of LAT expression by four pathways, and dissected the function of LAT mediated by five LAT products of miRNAs, sRNAs, lncRNAs, sncRNAs and ORFs. We further analyzed that application of HSV LAT deletion mutants in HSV vaccines and oHSVs. Our review showed that deleting LAT significantly reduced the latency and reactivation of HSV, providing new ideas for the future development of safe and effective HSV therapeutics, vaccines and oHSVs. In addition, we proposed that RNA silencing or RNA interference may play an important role in HSV latency and reactivation, which is worth validating in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Chun’an County First People’s Hospital (Zhejiang Provincial People’s Hospital Chun’an Branch), Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 311700, People’s Republic of China
- Laboratory of Oncology, Center for Molecular Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li-Si Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510095, People’s Republic of China
| | - Juan Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Lianjiang People’s Hospital, Guangdong, 524400, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wen-Qi Cai
- Laboratory of Oncology, Center for Molecular Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Weiwen Cui
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Tong-Jun Song
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shenzhen Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, 518104, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Chun Peng
- Laboratory of Oncology, Center for Molecular Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhaowu Ma
- Laboratory of Oncology, Center for Molecular Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ying Xiang
- Laboratory of Oncology, Center for Molecular Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shu-Zhong Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510095, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hong-Wu Xin
- Laboratory of Oncology, Center for Molecular Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, Hubei, 434023, People’s Republic of China
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Huang Q, Hou J, Yang P, Yan J, Yu X, Zhuo Y, He S, Xu F. Antiviral activity of mitoxantrone dihydrochloride against human herpes simplex virus mediated by suppression of the viral immediate early genes. BMC Microbiol 2019; 19:274. [PMID: 31812160 PMCID: PMC6898960 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-019-1639-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background HSV-1 is a common pathogen that infects 50–90% of the human population worldwide. HSV-1 causes numerous infection-related diseases, some of which are severely life-threatening. There are antiviral medications with activity against HSV-1. However, with the emergence of drug-resistant mutant strains of HSV-1, there is an urgent need to develop new effective anti-HSV-1 agents. Methods Therefore, we screened a chemical library of approximately 1500 compounds to identify inhibitors of HSV-1-induced toxicity for further drug development. Moreover, we performed several experiments, including western blot analysis, Q-PCR analysis and luciferase activity assay, to explore the antiviral mechanism of the candidates. Results Here, we identified a small molecule, mitoxantrone dihydrochloride, with potency against HSV-1-induced toxicity. Furthermore, the viral titers and expression levels of HSV-1 viral proteins were potently reduced by the presence of MD in many cell lines. Using Q-PCR analysis, we found that MD efficiently reduced the transcription of viral genes that are essential for DNA synthesis, namely, UL5, UL9, UL29, UL30, UL42 and UL52. Notably, MD also significantly inhibited the transcription of the immediate early genes ICP0, ICP22, ICP27 and ICP47, all of which are required for the expression of early and late viral gene products. Using immunofluorescence and western blot analysis, we found that the antiviral effect of MD was independent of the activation of the NF-κB and MAPK pathways. Furthermore, we found that the reduction in the transcription of viral immediate early genes was not related to the promoter activities of ICP0. Conclusions Therefore, the identification of compound MD as an inhibitor of toxicity induced by HSV-1 highlights its potential use in the development of novel anti-HSV-1 drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Huang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Suzhou Dushuhu Public Hospital (Soochow University Multi-Disciplinary Polyclinic), Suzhou, China
| | - Jue Hou
- Blood Research Laboratory, Chengdu Blood Center, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China.,Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Peng Yang
- Department of emergency medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Soochow University, 1 Shizi Rd, Suzhou, China
| | - Jun Yan
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Xiaoliang Yu
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Ying Zhuo
- Department of Pulmonology, First Affiliated Hospital, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Sudan He
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Feng Xu
- Department of emergency medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Soochow University, 1 Shizi Rd, Suzhou, China.
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CD28 Costimulation Is Required for Development of Herpetic Stromal Keratitis but Does Not Prevent Establishment of Latency. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00659-19. [PMID: 31167920 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00659-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Corneal infection with herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) leads to infection of trigeminal ganglia (TG), typically followed by the establishment of latency in the infected neurons. When latency is disrupted, the virus reactivates and migrates back to the cornea, where it restimulates the immune response, leading to lesions in a disease called herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK). HSK requires T cell activation, as in the absence of T cells there is no disease. We decided to determine if CD28 costimulation of T cells was required in HSK. The results indicated that C57BL/6 CD28-/- and BALB/c CD28-/- mice failed to develop recurrent HSK, while their wild-type counterparts did. In order to better understand the dynamics of TG infection in these mice, we evaluated the amount of virus in infected TG and the number of individual neurons harboring latent virus. The results indicated that CD28-/- mice possessed significantly increased genome levels in their TG but many fewer LAT-positive cells than wild-type mice from day 7 to day 30 but that after day 30 these differences became nonsignificant. We next evaluated total and antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in TG. The results indicated that there were significantly fewer CD8 T cells in TG from day 10 to day 25 but that after that the differences were not significant. Taken together, these data suggest that CD28 costimulation is required for HSK but that while initial infection of TG is greater in CD28-/- mice, this begins to normalize with time and this normalization is concurrent with the delayed development of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells.IMPORTANCE We study the pathogenesis of herpes simplex virus-mediated corneal disease. T cells play a critical role both in disease and in the maintenance of latency in neurons. Consequently, the focus of this study was to evaluate the role that T cell costimulation plays both in corneal disease and in controlling the ability of the virus to maintain a stable infection of the ganglia that innervate the cornea. We demonstrate that in the absence of costimulation with CD28, corneal disease does not take place. However, this costimulation does not prevent the ability of CD8+ T cells to develop and, thus, control latent infection of neurons. We conclude from these studies that CD28 costimulation is required for corneal destructive immune responses but that CD8+ T cells develop over time and help to maintain latency.
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Rajčáni J, Bánáti F, Szenthe K, Szathmary S. The potential of currently unavailable herpes virus vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 2018; 17:239-248. [PMID: 29313728 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2018.1425620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Despite overwhelming experimental work, there are no licensed vaccines against the most frequent Alphaherpesviruses, namely herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV1 and 2) nor against the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a member of the subfamily Gammaherpesvirus. AREAS COVERED Since the DNAs of both HSVs reside in the regional sensory ganglia in a latent state (i.e. as circularized episomal molecules), a corresponding vaccine might be useful for immunotherapy rather than for prevention of primary infection. Here we describe the design of a purified subunit vaccine as well as the preparation and efficacy of a recombinant fusion protein consisting of the gD ectodomain from our domestic attenuated HSV1 strain HSZP. The EBV vaccines considered so far, were destined for prevention of infectious mononucleosis (IM) or to prevent formation of EBV related tumors. To design the EBV peptide vaccine, at least 15 carefully selected immunogenic epitopes coming from 12 virus coded proteins were bound to synthetic micro-particle carriers along with a non-specific pathogen recognizing receptor (PRR) stimulating both the T as well as B lymphocytes. EXPERT COMMENTARY The efficacy of a novel EBV peptide in the rabbit model was based on criteria such as antibody formation (EA-D detected by ELISA, early and capsid proteins tested by immunoblot), presence of LMP1 antigen and of viral DNA in peripheral white blood cells. Out of 19 peptide combinations used for vaccination, at least 6 showed a satisfactory protective effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Július Rajčáni
- a RT-Europe Nonprofit Research Center , Mosonmagyaróvár , Hungary
| | - Ferenc Bánáti
- a RT-Europe Nonprofit Research Center , Mosonmagyaróvár , Hungary
| | - Kálmán Szenthe
- a RT-Europe Nonprofit Research Center , Mosonmagyaróvár , Hungary
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Zhang J, Liu H, Wei B. Immune response of T cells during herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2017; 18:277-288. [PMID: 28378566 PMCID: PMC5394093 DOI: 10.1631/jzus.b1600460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), a neurotropic member of the alphaherpes virus family, is among the most prevalent and successful human pathogens. HSV-1 can cause serious diseases at every stage of life including fatal disseminated disease in newborns, cold sores, eye disease, and fatal encephalitis in adults. HSV-1 infection can trigger rapid immune responses, and efficient inhibition and clearance of HSV-1 infection rely on both the innate and adaptive immune responses of the host. Multiple strategies have been used to restrict host innate immune responses by HSV-1 to facilitate its infection in host cells. The adaptive immunity of the host plays an important role in inhibiting HSV-1 infections. The activation and regulation of T cells are the important aspects of the adaptive immunity. They play a crucial role in host-mediated immunity and are important for clearing HSV-1. In this review, we examine the findings on T cell immune responses during HSV-1 infection, which hold promise in the design of new vaccine candidates for HSV-1.
