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Nehme R, Pietiläinen O, Barrett LE. Genomic, molecular, and cellular divergence of the human brain. Trends Neurosci 2024:S0166-2236(24)00089-4. [PMID: 38897852 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2024.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
While many core biological processes are conserved across species, the human brain has evolved with unique capacities. Current understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms that endow human traits as well as associated vulnerabilities remains limited. However, emerging data have illuminated species divergence in DNA elements and genome organization, in molecular, morphological, and functional features of conserved neural cell types, as well as temporal differences in brain development. Here, we summarize recent data on unique features of the human brain and their complex implications for the study and treatment of brain diseases. We also consider key outstanding questions in the field and discuss the technologies and foundational knowledge that will be required to accelerate understanding of human neurobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralda Nehme
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Olli Pietiläinen
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Neuroscience Center, Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Lindy E Barrett
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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2
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Kim Y, Yun B, Ye BS, Kim BY. Generation of Alzheimer's Disease Model Derived from Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells with APP Gene Mutation. Biomedicines 2024; 12:1193. [PMID: 38927400 PMCID: PMC11201172 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12061193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia, is characterized by disruptions in memory, cognition, and personality, significantly impacting morbidity and mortality rates among older adults. However, the exact pathophysiological mechanism of AD remains unknown, and effective treatment options for AD are still lacking. Human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) are emerging as promising platforms for disease research, offering the ability to model the genetic mutations associated with various conditions. Patient-derived iPSCs are useful for modeling neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. In this study, we generated AD iPSCs from peripheral blood mononuclear cells obtained from a 65-year-old patient with AD carrying the E682K mutation in the gene encoding the amyloid precursor protein. Cerebral organoids derived from AD iPSCs recapitulated the AD phenotype, exhibiting significantly increased levels of tau protein. Our analysis revealed that an iPSC disease model of AD is a valuable assessment tool for pathophysiological research and drug screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yena Kim
- Division of Intractable Disease Research, Department of Chronic Disease Convergence Research, Korea National Institute of Health, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea; (Y.K.); (B.Y.)
- Korea National Stem Cell Bank, Korea National Institute of Health, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Binna Yun
- Division of Intractable Disease Research, Department of Chronic Disease Convergence Research, Korea National Institute of Health, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea; (Y.K.); (B.Y.)
- Korea National Stem Cell Bank, Korea National Institute of Health, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Byoung Seok Ye
- Department of Neurology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea;
| | - Bo-Young Kim
- Division of Intractable Disease Research, Department of Chronic Disease Convergence Research, Korea National Institute of Health, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea; (Y.K.); (B.Y.)
- Korea National Stem Cell Bank, Korea National Institute of Health, Cheongju 28160, Republic of Korea
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3
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Maussion G, Rocha C, Ramoz N. iPSC-derived models for anorexia nervosa research. Trends Mol Med 2024; 30:339-349. [PMID: 38472034 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2024.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a complex neuropsychiatric disorder with genetic and epigenetic components that results in reduced food intake combined with alterations in the reward-processing network. While studies of patient cohorts and mouse models have uncovered genes and epigenetic changes associated with the disease, neuronal networks and brain areas preferentially activated and metabolic changes associated with reduced food intake, the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms remain unknown. The use of both 2D in vitro cultures and 3D models, namely organoids and spheroids, derived from either human embryonic stem cells (ESCs) or induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), would allow identification of cell type-specific changes associated with AN and comorbid diseases, to study preferential connections between brain areas and organs, and the development of therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilles Maussion
- The Neuro's Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada.