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Hou J, Zhang Z, Huang Q, Yan J, Zhang X, Yu X, Tan G, Zheng C, Xu F, He S. Antiviral activity of PHA767491 against human herpes simplex virus in vitro and in vivo. BMC Infect Dis 2017; 17:217. [PMID: 28320320 PMCID: PMC5358049 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-017-2305-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a common human pathogen that causes a variety of diseases, including oral-labial, genital lesions and life-threatening encephalitis. The antiviral nucleoside analogues such as acyclovir are currently used in anti-HSV therapies; however, clinical overuse of these drugs has led to the emergence of drug-resistant viral strains. Hence, there is an urgent need to develop new anti-HSV agents. METHODS To identify novel anti-HSV-1 compounds, we screened the LOPAC small scale library of 1280 bioactive compounds to identify inhibitors of HSV-1-induced necroptosis. Further experiments including western blot analysis, Q-PCR analysis and immunohistochemistry were performed to explore the antiviral mechanism of the compounds. RESULTS Here, we identified PHA767491 as a new inhibitor of HSV. PHA767491 potently blocked the proliferation of HSV in cells, as well as HSV induced cell death. Further, we found that PHA767491 strongly inhibited HSV infection post viral entry. Moreover, PHA767491 reduced the expression of viral genes required for DNA synthesis including UL30/42 DNA polymerase and UL5/8/52 helicase-primase complex. The essential immediate early (IE) genes such as ICP4 and ICP27 are critical for the expression of the early and late genes. Of note, PHA767491 inhibited the expression of all IE genes of both HSV-1 and HSV-2. Importantly, PHA767491 reduced viral titers in the tissues from the mice infected with HSV-1. Consistently, immunohistochemistry analysis showed that PHA767491 dramatically attenuated expression of viral protein gB in the livers. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, PHA767491 has potent anti-HSV activity by inhibiting viral replication both in vitro and in mouse model. Thus, PHA767491 could be a promising agent for the development of new anti-HSV therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jue Hou
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Zili Zhang
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Qiang Huang
- Department of emergency medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Soochow University, 1 Shizhi Rd, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jun Yan
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Xiaohu Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Translational Research and Therapy for Neuro-Psycho-Diseases and College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Xiaoliang Yu
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Guihua Tan
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Chunfu Zheng
- Institutes of Biology and Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Feng Xu
- Department of emergency medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Soochow University, 1 Shizhi Rd, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Sudan He
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Collaborative Innovation Center of Hematology, Jiangsu Institute of Hematology, Soochow University, Suzhou, China. .,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, China.
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Sawtell NM, Thompson RL. Herpes simplex virus and the lexicon of latency and reactivation: a call for defining terms and building an integrated collective framework. F1000Res 2016; 5:F1000 Faculty Rev-2038. [PMID: 27610228 PMCID: PMC4995687 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.8886.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The field of herpes simplex virus (HSV) latency and reactivation has been marked by controversy, which is not unexpected considering the complexities of the biology involved. While controversy is an important tool for digging to the bottom of difficult issues, we propose that unproductive conflict in the field arises in part from poorly defined terminology and the need for a collective framework. The uses of advanced global molecular and next-generation sequencing approaches and an increasing array of in vitro model systems have provided new molecular-level insights into HSV latency and reactivation, with the promise of expanding our concepts of these processes. However, our current framework and language are inadequate to effectively integrate new data streams into the established theories. In this brief perspective, we look back into the past to examine when and how the lexicon of HSV latency and reactivation arose in the literature and its evolution. We propose to open a dialogue among investigators for the purpose of updating and clearly defining terms used to describe these processes and to build a collective integrated framework to move our field forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy M. Sawtell
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Richard L. Thompson
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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Russell TA, Tscharke DC. Lytic Promoters Express Protein during Herpes Simplex Virus Latency. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005729. [PMID: 27348812 PMCID: PMC4922595 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) has provided the prototype for viral latency with previously well-defined acute or lytic and latent phases. More recently, the deep quiescence of HSV latency has been questioned with evidence that lytic genes can be transcribed in this state. However, to date the only evidence that these transcripts might be translated has come from immunological studies that show activated T cells persist in the nervous system during latency. Here we use a highly sensitive Cre-marking model to show that lytic and latent phases are less clearly defined in two significant ways. First, around half of the HSV spread leading to latently infected sites occurred beyond the initial acute infection and second, we show direct evidence that lytic promoters can drive protein expression during latency. Herpes simplex virus, which causes cold sores and genital herpes, has active and inactive (or latent) phases of infection that have been considered to be distinct. In this study we found that the active phase of infection, including spread in the nervous system, continues longer than has been previously appreciated. We also show evidence that virus genes previously only associated with active infection are turned on during latency. These genes are of particular interest because other work has found that they are targets of the immune response to HSV. The extent and nature of residual viral activity during latency is important to understand because it may suggest therapeutic targets to reduce recurrent HSV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany A. Russell
- John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - David C. Tscharke
- John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- * E-mail:
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12
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Li Z, Fang C, Su Y, Liu H, Lang F, Li X, Chen G, Lu D, Zhou J. Visualizing the replicating HSV-1 virus using STED super-resolution microscopy. Virol J 2016; 13:65. [PMID: 27062411 PMCID: PMC4826541 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-016-0521-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Replication of viral genome is the central event during the lytic infectious cycle of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1). However, the details of HSV-1 replication process are still elusive due to the limitations of current molecular and conventional fluorescent microscopy methods. Stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy is one of the recently available super-resolution techniques allowing observation at sub-diffraction resolution. Methods To gain new insight into HSV-1 replication, we used a combination of stimulated emission depletion microscopy, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and immunofluorescence (IF) to observe the HSV-1 replication process. Results Using two colored probes labeling the same region of HSV-1 genome, the two probes highly correlated in both pre-replication and replicating genomes. In comparison, when probes from different regions were used, the average distance between the two probes increased after the virus enters replication, suggesting that the HSV-1 genome undergoes dynamic structure changes from a compact to a relaxed formation and occupies larger space as it enters replication. Using FISH and IF, viral single strand binding protein ICP8 was seen closely positioned with HSV-1 genome. In contrast, ICP8 and host RNA polymerase II were less related. This result suggests that ICP8 marked regions of DNA replication are spatially separated from regions of active transcription, represented by the elongating form of RNA polymerase II within the viral replication compartments. Comparing HSV-1 genomes at early stage of replication with that in later stage, we also noted overall increases among different values. These results suggest stimulated emission depletion microscopy is capable of investigating events during HSV-1 replication. Conclusion 1) Replicating HSV-1 genome could be observed by super-resolution microscopy; 2) Viral genome expands spatially during replication; 3) Viral replication and transcription are partitioned into different sub-structures within the replication compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuoran Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, NO. 32 Jiaochang Donglu, Kunming, Yunnan, 650223, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Ce Fang
- Leica Microsystems Trading Limited, Shanghai, 201206, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanyuan Su
- Leica Microsystems Trading Limited, Shanghai, 201206, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongmei Liu
- Leica Microsystems Trading Limited, Shanghai, 201206, People's Republic of China
| | - Fengchao Lang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, NO. 32 Jiaochang Donglu, Kunming, Yunnan, 650223, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, NO. 32 Jiaochang Donglu, Kunming, Yunnan, 650223, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Guijun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, NO. 32 Jiaochang Donglu, Kunming, Yunnan, 650223, People's Republic of China
| | - Danfeng Lu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, NO. 32 Jiaochang Donglu, Kunming, Yunnan, 650223, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Jumin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, NO. 32 Jiaochang Donglu, Kunming, Yunnan, 650223, People's Republic of China.
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13
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Sunarto A, McColl KA, Crane MSJ, Schat KA, Slobedman B, Barnes AC, Walker PJ. Characteristics of cyprinid herpesvirus 3 in different phases of infection: Implications for disease transmission and control. Virus Res 2014; 188:45-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Ma JZ, Russell TA, Spelman T, Carbone FR, Tscharke DC. Lytic gene expression is frequent in HSV-1 latent infection and correlates with the engagement of a cell-intrinsic transcriptional response. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004237. [PMID: 25058429 PMCID: PMC4110040 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex viruses (HSV) are significant human pathogens that provide one of the best-described examples of viral latency and reactivation. HSV latency occurs in sensory neurons, being characterized by the absence of virus replication and only fragmentary evidence of protein production. In mouse models, HSV latency is especially stable but the detection of some lytic gene transcription and the ongoing presence of activated immune cells in latent ganglia have been used to suggest that this state is not entirely quiescent. Alternatively, these findings can be interpreted as signs of a low, but constant level of abortive reactivation punctuating otherwise silent latency. Using single cell analysis of transcription in mouse dorsal root ganglia, we reveal that HSV-1 latency is highly dynamic in the majority of neurons. Specifically, transcription from areas of the HSV genome associated with at least one viral lytic gene occurs in nearly two thirds of latently-infected neurons and more than half of these have RNA from more than one lytic gene locus. Further, bioinformatics analyses of host transcription showed that progressive appearance of these lytic transcripts correlated with alterations in expression of cellular genes. These data show for the first time that transcription consistent with lytic gene expression is a frequent event, taking place in the majority of HSV latently-infected neurons. Furthermore, this transcription is of biological significance in that it influences host gene expression. We suggest that the maintenance of HSV latency involves an active host response to frequent viral activity. Primary herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections are characterized by acute disease that resolves rapidly, but the virus persists in a latent form in sensory neurons that can be a source of renewed disease. Analyzing gene expression in single mouse neurons harboring latent HSV, we show directly that HSV latency is dynamic and heterogeneous. HSV lytic gene transcripts were frequently detected in latently infected neurons and often in combinations. Expression of selected cellular anti-viral and survival genes showed that transcriptional profiles differed between latently infected and uninfected neurons from the same ganglia. The pattern of host gene expression also differed between latently infected neurons that were and were not experiencing HSV lytic gene expression. Our study suggests that HSV latency is characterized by very frequent switching on of lytic genes and a rapid response by the host, presumably to halt progression to reactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Z. Ma
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail: (JZM); (FRC); (DCT)
| | - Tiffany A. Russell
- Division of Biomedical Science and Biochemistry, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Tim Spelman
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Service, Melbourne Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Centre of Population Health, Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Francis R. Carbone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail: (JZM); (FRC); (DCT)
| | - David C. Tscharke
- Division of Biomedical Science and Biochemistry, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- * E-mail: (JZM); (FRC); (DCT)
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15
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Zolini GP, Lima GK, Lucinda N, Silva MA, Dias MF, Pessoa NL, Coura BP, Cartelle CT, Arantes RME, Kroon EG, Campos MA. Defense against HSV-1 in a murine model is mediated by iNOS and orchestrated by the activation of TLR2 and TLR9 in trigeminal ganglia. J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:20. [PMID: 24479442 PMCID: PMC3922087 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-11-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Herpes simplex 1 (HSV-1) causes various human clinical manifestations, ranging from simple cold sores to encephalitis. Innate immune cells recognize pathogens through Toll-like receptors (TLRs), thus initiating the immune response. Previously, we demonstrated that the immune response against HSV-1 is dependent on TLR2 and TLR9 expression and on IFN gamma production in the trigeminal ganglia (TG) of infected mice. In this work, we further investigated the cells, molecules, and mechanisms of HSV-1 infection control, especially those that are TLR-dependent. Methods C57BL/6 wild-type (WT), TLR2−/−, TLR9−/−, and TLR2/9−/− mice were intranasally infected with HSV-1. On the viral peak day, the TG and brains were collected from mice and TLR expression was measured in the TG and brain and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression was measured in the TG by real-time PCR. Immunofluorescence assays were performed in mice TG to detect iNOS production by F4/80+ cells. Intraperitoneal macrophages nitric oxide (NO) production was evaluated by the Griess assay. WT, CD8−/−, RAG−/−, and iNOS−/− mice were intranasally infected in a survival assay, and their cytokine expression was measured in the TG by real-time PCR. Results Infected WT mice exhibited significantly increased TLR expression, compared with their respective controls, in the TG but not in the brain. TLR-deficient mice had moderately increased TLR expression in the TG and brain in compare with the non-infected animals. iNOS expression in the WT infected mice TG was higher than in the other groups with increased production by macrophages in the WT infected mice, which did not occur in the TLR2/9−/− mice. Additionally, the intraperitoneal macrophages of the WT mice had a higher production of NO compared with those of the TLR-deficient mice. The CD8−/−, RAG−/−, and iNOS−/− mice had 100% mortality after the HSV-1 infection compared with 10% of the WT mice. Cytokines were overexpressed in the iNOS−/− infected mice, while the RAG−/− mice were nearly unresponsive to the virus. Conclusion TLRs efficiently orchestrate the innate immune cells, eliciting macrophage response (with NO production by the macrophages), thereby controlling the HSV-1 infection through the immune response in the TG of mice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Marco Antônio Campos
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Imunologia de Doenças Virais, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Av, Augusto de Lima 1715, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 30190-002, Brazil.
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16
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Low-Calle AM, Prada-Arismendy J, Castellanos JE. Study of interferon-β antiviral activity against Herpes simplex virus type 1 in neuron-enriched trigeminal ganglia cultures. Virus Res 2013; 180:49-58. [PMID: 24374267 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2013.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2013] [Revised: 12/09/2013] [Accepted: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) causes a lytic infection in epithelial cells before being captured and moved via retrograde axonal transport to the nuclei of the sensory neurons of the trigeminal ganglion or dorsal root, where it establishes a latent infection. HSV-1 infection induces an antiviral response through the production of Beta Interferon (IFN-β) in infected trigeminal ganglia. The aim of this work was to characterize the response induced by IFN-β in neuron-enriched trigeminal ganglia primary cultures infected with HSV-1. An antiviral effect of IFN-β in these cultures was observed, including reduced viral production and increased cell survival. In contrast, viral infection significantly decreased both double stranded RNA dependent protein kinase (Pkr) transcription and Jak-1 and Stat-1 phosphorylation, suggesting a possible HSV-1 immune evasion mechanism in trigeminal cells. Additionally, HSV-1 infection upregulated Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling-3 (Socs3) mRNA; upregulation of socs3 was inhibited in IFN-β treated cultures. HSV-1 infection increased the number of Socs3 positive cells and modified the intracellular distribution of Socs3 protein, in infected cells. This neuron-enriched trigeminal ganglia culture model could be used to elucidate the HSV-1 viral cycle in sensory neurons and to study cellular antiviral responses and possible viral evasion mechanisms that underlie the choice between viral replication and latency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Maria Low-Calle
- Grupo de Virologia, Universidad El Bosque, Carrera 9 No. 131 A-02, Edificio de Biblioteca, Laboratorio 205, Bogotá D.C., Colombia.
| | - Jeanette Prada-Arismendy
- Grupo de Virologia, Universidad El Bosque, Carrera 9 No. 131 A-02, Edificio de Biblioteca, Laboratorio 205, Bogotá D.C., Colombia.
| | - Jaime E Castellanos
- Grupo de Virologia, Universidad El Bosque, Carrera 9 No. 131 A-02, Edificio de Biblioteca, Laboratorio 205, Bogotá D.C., Colombia; Grupo de Patogénesis Infecciosa, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Carrera 30 No. 45-03, Edificio 210 - Oficina 301, Bogotá D.C., Colombia.
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17
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Abstract
The majority of viral vectors currently used possess modest cargo capability (up to 40 kb) being based on retroviruses, lentiviruses, adenoviruses, and adenoassociated viruses. These vectors have made the most rapid transition from laboratory to clinic because their small genomes have simplified their characterization and modification. However, there is now an increasing need both in research and therapy to complement this repertoire with larger capacity vectors able to deliver multiple transgenes or to encode complex regulatory regions, constructs which can easily span more than 100 kb. Herpes Simplex Virus Type I (HSV-1) is a well-characterized human virus which is able to package about 150 kb of DNA, and several vector systems are currently in development for gene transfer applications, particularly in neurons where other systems have low efficiency. However, to reach the same level of versatility and ease of use as that of smaller genome viral vectors, simple systems for high-titer production must be developed. This paper reviews the major HSV-1 vector systems and analyses the common elements which may be most important to manipulate to achieve this goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filip Lim
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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18
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Gross S, Catez F, Masumoto H, Lomonte P. Centromere architecture breakdown induced by the viral E3 ubiquitin ligase ICP0 protein of herpes simplex virus type 1. PLoS One 2012; 7:e44227. [PMID: 23028505 PMCID: PMC3447814 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0044227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 07/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The viral E3 ubiquitin ligase ICP0 protein has the unique property to temporarily localize at interphase and mitotic centromeres early after infection of cells by the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). As a consequence ICP0 induces the proteasomal degradation of several centromeric proteins (CENPs), namely CENP-A, the centromeric histone H3 variant, CENP-B and CENP-C. Following ICP0-induced centromere modification cells trigger a specific response to centromeres called interphase Centromere Damage Response (iCDR). The biological significance of the iCDR is unknown; so is the degree of centromere structural damage induced by ICP0. Interphase centromeres are complex structures made of proximal and distal protein layers closely associated to CENP-A-containing centromeric chromatin. Using several cell lines constitutively expressing GFP-tagged CENPs, we investigated the extent of the centromere destabilization induced by ICP0. We show that ICP0 provokes the disappearance from centromeres, and the proteasomal degradation of several CENPs from the NAC (CENP-A nucleosome associated) and CAD (CENP-A Distal) complexes. We then investigated the nucleosomal occupancy of the centromeric chromatin in ICP0-expressing cells by micrococcal nuclease (MNase) digestion analysis. ICP0 expression either following infection or in cell lines constitutively expressing ICP0 provokes significant modifications of the centromeric chromatin structure resulting in higher MNase accessibility. Finally, using human artificial chromosomes (HACs), we established that ICP0-induced iCDR could also target exogenous centromeres. These results demonstrate that, in addition to the protein complexes, ICP0 also destabilizes the centromeric chromatin resulting in the complete breakdown of the centromere architecture, which consequently induces iCDR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain Gross
- Virus and Centromere Team, Centre de Génétique et de Physiologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire CNRS, UMR5534, Villeurbanne, France
- Université de Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- Laboratoire d'excellence, Labex DEVweCAN, Lyon, France
| | - Frédéric Catez
- Virus and Centromere Team, Centre de Génétique et de Physiologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire CNRS, UMR5534, Villeurbanne, France
- Université de Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Hiroshi Masumoto
- Laboratory of Cell Engineering, Kazusa DNA Research Institute, Chiba, Japan
| | - Patrick Lomonte
- Virus and Centromere Team, Centre de Génétique et de Physiologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire CNRS, UMR5534, Villeurbanne, France
- Université de Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- Laboratoire d'excellence, Labex DEVweCAN, Lyon, France
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19
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El Sawy NA, Shahine EM, Alhadidi AS, Achmawi GA, Alhabashy NM. Cellular immune response in prognosis of Bell's palsy and its relation to clinical and electrophysiological findings. ALEXANDRIA JOURNAL OF MEDICINE 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajme.2012.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Noha A. El Sawy
- Alexandria Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physical Medicine , Rheumatology, and Rehabitation, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Enas M. Shahine
- Alexandria Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physical Medicine , Rheumatology, and Rehabitation, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Abir S. Alhadidi
- Alexandria Faculty of Medicine, Department of Clinical Pathology, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Ghada A. Achmawi
- Alexandria Faculty of Medicine, Department of Neurology, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Nehal M. Alhabashy
- Alexandria Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Alexandria, Egypt
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20
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The potential link between PML NBs and ICP0 in regulating lytic and latent infection of HSV-1. Protein Cell 2012; 3:372-82. [PMID: 22544561 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-012-2021-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2011] [Accepted: 01/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a common human pathogen causing cold sores and even more serious diseases. It can establish a latent stage in sensory ganglia after primary epithelial infections, and reactivate in response to stress or sunlight. Previous studies have demonstrated that viral immediate-early protein ICP0 plays a key role in regulating the balance between lytic and latent infection. Recently, It has been determined that promyelocytic leukemia (PML) nuclear bodies (NBs), small nuclear sub-structures, contribute to the repression of HSV-1 infection in the absence of functional ICP0. In this review, we discuss the fundamentals of the interaction between ICP0 and PML NBs, suggesting a potential link between PML NBs and ICP0 in regulating lytic and latent infection of HSV-1.