| | - Cecilia Rocha
- The Neuro's Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Nicolas Ramoz
- Université Paris Cité, Institute of Psychiatry and Neuroscience of Paris (IPNP), INSERM U1266, Paris 75014, France; GHU Paris Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, CMME, Hôpital Sainte-Anne, Paris F-75014, France
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4
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Damiani D, Baggiani M, Della Vecchia S, Naef V, Santorelli FM. Pluripotent Stem Cells as a Preclinical Cellular Model for Studying Hereditary Spastic Paraplegias. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2615. [PMID: 38473862 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) comprise a family of degenerative diseases mostly hitting descending axons of corticospinal neurons. Depending on the gene and mutation involved, the disease could present as a pure form with limb spasticity, or a complex form associated with cerebellar and/or cortical signs such as ataxia, dysarthria, epilepsy, and intellectual disability. The progressive nature of HSPs invariably leads patients to require walking canes or wheelchairs over time. Despite several attempts to ameliorate the life quality of patients that have been tested, current therapeutical approaches are just symptomatic, as no cure is available. Progress in research in the last two decades has identified a vast number of genes involved in HSP etiology, using cellular and animal models generated on purpose. Although unanimously considered invaluable tools for basic research, those systems are rarely predictive for the establishment of a therapeutic approach. The advent of induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells allowed instead the direct study of morphological and molecular properties of the patient's affected neurons generated upon in vitro differentiation. In this review, we revisited all the present literature recently published regarding the use of iPS cells to differentiate HSP patient-specific neurons. Most studies have defined patient-derived neurons as a reliable model to faithfully mimic HSP in vitro, discovering original findings through immunological and -omics approaches, and providing a platform to screen novel or repurposed drugs. Thereby, one of the biggest hopes of current HSP research regards the use of patient-derived iPS cells to expand basic knowledge on the disease, while simultaneously establishing new therapeutic treatments for both generalized and personalized approaches in daily medical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devid Damiani
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Via dei Giacinti 2, 56128 Pisa, Italy
| | - Matteo Baggiani
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Via dei Giacinti 2, 56128 Pisa, Italy
| | - Stefania Della Vecchia
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Via dei Giacinti 2, 56128 Pisa, Italy
- Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), University of Florence, Viale Pieraccini, 6, 50139 Florence, Italy
| | - Valentina Naef
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Via dei Giacinti 2, 56128 Pisa, Italy
| | - Filippo Maria Santorelli
- Molecular Medicine for Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Via dei Giacinti 2, 56128 Pisa, Italy
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5
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Wang C, Cerneckis J, Shi Y. Directed Differentiation of Neurons from Human iPSCs for Modeling Neurological Disorders. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2794:141-155. [PMID: 38630226 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3810-1_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) technology has enabled comprehensive human cell-based disease modeling in vitro. Due to limited accessibility of primary human neurons as well as species-specific divergence between human and rodent brain tissues, hiPSC-derived neurons have become a popular tool for studying neuronal biology in a dish. Here, we provide methods for transcription factor-driven directed differentiation of neurons from hiPSCs via a neural progenitor cell (NPC) intermediate. Doxycycline-inducible expression of neuron fate-determining transcription factors neurogenin 2 (NGN2) and achaete-scute homolog 1 (ASCL1) enables rapid and controllable differentiation of human neurons for disease modeling applications. The provided method is also designed to improve the reproducibility of human neuron differentiation by reducing the batch-to-batch variation of NPC differentiation and lentiviral transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Wang
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, USA
| | - Jonas Cerneckis
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, USA
- Irell & Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, USA
| | - Yanhong Shi
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, USA.
- Irell & Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, USA.
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Uzun YS, Santos R, Marchetto MC, Padmanabhan K. Network size affects the complexity of activity in human iPSC-derived neuronal populations. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.10.31.564939. [PMID: 37961249 PMCID: PMC10635014 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.31.564939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Multi-electrode recording of neural activity in cultures offer opportunities for understanding how the structure of a network gives rise to function. Although it is hypothesized that network size is critical for determining the dynamics of activity, this relationship in human neural cultures remains largely unexplored. By applying new methods for analyzing neural activity to human iPSC derived cultures at either low-densities or high-densities, we uncovered the significant impacts that neuron number has on the individual neurophysiological properties of cells (such as firing rates), the collective behavior of the networks these cultures formed (as measured by entropy), and the relationship between the two. As a result, simply changing the densities of neurons generated dynamics and network behavior that differed not just in degree, but in kind. Beyond revealing the relationship between network structure and function, our findings provide a novel analytical framework to study diseases where network level activity is affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yavuz Selim Uzun
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Rochester
- Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rochester School of Medicine
| | - Renata Santos
- Université Paris Cité, Institute of Psychiatry and Neuroscience of Paris (IPNP), INSERM U1266, Signaling mechanisms in neurological disorders, 102 rue de la Santé, 75014 Paris, France
- Institut Imagine, INSERM U1163, Mechanisms and therapy of genetic brain diseases, Université Paris Cité, 24 Boulevard du Montparnasse, 75015 Paris, France
- Institut des Sciences Biologiques, CNRS, 16 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | | | - Krishnan Padmanabhan
- Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rochester School of Medicine
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry
- Intellectual Development and Disability Research Center, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry
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Liorni N, Napoli A, Castellana S, Giallongo S, Řeháková D, Re OL, Koutná I, Mazza T, Vinciguerra M. Integrative CUT&Tag-RNA-Seq analysis of histone variant macroH2A1-dependent orchestration of human induced pluripotent stem cell reprogramming. Epigenomics 2023; 15:863-877. [PMID: 37846557 DOI: 10.2217/epi-2023-0267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: Human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are inefficiently derived from somatic cells by overexpression of defined transcription factors. Overexpression of H2A histone variant macroH2A1.1, but not macroH2A1.2, leads to increased iPSC reprogramming by unclear mechanisms. Materials & methods: Cleavage under targets and tagmentation (CUT&Tag) allows robust epigenomic profiling of a low cell number. We performed an integrative CUT&Tag-RNA-Seq analysis of macroH2A1-dependent orchestration of iPSCs reprogramming using human endothelial cells. Results: We demonstrate wider genome occupancy, predicted transcription factors binding, and gene expression regulated by macroH2A1.1 during reprogramming, compared to macroH2A1.2. MacroH2A1.1, previously associated with neurodegenerative pathologies, specifically activated ectoderm/neural processes. Conclusion: CUT&Tag and RNA-Seq data integration is a powerful tool to investigate the epigenetic mechanisms occurring during cell reprogramming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niccolò Liorni
- Bioinformatics Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza,71013, San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy
| | - Alessandro Napoli
- Bioinformatics Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza,71013, San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy
| | - Stefano Castellana
- Bioinformatics Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza,71013, San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy
| | - Sebastiano Giallongo
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, 65691, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Biomedical & Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123, Catania, Italy
| | - Daniela Řeháková
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, 65691, Brno, Czech Republic
- Institute of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 62500, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Oriana Lo Re
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, 65691, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Translational Stem Cell Biology, Research Institute, Medical University of Varna (RIMUV), 9002, Varna, Bulgaria
| | - Irena Koutná
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, 65691, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Histology & Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, 62500, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Tommaso Mazza
- Bioinformatics Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza,71013, San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy
| | - Manlio Vinciguerra
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, 65691, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Translational Stem Cell Biology, Research Institute, Medical University of Varna (RIMUV), 9002, Varna, Bulgaria
- Faculty of Health, Liverpool John Moores University, L2 2ER, Liverpool, UK
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DuMont M, Agostinis A, Singh K, Swan E, Buttle Y, Tropea D. Sex representation in neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders' preclinical and clinical studies. Neurobiol Dis 2023:106214. [PMID: 37385457 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Many studies show the importance of biological sex for the onset, progression, and response to treatment in brain disorders. In line with these reports, health agencies have requested that all trials, both at the clinical and preclinical level, use a similar number of male and female subjects to correctly interpret the results. Despite these guidelines, many studies still tend to be unbalanced in the use of male and female subjects. In this review we consider three neurodegenerative disorders: Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and three psychiatric disorders: Depression, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and Schizophrenia. These disorders were chosen because of their prevalence and their recognized sex-specific differences in onset, progression, and response to treatment. Alzheimer's disease and Depression demonstrate higher prevalence in females, whereas Parkinson's Disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and schizophrenia show higher prevalence in males. Results from preclinical and clinical studies examining each of these disorders revealed sex-specific differences in risk factors, diagnostic biomarkers, and treatment response and efficacy, suggesting a role for sex-specific therapies in neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders. However, the qualitative analysis of the percentage of males and females enrolled in clinical trials in the last two decades shows that for most of the disorders, there is still a sex bias in the patients' enrolment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mieke DuMont
- School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Kiran Singh
- School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Evan Swan
- School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Yvonne Buttle
- School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Daniela Tropea
- Department of Psychiatry and Trinity Translational Medicine Institute (TTMI), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Lloyd Building, Dublin 2, Dublin, Ireland; FutureNeuro, the SFI Research Centre for Chronic and Rare Neurological Diseases.
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9
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Cerneckis J, Bu G, Shi Y. Pushing the boundaries of brain organoids to study Alzheimer's disease. Trends Mol Med 2023:S1471-4914(23)00098-9. [PMID: 37353408 PMCID: PMC10374393 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2023.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023]
Abstract
Progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) entails deterioration or aberrant function of multiple brain cell types, eventually leading to neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. Defining how complex cell-cell interactions become dysregulated in AD requires novel human cell-based in vitro platforms that could recapitulate the intricate cytoarchitecture and cell diversity of the human brain. Brain organoids (BOs) are 3D self-organizing tissues that partially resemble the human brain architecture and can recapitulate AD-relevant pathology. In this review, we highlight the versatile applications of different types of BOs to model AD pathogenesis, including amyloid-β and tau aggregation, neuroinflammation, myelin breakdown, vascular dysfunction, and other phenotypes, as well as to accelerate therapeutic development for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Cerneckis
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA; Irell and Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Guojun Bu
- SciNeuro Pharmaceuticals, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
| | - Yanhong Shi
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA; Irell and Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA.