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21
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Nicoll MP, Proença JT, Efstathiou S. The molecular basis of herpes simplex virus latency. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2012; 36:684-705. [PMID: 22150699 PMCID: PMC3492847 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00320.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Revised: 11/24/2011] [Accepted: 11/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 is a neurotropic herpesvirus that establishes latency within sensory neurones. Following primary infection, the virus replicates productively within mucosal epithelial cells and enters sensory neurones via nerve termini. The virus is then transported to neuronal cell bodies where latency can be established. Periodically, the virus can reactivate to resume its normal lytic cycle gene expression programme and result in the generation of new virus progeny that are transported axonally back to the periphery. The ability to establish lifelong latency within the host and to periodically reactivate to facilitate dissemination is central to the survival strategy of this virus. Although incompletely understood, this review will focus on the mechanisms involved in the regulation of latency that centre on the functions of the virus-encoded latency-associated transcripts (LATs), epigenetic regulation of the latent virus genome and the molecular events that precipitate reactivation. This review considers current knowledge and hypotheses relating to the mechanisms involved in the establishment, maintenance and reactivation herpes simplex virus latency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Nicoll
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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22
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Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a human pathogen whose lifestyle is based on a long-term dual interaction with the infected host, being able to establish both lytic and latent infections. The virus genome is a 153 kbp double-stranded DNA molecule encoding more than 80 genes. The interest of HSV-1 as gene transfer vector stems from its ability to infect many different cell types, both quiescent and proliferating cells, the very high packaging capacity of the virus capsid, the outstanding neurotropic adaptations that this virus has evolved, and the fact that it never integrates into the cellular chromosomes, thus avoiding the risk of insertional mutagenesis. Two types of vectors can be derived from HSV-1, recombinant vectors and amplicon vectors, and different methodologies have been developed to prepare large stocks of each type of vector. This chapter summarizes (1) the two approaches most commonly used to prepare recombinant vectors through homologous recombination, either in eukaryotic cells or in bacteria, and (2) the two methodologies currently used to generate helper-free amplicon vectors, either using a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-based approach or a Cre/loxP site-specific recombination strategy.
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23
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Herpes simplex virus immediate-early protein ICP0 is targeted by SIAH-1 for proteasomal degradation. J Virol 2011; 85:7644-57. [PMID: 21632771 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02207-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) immediate-early protein ICP0 is a transcriptional activator with E3 ubiquitin ligase activity that induces the degradation of ND10 proteins, including the promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) and Sp100. Moreover, ICP0 has a role in the derepression of viral genomes and in the modulation of the host interferon response to virus infection. Here, we report that ICP0 interacts with SIAH-1, a cellular E3 ubiquitin ligase that is involved in multiple cellular pathways and is itself capable of mediating PML degradation. This novel virus-host interaction profoundly stabilized SIAH-1 and recruited this cellular E3 ligase into ICP0-containing nuclear bodies. Moreover, SIAH-1 mediated the polyubiquitination of HSV ICP0 in vitro and in vivo. After infection of SIAH-1 knockdown cells with HSV, higher levels of ICP0 were produced, ICP0 was less ubiquitinated, and the half-life of this multifunctional viral regulatory protein was increased. These results indicate an inhibitory role of SIAH-1 during lytic infection by targeting ICP0 for proteasomal degradation.
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24
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Dosa S, Castellanos K, Bacsa S, Gagyi E, Kovacs SK, Valyi-Nagy K, Shukla D, Dermody TS, Valyi-Nagy T. Chronic progressive deficits in neuron size, density and number in the trigeminal ganglia of mice latently infected with herpes simplex virus. Brain Pathol 2011; 21:583-93. [PMID: 21371157 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2011.00485.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous epidemiological studies have proposed a link between herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection and several common chronic neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. Experimental HSV infection of mice can lead to chronic behavioral and neurological deficits and chronic pain. While neuron injury and loss are well-documented consequences of the acute phase of infection, the pathologic consequences of latent HSV infection are poorly understood. To determine whether latent HSV infection can cause neuronal injury in mice, trigeminal ganglia (TG) derived from adult BALB/c mice 1, 12 and 31 weeks after corneal HSV type 1 (HSV-1) inoculation were analyzed for evidence of productive or latent HSV-1 infection, inflammation and changes in neuron size, density and number. We found that latent HSV-1 infection between 12 and 31 weeks after corneal virus inoculation was associated with inflammation and progressive deficits in mean neuron diameter, neuronal nucleus diameter, neuron density and neuron number in the TG relative to mock-infected controls. The extent of neuronal injury during latent infection correlated with the extent of inflammation. These studies demonstrate that latent HSV infection is associated with progressive neuronal pathology and may lead to a better understanding of the role of HSV infections in chronic neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandor Dosa
- Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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25
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Clement C, Bhattacharjee PS, Kumar M, Foster TP, Thompson HW, Hill JM. Upregulation of mouse genes in HSV-1 latent TG after butyrate treatment implicates the multiple roles of the LAT-ICP0 locus. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52:1770-9. [PMID: 20881297 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.09-5019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine host response by gene expression in HSV-1 latent trigeminal ganglia (TG) after sodium butyrate (NaBu) treatment. METHODS Corneas of 6-week-old female BALB/c mice were scarified and inoculated with HSV-1 17Syn(+) (high phenotypic reactivator) or its mutant 17ΔPst(LAT(-)) (low phenotypic reactivator) at 10(4) plaque-forming units/eye. NaBu-induced viral reactivation was by intraperitoneal (IP) administration at postinfection (PI) day 28, followed by euthanasia after 1 hour. NaBu-treated, uninfected mice served as the control. The resultant labeled cRNA from TG isolated total RNA was hybridized to gene microarray chips containing 14,000 mouse genes. Quantitative real-time PCR was performed to confirm gene expression. RESULTS Differential induction of gene expression between 17Syn(+) and its mutant 17ΔPst(LAT(-)) was designated as NaBu-induced gene expression and yielded significant upregulation of 2- to 16-fold of 0.4% (56/14,000) host genes probed, comprising mainly nucleosome assembly and binding, central nervous system structural activity, hormonal activity, and signaling activity. Approximately 0.2% (24/14,000) of the host genes, mainly of the same functional categories were downregulated 3- to 11-fold. Immune activity was minor in comparison to our reports on gene expression during latency and heat stress induction. Euchromatin analysis revealed that the LAT-ICP0 locus is amenable to the effects of NaBu. Histone activity was detected by early transcription of histone cluster 2 H2be (Hist2h2be). CONCLUSIONS NaBu-induced reactivation of HSV-1 is twofold: drug action involving significant moderation of specific host epigenetic changes and failure to elicit or suppress immune activity at the early time point of 1 hour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Clement
- Department of Ophthalmology, LSU Eye Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
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26
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de Oliveira AP, Fraefel C. Herpes simplex virus type 1/adeno-associated virus hybrid vectors. Open Virol J 2010; 4:109-22. [PMID: 20811580 PMCID: PMC2930156 DOI: 10.2174/1874357901004030109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2009] [Revised: 01/12/2010] [Accepted: 01/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) amplicons can accommodate foreign DNA of any size up to 150 kbp and, therefore, allow extensive combinations of genetic elements. Genomic sequences as well as cDNA, large transcriptional regulatory sequences for cell type-specific expression, multiple transgenes, and genetic elements from other viruses to create hybrid vectors may be inserted in a modular fashion. Hybrid amplicons use genetic elements from HSV-1 that allow replication and packaging of the vector DNA into HSV-1 virions, and genetic elements from other viruses that either direct integration of transgene sequences into the host genome or allow episomal maintenance of the vector. Thus, the advantages of the HSV-1 amplicon system, including large transgene capacity, broad host range, strong nuclear localization, and availability of helper virus-free packaging systems are retained and combined with those of heterologous viral elements that confer genetic stability to the vector DNA. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) has the unique capability of integrating its genome into a specific site, designated AAVS1, on human chromosome 19. The AAV rep gene and the inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) that flank the AAV genome are sufficient for this process. HSV-1 amplicons have thus been designed that contain the rep gene and a transgene cassette flanked by AAV ITRs. These HSV/AAV hybrid vectors direct site-specific integration of transgene sequences into AAVS1 and support long-term transgene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cornel Fraefel
- Institute of Virology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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27
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ICP0 antagonizes ICP4-dependent silencing of the herpes simplex virus ICP0 gene. PLoS One 2010; 5:e8837. [PMID: 20098619 PMCID: PMC2809113 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2009] [Accepted: 01/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
ICP0 is a regulatory protein that plays a critical role in the replication-latency balance of herpes simplex virus (HSV). Absence of ICP0 renders HSV prone to establish quiescent infections, and thus cellular repressor(s) are believed to silence HSV mRNA synthesis when ICP0 fails to accumulate. To date, an ICP0-antagonized repressor has not been identified that restricts HSV mRNA synthesis by more than 2-fold. We report the unexpected discovery that HSV's major transcriptional regulator, ICP4, meets the criteria of a bona fide ICP0-antagonized repressor of viral mRNA synthesis. Our study began when we noted a repressive activity that restricted ICP0 mRNA synthesis by up to 30-fold in the absence of ICP0. When ICP0 accumulated, the repressor only restricted ICP0 mRNA synthesis by 3-fold. ICP4 proved to be necessary and sufficient to repress ICP0 mRNA synthesis, and did so in an ICP4-binding-site-dependent manner. ICP4 co-immunoprecipitated with FLAG-tagged ICP0; thus, a physical interaction likely explains how ICP0 antagonizes ICP4's capacity to silence the ICP0 gene. These findings suggest that ICP0 mRNA synthesis is differentially regulated in HSV-infected cells by the virus-encoded repressor activity embedded in ICP4, and a virus-encoded antirepressor, ICP0. Bacteriophage λ relies on a similar repression-antirepression regulatory scheme to “decide” whether a given infection will be productive or silent. Therefore, our findings appear to add to the growing list of inexplicable similarities that point to a common evolutionary ancestry between the herpesviruses and tailed bacteriophage.