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Watson LA, Meharena HS. From neurodevelopment to neurodegeneration: utilizing human stem cell models to gain insight into Down syndrome. Front Genet 2023; 14:1198129. [PMID: 37323671 PMCID: PMC10267712 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2023.1198129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Down syndrome (DS), caused by triplication of chromosome 21, is the most frequent aneuploidy observed in the human population and represents the most common genetic form of intellectual disability and early-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD). Individuals with DS exhibit a wide spectrum of clinical presentation, with a number of organs implicated including the neurological, immune, musculoskeletal, cardiac, and gastrointestinal systems. Decades of DS research have illuminated our understanding of the disorder, however many of the features that limit quality of life and independence of individuals with DS, including intellectual disability and early-onset dementia, remain poorly understood. This lack of knowledge of the cellular and molecular mechanisms leading to neurological features of DS has caused significant roadblocks in developing effective therapeutic strategies to improve quality of life for individuals with DS. Recent technological advances in human stem cell culture methods, genome editing approaches, and single-cell transcriptomics have provided paradigm-shifting insights into complex neurological diseases such as DS. Here, we review novel neurological disease modeling approaches, how they have been used to study DS, and what questions might be addressed in the future using these innovative tools.
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Bassil K, Horstkötter D. Ethical Implications in Making Use of Human Cerebral Organoids for Investigating Stress-Related Mechanisms and Disorders. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 2023; 32:1-13. [PMID: 36799029 DOI: 10.1017/s0963180123000038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
The generation of three-dimensional cerebral organoids from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hPSC) has facilitated the investigation of mechanisms underlying several neuropsychiatric disorders, including stress-related disorders, namely major depressive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. Generating hPSC-derived neurons, cerebral organoids, and even assembloids (or multi-organoid complexes) can facilitate research into biomarkers for stress susceptibility or resilience and may even bring about advances in personalized medicine and biomarker research for stress-related psychiatric disorders. Nevertheless, cerebral organoid research does not come without its own set of ethical considerations. With increased complexity and resemblance to in vivo conditions, discussions of increased moral status for these models are ongoing, including questions about sentience, consciousness, moral status, donor protection, and chimeras. There are, however, unique ethical considerations that arise and are worth looking into in the context of research into stress and stress-related disorders using cerebral organoids. This paper provides stress research-specific ethical considerations in the context of cerebral organoid generation and use for research purposes. The use of stress research as a case study here can help inform other practices of in vitro studies using brain models with high ethical considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Bassil
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Dorothee Horstkötter
- Department of Health Ethics and Society, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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12
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Castillo Ransanz L, Van Altena PFJ, Heine VM, Accardo A. Engineered cell culture microenvironments for mechanobiology studies of brain neural cells. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:1096054. [PMID: 36588937 PMCID: PMC9794772 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.1096054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The biomechanical properties of the brain microenvironment, which is composed of different neural cell types, the extracellular matrix, and blood vessels, are critical for normal brain development and neural functioning. Stiffness, viscoelasticity and spatial organization of brain tissue modulate proliferation, migration, differentiation, and cell function. However, the mechanical aspects of the neural microenvironment are largely ignored in current cell culture systems. Considering the high promises of human induced pluripotent stem cell- (iPSC-) based models for disease modelling and new treatment development, and in light of the physiological relevance of neuromechanobiological features, applications of in vitro engineered neuronal microenvironments should be explored thoroughly to develop more representative in vitro brain models. In this context, recently developed biomaterials in combination with micro- and nanofabrication techniques 1) allow investigating how mechanical properties affect neural cell development and functioning; 2) enable optimal cell microenvironment engineering strategies to advance neural cell models; and 3) provide a quantitative tool to assess changes in the neuromechanobiological properties of the brain microenvironment induced by pathology. In this review, we discuss the biological and engineering aspects involved in studying neuromechanobiology within scaffold-free and scaffold-based 2D and 3D iPSC-based brain models and approaches employing primary lineages (neural/glial), cell lines and other stem cells. Finally, we discuss future experimental directions of engineered microenvironments in neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Castillo Ransanz
- Department of Child and Adolescence Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Pieter F. J. Van Altena
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Vivi M. Heine
- Department of Child and Adolescence Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands,Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Department of Complex Trait Genetics, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands,*Correspondence: Vivi M. Heine, ; Angelo Accardo,
| | - Angelo Accardo
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands,*Correspondence: Vivi M. Heine, ; Angelo Accardo,
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13
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Towards elucidating disease-relevant states of neurons and glia by CRISPR-based functional genomics. Genome Med 2022; 14:130. [PMID: 36401300 PMCID: PMC9673433 DOI: 10.1186/s13073-022-01134-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Our understanding of neurological diseases has been tremendously enhanced over the past decade by the application of new technologies. Genome-wide association studies have highlighted glial cells as important players in diseases. Single-cell profiling technologies are providing descriptions of disease states of neurons and glia at unprecedented molecular resolution. However, significant gaps remain in our understanding of the mechanisms driving disease-associated cell states, and how these states contribute to disease. These gaps in our understanding can be bridged by CRISPR-based functional genomics, a powerful approach to systematically interrogate gene function. In this review, we will briefly review the current literature on neurological disease-associated cell states and introduce CRISPR-based functional genomics. We discuss how advances in CRISPR-based screens, especially when implemented in the relevant brain cell types or cellular environments, have paved the way towards uncovering mechanisms underlying neurological disease-associated cell states. Finally, we will delineate current challenges and future directions for CRISPR-based functional genomics to further our understanding of neurological diseases and potential therapeutic strategies.