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Herpes simplex virus VP16, but not ICP0, is required to reduce histone occupancy and enhance histone acetylation on viral genomes in U2OS osteosarcoma cells. J Virol 2009; 84:1366-75. [PMID: 19939931 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01727-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The herpes simplex virus (HSV) genome rapidly becomes associated with histones after injection into the host cell nucleus. The viral proteins ICP0 and VP16 are required for efficient viral gene expression and have been implicated in reducing the levels of underacetylated histones on the viral genome, raising the possibility that high levels of underacetylated histones inhibit viral gene expression. The U2OS osteosarcoma cell line is permissive for replication of ICP0 and VP16 mutants and appears to lack an innate antiviral repression mechanism present in other cell types. We therefore used chromatin immunoprecipitation to determine whether U2OS cells are competent to load histones onto HSV DNA and, if so, whether ICP0 and/or VP16 are required to reduce histone occupancy and enhance acetylation in this cell type. High levels of underacetylated histone H3 accumulated at several locations on the viral genome in the absence of VP16 activation function; in contrast, an ICP0 mutant displayed markedly reduced histone levels and enhanced acetylation, similar to wild-type HSV. These results demonstrate that U2OS cells are competent to load underacetylated histones onto HSV DNA and uncover an unexpected role for VP16 in modulating chromatin structure at viral early and late loci. One interpretation of these findings is that ICP0 and VP16 affect viral chromatin structure through separate pathways, and the pathway targeted by ICP0 is defective in U2OS cells. We also show that HSV infection results in decreased histone levels on some actively transcribed genes within the cellular genome, demonstrating that viral infection alters cellular chromatin structure.
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Identification of virus resistant tumor cell subpopulations in three-dimensional uveal melanoma cultures. Cancer Gene Ther 2009; 17:223-34. [DOI: 10.1038/cgt.2009.73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Lima SQ, Hromádka T, Znamenskiy P, Zador AM. PINP: a new method of tagging neuronal populations for identification during in vivo electrophysiological recording. PLoS One 2009; 4:e6099. [PMID: 19584920 PMCID: PMC2702752 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural circuits are exquisitely organized, consisting of many different neuronal subpopulations. However, it is difficult to assess the functional roles of these subpopulations using conventional extracellular recording techniques because these techniques do not easily distinguish spikes from different neuronal populations. To overcome this limitation, we have developed PINP (Photostimulation-assisted Identification of Neuronal Populations), a method of tagging neuronal populations for identification during in vivo electrophysiological recording. The method is based on expressing the light-activated channel channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) to restricted neuronal subpopulations. ChR2-tagged neurons can be detected electrophysiologically in vivo since illumination of these neurons with a brief flash of blue light triggers a short latency reliable action potential. We demonstrate the feasibility of this technique by expressing ChR2 in distinct populations of cortical neurons using two different strategies. First, we labeled a subpopulation of cortical neurons-mainly fast-spiking interneurons-by using adeno-associated virus (AAV) to deliver ChR2 in a transgenic mouse line in which the expression of Cre recombinase was driven by the parvalbumin promoter. Second, we labeled subpopulations of excitatory neurons in the rat auditory cortex with ChR2 based on projection target by using herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV1), which is efficiently taken up by axons and transported retrogradely; we find that this latter population responds to acoustic stimulation differently from unlabeled neurons. Tagging neurons is a novel application of ChR2, used in this case to monitor activity instead of manipulating it. PINP can be readily extended to other populations of genetically identifiable neurons, and will provide a useful method for probing the functional role of different neuronal populations in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Q. Lima
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, United States of America
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Tomáš Hromádka
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, United States of America
| | - Petr Znamenskiy
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Watson School of Biological Sciences, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, United States of America
| | - Anthony M. Zador
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Negorev DG, Vladimirova OV, Maul GG. Differential functions of interferon-upregulated Sp100 isoforms: herpes simplex virus type 1 promoter-based immediate-early gene suppression and PML protection from ICP0-mediated degradation. J Virol 2009; 83:5168-80. [PMID: 19279115 PMCID: PMC2682089 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02083-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2008] [Accepted: 02/27/2009] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells have intrinsic defenses against virus infection, acting before the innate or the adaptive immune response. Preexisting antiviral proteins such as PML, Daxx, and Sp100 are stored in specific nuclear domains (ND10). In herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), the immediate-early protein ICP0 serves as a counterdefense through degradation of the detrimental protein PML. We asked whether interferon (IFN)-upregulated Sp100 is similarly antagonized by ICP0 in normal human fibroblasts by using a selective-knockdown approach. We find that of the four Sp100 isoforms, the three containing a SAND domain block the transcription of HSV-1 proteins ICP0 and ICP4 at the promoter level and that IFN changes the differential splicing of the Sp100 transcript in favor of the inhibitor Sp100C. At the protein level, ICP0 activity does not lead to the hydrolysis of any of the Sp100 isoforms. The SAND domain-containing isoforms are not general inhibitors of viral promoters, as the activity of the major immediate-early cytomegalovirus promoter is not diminished, whereas the long terminal repeat of a retrovirus, like the ICP0 promoter, is strongly inhibited. Since we could not find a specific promoter region in the ICP0 gene that responds to the SAND domain-containing isoforms, we questioned whether Sp100 could act through other antiviral proteins such as PML. We find that all four Sp100 isoforms stabilize ND10 and protect PML from ICP0-based hydrolysis. Loss of either all PML isoforms or all Sp100 isoforms reduces the opposite constituent ND10 protein, suggesting that various interdependent mechanisms of ND10-based proteins inhibit virus infection at the immediate-early level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitri G Negorev
- The Wistar Institute, 3601 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Thompson RL, Preston CM, Sawtell NM. De novo synthesis of VP16 coordinates the exit from HSV latency in vivo. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5:e1000352. [PMID: 19325890 PMCID: PMC2654966 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2008] [Accepted: 02/26/2009] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanism controlling the exit from herpes simplex virus latency (HSV) is of
central importance to recurrent disease and transmission of infection, yet
interactions between host and viral functions that govern this process remain
unclear. The cascade of HSV gene transcription is initiated by the
multifunctional virion protein VP16, which is expressed late in the viral
replication cycle. Currently, it is widely accepted that VP16 transactivating
function is not involved in the exit from latency. Utilizing the mouse ocular
model of HSV pathogenesis together with genetically engineered viral mutants and
assays to quantify latency and the exit from latency at the single neuron level,
we show that in vivo (i) the VP16 promoter confers distinct regulation critical
for viral replication in the trigeminal ganglion (TG) during the acute phase of
infection and (ii) the transactivation function of VP16 (VP16TF) is uniquely
required for the exit from latency. TG neurons latently infected with the VP16TF
mutant in1814 do not express detectable viral proteins following stress, whereas
viruses with mutations in the other major viral transcription regulators ICP0
and ICP4 do exit the latent state. Analysis of a VP16 promoter/reporter mutant
in the background of in1814 demonstrates that the VP16 promoter is activated in
latently infected neurons following stress in the absence of other viral
proteins. These findings support the novel hypothesis that de novo expression of
VP16 regulates entry into the lytic program in neurons at all phases of the
viral life cycle. HSV reactivation from latency conforms to a model in which
stochastic derepression of the VP16 promoter and expression of VP16 initiates
entry into the lytic cycle. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) establishes life-long latent infections in sensory
neurons of the human host. Periodically, HSV exits latency in an infected neuron
and is transported to the body surface where it replicates, leading to recurrent
disease and infection of new hosts. We do not currently understand how entry
into the lytic cycle is blocked in neurons and latency is established. Nor do we
know how, at some time in the future, the lytic program becomes activated in the
one or two latently infected neurons which characterize a reactivation event. In
tissue culture cells, and by analogy in cells at the body surface, the HSV
replication program is initiated by the interaction of a virion protein, VP16
(brought in with the virus as a protein), with host cell factors. Here we show
that the de novo synthesis of VP16 is required for efficient viral replication
during the acute phase of infection in neurons. This indicates that latency is
favored because VP16 may not be transported efficiently to the nerve cell
nucleus. Once latency is established, the de novo expression of VP16 is an
absolute and very early requirement for the exit from the latent state. Our data
support a model of HSV reactivation in which the stochastic derepression of the
VP16 promoter and resulting expression of VP16 starts the viral lytic
program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L. Thompson
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Microbiology, and Biochemistry,
University of Cincinnati School of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of
America
| | - Chris M. Preston
- Medical Research Council Virology Unit, Glasgow, Scotland, United
Kingdom
| | - Nancy M. Sawtell
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati
Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of
America
- * E-mail:
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Clement C, Bhattacharjee PS, Kaufman HE, Hill JM. Heat-induced reactivation of HSV-1 in latent mice: upregulation in the TG of CD83 and other immune response genes and their LAT-ICP0 locus. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2009; 50:2855-61. [PMID: 19151393 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.08-2430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine changes in host gene expression in HSV-1 latent trigeminal ganglia (TG) after hyperthermic stress. METHODS Scarified corneas of 6-week-old female BALB/c mice were inoculated with either HSV-1 17Syn(+) (high phenotypic reactivator) or 17DeltaPst(LAT(-)) (low phenotypic reactivator) at 10(4) plaque-forming units/eye. At 28 days after infection, viral reactivation was induced in some of the infected mice with hyperthermic stress, and the mice were killed after 1 hour. Heat-treated uninfected mice served as the control. Labeled cRNA derived from TG-isolated total RNA was hybridized to 430 2.0 chips containing 14,000 mouse genes. Gene expression was confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR. RESULTS There was no difference in gene expression in the non-heat-treated mice. Gene expression in the TG of each of the heat-treated mouse groups (17Syn(+), 17DeltaPst(LAT(-)) and uninfected) yielded upregulation of more than twofold of a group of the same genes, designated as heat stress-induced gene expression. Twenty-nine genes (0.2%) were significantly upregulated (2- to 17-fold) when the heat stress-induced gene expression was subtracted from the gene expression of 17Syn(+) latent TG relative to 17DeltaPst(LAT(-)) latent TG 1 hour after mouse hyperthermic stress. Nine host adaptive immunity genes comprising Ig molecules, CD83, CD8A, ADA, and CCL8 were the largest subset upregulated, and all were confirmed by real-time PCR. Others identified included genes involved in hypothalamic-pituitary gland functions. CONCLUSIONS Hyperthermic stress-induced reactivation of the HSV-1 high phenotypic reactivator can upregulate gene expression involved in B-cell function and in T-cell function. CD83 is implicated in HSV-1 latency, suggesting it could also be involved in immune-mediated mechanisms of viral reactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Clement
- Department of Ophthalmology, LSU Eye Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
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Valderrama X, Rapin N, Misra V. Zhangfei, a novel regulator of the human nerve growth factor receptor, trkA. J Neurovirol 2008; 14:425-36. [PMID: 19016376 DOI: 10.1080/13550280802275904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The replication of herpes simplex virus (HSV) in epithelial cells, and during reactivation from latency in sensory neurons, depends on a ubiquitous cellular protein called host cell factor (HCF). The HSV transactivator, VP16, which initiates the viral replicative cycle, binds HCF as do some other cellular proteins. Of these, the neuronal transcription factor Zhangfei suppresses the ability of VP16 to initiate the replicative cycle. It also suppresses Luman, another cellular transcription factor that binds HCF. Interactions of nerve growth factor (NGF) and its receptor tropomyosin-related kinase (trkA) appear to be critical for maintaining HSV latency. Because the neuronal transcription factor Brn3a, which regulates trkA expression, has a motif for binding HCF, we investigated if Zhangfei had an effect on its activity. We found that Brn3a required HCF for activating the trkA promoter and Zhangfei suppressed its activity in non-neuronal cells. However, in neuron-like NGF-differentiated PC12 cells, both Brn3a and Zhangfei activated the trkA promoter and induced the expression of endogenous trkA. In addition, capsaicin, a stressor, which activates HSV in in vitro models of latency, decreased levels of Zhangfei and trkA transcripts in NGF-differentiated PC12 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ximena Valderrama
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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Abstract
Parasite evolution is mainly studied through a trade-off involving host death (i.e., virulence) and transmission. In addition to the lack of evidence, this trade-off largely fails to understand the evolution of sublethal parasite effects. Here, I argue that considering host recovery as a main selection pressure faced by the parasite helps to address these problems and opens new perspectives for the study of parasite evolution. Using an embedded model, I show how a trade-off between transmission and recovery may emerge from within-host dynamics if immune activation is assumed to depend on the parasite's overall growth rate. I also show that the value of the parasite's optimal growth rate strongly depends on the immunological state of the host. Transmission-recovery trade-offs are of particular interest to the study of the evolution of human pathogens because of the use of antipathogen treatments, which strengthens the recovery constraint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Alizon
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada.
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36
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Antrobus R, Boutell C. Identification of a novel higher molecular weight isoform of USP7/HAUSP that interacts with the Herpes simplex virus type-1 immediate early protein ICP0. Virus Res 2008; 137:64-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2008.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2008] [Revised: 05/30/2008] [Accepted: 05/30/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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37
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Ling PD, Tan J, Sewatanon J, Peng R. Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 open reading frame 75c tegument protein induces the degradation of PML and is essential for production of infectious virus. J Virol 2008; 82:8000-12. [PMID: 18508901 PMCID: PMC2519593 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02752-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2007] [Accepted: 05/19/2008] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Promyelocytic Leukemia nuclear body (PML NB) proteins mediate an intrinsic cellular host defense response against virus infections. Herpesviruses express proteins that modulate PML or PML-associated proteins by a variety of strategies, including degradation of PML or relocalization of PML NB proteins. The consequences of PML-herpesvirus interactions during infection in vivo have yet to be investigated in detail, largely because of the species-specific tropism of many human herpesviruses. Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68) is emerging as a suitable model to study basic biological questions of virus-host interactions because it naturally infects mice. Therefore, we sought to determine whether gammaHV68 targets PML NBs as part of its natural life cycle. We found that gammaHV68 induces PML degradation through a proteasome-dependent mechanism and that loss of PML results in more robust virus replication in mouse fibroblasts. Surprisingly, gammaHV68-mediated PML degradation was mediated by the virion tegument protein ORF75c, which shares homology with the cellular formylglycinamide ribotide amidotransferase enzyme. In addition, we show that ORF75c is essential for production of infectious virus. ORF75 homologs are conserved in all rhadinoviruses but so far have no assigned functions. Our studies shed light on a potential role for this unusual protein in rhadinovirus biology and suggest that gammaHV68 will be a useful model for investigation of PML-herpesvirus interactions in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul D Ling
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Mail Stop BCM-385, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.
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Everett RD, Parada C, Gripon P, Sirma H, Orr A. Replication of ICP0-null mutant herpes simplex virus type 1 is restricted by both PML and Sp100. J Virol 2008; 82:2661-72. [PMID: 18160441 PMCID: PMC2258993 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02308-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2007] [Accepted: 12/17/2007] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) mutants that fail to express the viral immediate-early protein ICP0 have a pronounced defect in viral gene expression and plaque formation in limited-passage human fibroblasts. ICP0 is a RING finger E3 ubiquitin ligase that induces the degradation of several cellular proteins. PML, the organizer of cellular nuclear substructures known as PML nuclear bodies or ND10, is one of the most notable proteins that is targeted by ICP0. Depletion of PML from human fibroblasts increases ICP0-null mutant HSV-1 gene expression, but not to wild-type levels. In this study, we report that depletion of Sp100, another major ND10 protein, results in a similar increase in ICP0-null mutant gene expression and that simultaneous depletion of both proteins complements the mutant virus to a greater degree. Although chromatin assembly and modification undoubtedly play major roles in the regulation of HSV-1 infection, we found that inhibition of histone deacetylase activity with trichostatin A was unable to complement the defect of ICP0-null mutant HSV-1 in either normal or PML-depleted human fibroblasts. These data lend further weight to the hypothesis that ND10 play an important role in the regulation of HSV-1 gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger D Everett
- MRC Virology Unit, Church Street, Glasgow G11 5JR, Scotland, United Kingdom.
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Coleman HM, Connor V, Cheng ZSC, Grey F, Preston CM, Efstathiou S. Histone modifications associated with herpes simplex virus type 1 genomes during quiescence and following ICP0-mediated de-repression. J Gen Virol 2008; 89:68-77. [PMID: 18089730 PMCID: PMC2884978 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.83272-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2007] [Accepted: 09/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the current study, it was shown that repressed virus genomes in quiescently infected MRC5 cells adopt a repressed histone-associated structure marked by the enrichment of deacetylated histones at a wide variety of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) promoters. In addition, it was shown that genome de-repression, mediated by HSV-2 superinfection or delivery of ICP0 using a recombinant adenovirus vector, resulted in the enrichment of acetylated histones on HSV DNA. These data indicate that ICP0-mediated genome de-repression is intimately linked to enrichment of acetylated histones at virus promoters. The fold change in association of pan-acetylated histone H3 following Ad.TRE.ICP0-mediated de-repression consistently revealed promoter-specific variation, with the highest fold changes (>50-fold) being observed at the latency-associated transcript promoter and enhancer regions. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analyses using an antibody specific to the C terminus of histone H3 as a surrogate measure of nucleosome occupancy revealed little variability in the total loading of histone H3 at the various HSV promoters. This observation suggests that acetylation of histone H3 in response to ICP0 expression is not uniformly targeted across the HSV-1 genome during ICP0-mediated de-repression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather M. Coleman
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Viv Connor
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Zara S. C. Cheng
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Finn Grey
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | | | - Stacey Efstathiou
- Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
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Abstract
Bioinformatic and direct cloning approaches have led to the identification of over 100 novel miRNAs expressed in DNA viruses, although the function of the majority of these small regulatory RNA molecules is unclear. Recently, a number of reports have now identified potential targets of viral miRNAs, including cellular and viral genes as well as an ortholog of an important immuno-regulatory cellular miRNA. In this review, we will cover the identification and characterization of miRNAs expressed in the herpesvirus family and discuss the potential significance of their role in viral infection.
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Terry-Allison T, Smith CA, DeLuca NA. Relaxed repression of herpes simplex virus type 1 genomes in Murine trigeminal neurons. J Virol 2007; 81:12394-405. [PMID: 17855552 PMCID: PMC2168976 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01068-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The expression of herpes simplex virus (HSV) genomes in the absence of viral regulatory proteins in sensory neurons is poorly understood. Previously, our group reported an HSV immediate early (IE) mutant (d109) unable to express any of the five IE genes and encoding a model human cytomegalovirus immediate early promoter-green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgene. In cultured cells, GFP expressed from this mutant was observed in only a subset of infected cells. The subset exhibited cell type dependence, as the fractions of GFP-expressing cells varied widely among the cell types examined. Herein, we characterize this mutant in murine embryonic trigeminal ganglion (TG) cultures. We found that d109 was nontoxic to neural cultures and persisted in the cultures throughout their life spans. Unlike with some of the cultured cell lines and strains, expression of the GFP transgene was observed in a surprisingly large subset of neurons. However, very few nonneuronal cells expressed GFP. The abilities of ICP0 and an inhibitor of histone deacetylase, trichostatin A (TSA), to activate GFP expression from nonexpressing cells were also compared. The provision of ICP0 by infection with d105 reactivated quiescent genomes in nearly every cell, whereas reactivation by TSA was much more limited and restricted to the previously nonexpressing neurons. Moreover, we found that d109, which does not express ICP0, consistently reactivated HSV type 1 (KOS) in latently infected adult TG cultures. These results suggest that the state of persisting HSV genomes in some TG neurons may be more dynamic and more easily activated than has been observed with nonneuronal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy Terry-Allison
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
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42
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Everett RD, Murray J, Orr A, Preston CM. Herpes simplex virus type 1 genomes are associated with ND10 nuclear substructures in quiescently infected human fibroblasts. J Virol 2007; 81:10991-1004. [PMID: 17670833 PMCID: PMC2045565 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00705-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) genomes become associated with structures related to cellular nuclear substructures known as ND10 or promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies during the early stages of lytic infection. This paper describes the relationship between HSV-1 genomes and ND10 in human fibroblasts that maintain the viral genomes in a quiescent state. We report that quiescent HSV-1 genomes detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) are associated with enlarged ND10-like structures, frequently such that the FISH-defined viral foci are apparently enveloped within a sphere of PML and other ND10 proteins. The number of FISH viral foci in each quiescently infected cell is concordant with the input multiplicity of infection, with each structure containing no more than a small number of viral genomes. A proportion of the enlarged ND10-like foci in quiescently infected cells contain accumulations of the heterochromatin protein HP1 but not other common markers of heterochromatin such as histone H3 di- or trimethylated on lysine residue 9. Many of the virally induced enlarged ND10-like structures also contain concentrations of conjugated ubiquitin. Quiescent infections can be established in cells that are highly depleted for PML. However, during the initial stages of establishment of a quiescent infection in such cells, other ND10 proteins (Sp100, hDaxx, and ATRX) are recruited into virally induced foci that are likely to be associated with HSV-1 genomes. These observations illustrate that the intimate connections between HSV-1 genomes and ND10 that occur during lytic infection also extend to quiescent infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger D Everett
- MRC Virology Unit, Church Street, Glasgow G11 5JR, Scotland, United Kingdom.
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43
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Kummer M, Turza NM, Muhl-Zurbes P, Lechmann M, Boutell C, Coffin RS, Everett RD, Steinkasserer A, Prechtel AT. Herpes simplex virus type 1 induces CD83 degradation in mature dendritic cells with immediate-early kinetics via the cellular proteasome. J Virol 2007; 81:6326-38. [PMID: 17428858 PMCID: PMC1900083 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02327-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2006] [Accepted: 03/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mature dendritic cells (DCs) are the most potent antigen-presenting cells within the human immune system. However, Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is able to interfere with DC biology and to establish latency in infected individuals. In this study, we provide new insights into the mechanism by which HSV-1 disarms DCs by the manipulation of CD83, a functionally important molecule for DC activation. Fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) analyses revealed a rapid downmodulation of CD83 surface expression within 6 to 8 h after HSV-1 infection, in a manner strictly dependent on viral gene expression. Soluble CD83 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, together with Western blot analysis, demonstrated that CD83 rapidly disappears from the cell surface after contact with HSV-1 by a mechanism that involves protein degradation rather than shedding of CD83 from the cell surface into the medium. Infection experiments with an ICP0 deletion mutant demonstrated an important role for this viral immediate-early protein during CD83 degradation, since this particular mutant strain leads to strongly reduced CD83 degradation. This hypothesis was further strengthened by cotransfection of plasmids expressing CD83 and ICP0 into 293T cells, which led to significantly reduced accumulation of CD83. In strong contrast, transfection of plasmids expressing CD83 and a mutant ICP0 defective in its RING finger-mediated E3 ubiquitin ligase function did not reduce CD83 expression. Inhibition of the proteasome, the cellular protein degradation machinery, almost completely restored CD83 surface expression during HSV-1 infection, indicating that proteasome-mediated degradation and HSV-1 ICP0 play crucial roles in this novel viral immune escape mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Kummer
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Erlangen, Hartmannstrasse 14, D-91052 Erlangen, Germany
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Dishon A, Davidovich M, Ilouze M, Kotler M. Persistence of cyprinid herpesvirus 3 in infected cultured carp cells. J Virol 2007; 81:4828-36. [PMID: 17301126 PMCID: PMC1900188 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02188-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3), previously designated carp interstitial nephritis and gill necrosis virus or koi herpesvirus, is the cause of a worldwide mortal disease of koi and carp. Morphologically, the virus resembles herpesviruses, yet it bears a genome of 277 to 295 kbp, which is divergent from most of the genomic sequences available in GenBank. The disease afflicts fish in the transient seasons, when the water temperature is 18 to 28 degrees C, conditions which permit virus propagation in cultured cells. Here we report that infectious virus is preserved in cultured cells maintained for 30 days at 30 degrees C. CyHV-3-infected vacuolated cells with deformed morphology converted to normal, and plaques disappeared following shifting up of the temperature and reappeared after transfer to the permissive temperature. Viral propagation and viral gene transcription were turned off by shifting cells to the nonpermissive temperature. Upon return of the cells to the permissive temperature, transcription of viral genes was reactivated in a sequence distinguished from that occurring in naïve cells following infection. Our results show that CyHV-3 persists in cultured cells maintained at the nonpermissive temperature and suggest that viruses could persist for long periods in the fish body, enabling a new burst of infection upon a shift to a permissive temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnon Dishon
- Department of Pathology, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
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45
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Yaraee R, Ebtekar M, Ahmadiani A, Sabahi F, Ghazanfari T. The effect of substance P on nitric oxide production by HSV-1 infected macrophages. Int Immunopharmacol 2007; 7:135-9. [PMID: 17178379 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2006.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2006] [Revised: 09/04/2006] [Accepted: 09/05/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The regulatory role of neuro-immune pathways in various infectious disease states is an interesting area of investigation due to its important therapeutic potential. In this study the effect of substance P (SP) on nitric oxide (NO) production of HSV-infected macrophages and its relation with incubation time and also the cytopathic effect of virus in the presence of SP are considered. As we have observed, substance P enhances NO production both in HSV- and mock-infected macrophages and this effect has been diminished or disappeared after 24 h. It has also been observed that SP enhances the cytopathic effect of HSV in a time dependent manner with the most effect at 10 h after stimulation with SP. We have also observed that HSV-1 cytopathic effect has not been significantly affected by pretreatment of macrophages with SP (2, 10 or 24 h before HSV infection). It can be concluded that the neurotransmitter SP has a significant role in modulating macrophage function and thus innate immunity processes in healthy and HSV-infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roya Yaraee
- Department of Immunology, Medical Faculty, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran.
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Sawtell NM, Thompson RL, Haas RL. Herpes simplex virus DNA synthesis is not a decisive regulatory event in the initiation of lytic viral protein expression in neurons in vivo during primary infection or reactivation from latency. J Virol 2007; 80:38-50. [PMID: 16352529 PMCID: PMC1317510 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.1.38-50.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The herpes simplex virus genome can enter a repressed transcriptional state (latency) in sensory neurons of the host nervous system. Although reduced permissiveness of the neuronal environment is widely accepted as a causal factor, the molecular pathway(s) directing and maintaining the viral genome in the latent state remains undefined. Over the past decade, the field has been strongly influenced by the observations of Kosz-Vnenchak et al., which have been interpreted to indicate that, in sensory neurons in vivo, a critical level of viral DNA synthesis within the neuron is required for sufficient viral immediate-early (IE) and early (E) gene expression (M. Kosz-Vnenchak, J. Jacobson, D. M. Coen, and D. M. Knipe, J. Virol. 67:5383-5393, 1993). The levels of IE and E genes are, in turn, thought to regulate the decision to enter the lytic cycle or latency. We have reexamined this issue using new strategies for in situ detection and quantification of viral gene expression in whole tissues. Our results using thymidine kinase-null and rescued mutants as well as wild-type strains in conjunction with viral DNA synthesis blockers demonstrate that (i) despite inhibition of viral DNA replication, many neurons express lytic viral proteins, including IE proteins, during acute infection in the ganglion; (ii) at early times postinoculation, the number of neurons expressing viral proteins in the ganglion is not reduced by inhibition of viral DNA replication; and (iii) following a reactivation stimulus, the numbers of neurons and apparent levels of lytic viral proteins, including IE proteins, are not reduced by inhibition of viral DNA replication. We conclude that viral DNA replication in the neuron per se does not regulate IE gene expression or entry into the lytic cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- N M Sawtell
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Ave., Cincinnati, OH 45229-3039, USA.
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Danaher RJ, Jacob RJ, Miller CS. Reactivation from quiescence does not coincide with a global induction of herpes simplex virus type 1 transactivators. Virus Genes 2006; 33:163-7. [PMID: 16972030 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-005-0052-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2005] [Accepted: 11/28/2005] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) reactivates from a small fraction of latently infected neurons in vivo and neuronally differentiated (ND), quiescently infected (QIF)-PC12 cells in vitro. This may be the result of reactivation initiating in only a few cells, or reactivation followed by premature termination of the productive virus life cycle in many or even a majority of cells. To examine the viral stress response, HSV-1 promoters of representative alpha, beta, and gamma class genes were examined in ND- and QIF-PC12 cells after treatments with agents known to induce reactivation. HSV-1 promoters displayed variable levels of basal gene expression in ND-PC12 cells ranging from 2 to 1,200 times the level of the control vector pGL3-Basic. Expression of the latency associated transcript (LAT) was greatest, with representatives of the alpha class exhibiting greater expression than the beta and gamma classes. The HSV-1 promoters examined did not respond dramatically to stress treatments. The viral gene response was also measured during the initiation of reactivation of a cryptic HSV-1 genome after forskolin treatment, under conditions that restricted DNA replication. During the first 24 h after stress induction the response was limited. By 48 h post-forskolin treatment, only modest increases occurred for ICP0, ICP4, and LAT transcripts, reaching levels of no greater than 2.2 times mock treated levels. In contrast, ICP27, ribonucleotide reductase (RR), and VP16 promoters did not respond. These findings indicate that reactivation from QIF-PC12 cells does not result in a global response of the specific HSV-1 genes tested, when assessed at the population level. These data support the hypothesis that stress-induced reactivation initiates in a minority of cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Danaher
- Oral Medicine Section, MN 324, Center for Oral Health Research and Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Dentistry and College of Medicine, 800 Rose Street, Lexington, 40536-0297, USA
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48
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Su YH, Zhang X, Wang X, Fraser NW, Block TM. Evidence that the immediate-early gene product ICP4 is necessary for the genome of the herpes simplex virus type 1 ICP4 deletion mutant strain d120 to circularize in infected cells. J Virol 2006; 80:11589-97. [PMID: 16987974 PMCID: PMC1642594 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01869-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Following infection, the physical state of linear herpes simplex virus (HSV) genomes may change into an "endless" or circular form. In this study, using Southern blot analysis of the HSV genome, we provide evidence that immediate-early protein ICP4 is involved in the process of converting the linear HSV-1 ICP4-deleted mutant strain d120 genome into its endless form. Under conditions where de novo viral DNA synthesis was inhibited, the genome of the ICP4 deletion mutant d120 failed to assume an endless conformation following infection of Vero cells (compared with the ability of wild-type strain KOS). This defect was reversed in the Vero-derived cell line E5, which produces the ICP4 protein, suggesting that ICP4 is necessary and sufficient to complement the d120 defect. When ICP4 protein was provided by the replication-defective DNA polymerase mutant HP66, the genomes of mutant d120 could assume an endless conformation in Vero cells. Western blot analysis using antibody specific to the ICP4 protein showed that although the d120 virions contained ICP4 protein, the majority of that ICP4 protein was in a 40-kDa truncated form, with only a small fraction present as a full-length 175-kDa protein. When expression of ICP4 protein from E5 cells was inhibited by cycloheximide, the d120 virion-associated ICP4 protein was unable to mediate endless formation after infection of E5 cells. Collectively, these data suggest that ICP4 protein has an important role in mediating the endless formation of the HSV-1 genome upon infection and that this function can be provided in trans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Hsiu Su
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel Institute for Biotechnology and Virology Research, College of Medicine, Drexel University, 3805 Old Easton Road, Doylestown, PA 18901-2697, USA.
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Maillet S, Naas T, Crepin S, Roque-Afonso AM, Lafay F, Efstathiou S, Labetoulle M. Herpes simplex virus type 1 latently infected neurons differentially express latency-associated and ICP0 transcripts. J Virol 2006; 80:9310-21. [PMID: 16940542 PMCID: PMC1563928 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02615-05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2005] [Accepted: 06/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During the latent phase of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection, the latency-associated transcripts (LATs) are the most abundant viral transcripts present in neurons, but some immediate-early viral transcripts, such as those encoding ICP0, have also been reported to be transcribed in latently infected mouse trigeminal ganglia (TG). A murine oro-ocular model of herpetic infection was used to study ICP0 gene expression in the major anatomical sites of HSV-1 latency, including the TG, superior cervical ganglion, spinal cord, and hypothalamus. An HSV-1 recombinant strain, SC16 110LacZ, revealed ICP0 promoter activity in several neurons in latently infected ganglia, and following infection with wild-type HSV-1 strain SC16, in situ hybridization analyses identified ICP0 transcripts in the nuclei of neurons at times consistent with the establishment of latency. Reverse transcription (RT)-PCR assays performed on RNA extracted from latently infected tissues indicated that ICP0 transcripts were detected in all anatomical sites of viral latency. Furthermore, quantitative real-time RT-PCR showed that neurons differentially expressed the LATs and ICP0 transcripts, with splicing of ICP0 transcripts being dependent on the anatomical location of latency. Finally, TG neurons were characterized by high-level expression of LATs and detection of abundant unspliced ICP0 transcripts, a pattern markedly different from those of other anatomical sites of HSV-1 latency. These results suggest that LATs might be involved in the maintenance of HSV-1 latency through the posttranscriptional regulation of ICP0 in order to inhibit expression of this potent activator of gene expression during latency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Séverine Maillet
- Laboratoire de Virologie Moléculaire et Structurale, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
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Rajcáni J, Durmanová V. Developments in herpes simplex virus vaccines: old problems and new challenges. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2006; 51:67-85. [PMID: 16821715 DOI: 10.1007/bf02932160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Vaccination has remained the best method for preventing virus spread. The herpes simplex virus (HSV) candidate vaccines tested till now were mostly purified subunit vaccines and/or recombinant envelope glycoproteins (such as gB and gD). In many experiments performed in mice, guinea pigs and rabbits, clear-cut protection against acute virus challenge was demonstrated along with the reduction of the extent of latency, when established in the immunized host. The immunotherapeutic effect of herpes vaccines seems less convincing. However, introduction of new adjuvants, which shift the cytokine production of helper T-cells toward stimulation of cytotoxic T-cells (TH1 type cytokine response), reveals a promising development. Mathematical analysis proved that overall prophylactic vaccination of seronegative women, even when eliciting 40-60 % antibody response only, would reduce the frequency of genital herpes within the vaccinated population. Even when partially effective, immunotherapeutic vaccination might represent a suitable alternative of chronic chemotherapy in recurrent labial and genital herpes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rajcáni
- Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 845 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
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