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14
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Puvogel S, Blanchard K, Casas BS, Miller RL, Garrido-Jara D, Arizabalos S, Rehen SK, Sanhueza M, Palma V. Altered resting-state functional connectivity in hiPSCs-derived neuronal networks from schizophrenia patients. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:935360. [PMID: 36158199 PMCID: PMC9489842 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.935360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia (SZ) is a severe mental disorder that arises from abnormal neurodevelopment, caused by genetic and environmental factors. SZ often involves distortions in reality perception and it is widely associated with alterations in brain connectivity. In the present work, we used Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (hiPSCs)-derived neuronal cultures to study neural communicational dynamics during early development in SZ. We conducted gene and protein expression profiling, calcium imaging recordings, and applied a mathematical model to quantify the dynamism of functional connectivity (FC) in hiPSCs-derived neuronal networks. Along the neurodifferentiation process, SZ networks displayed altered gene expression of the glutamate receptor-related proteins HOMER1 and GRIN1 compared to healthy control (HC) networks, suggesting a possible tendency to develop hyperexcitability. Resting-state FC in neuronal networks derived from HC and SZ patients emerged as a dynamic phenomenon exhibiting connectivity configurations reoccurring in time (hub states). Compared to HC, SZ networks were less thorough in exploring different FC configurations, changed configurations less often, presented a reduced repertoire of hub states and spent longer uninterrupted time intervals in this less diverse universe of hubs. Our results suggest that alterations in the communicational dynamics of SZ emerging neuronal networks might contribute to the previously described brain FC anomalies in SZ patients, by compromising the ability of their neuronal networks for rapid and efficient reorganization through different activity patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofía Puvogel
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences. Universidad de Chile. Santiago, Chile
- Cell Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Kris Blanchard
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences. Universidad de Chile. Santiago, Chile
- Cell Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Bárbara S. Casas
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences. Universidad de Chile. Santiago, Chile
| | - Robyn L. Miller
- Department of Computer Science, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Tri-Institutional Center for Translational Research in Neuroimaging and Data Science (TReNDS Center), Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Delia Garrido-Jara
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences. Universidad de Chile. Santiago, Chile
| | - Sebastián Arizabalos
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences. Universidad de Chile. Santiago, Chile
| | - Stevens K. Rehen
- Instituto D’Or de Pesquisa e Ensino (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Magdalena Sanhueza
- Cell Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- *Correspondence: Verónica Palma, ; Magdalena Sanhueza,
| | - Verónica Palma
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences. Universidad de Chile. Santiago, Chile
- *Correspondence: Verónica Palma, ; Magdalena Sanhueza,
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15
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Coleman JRI. Feasibility and application of polygenic score analysis to the morphology of human-induced pluripotent stem cells. Mol Genet Genomics 2022; 297:1111-1122. [PMID: 35633379 PMCID: PMC9250464 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-022-01905-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies have identified thousands of significant associations between genetic variants and complex traits. Inferring biological insights from these associations has been challenging. One approach attempted has been to examine the effects of individual variants in cellular models. Here, I demonstrate the feasibility of examining the aggregate effect of many variants on cellular phenotypes. I examine the effects of polygenic scores for cross-psychiatric disorder risk, schizophrenia, body mass index and height on cellular morphology, using 1.5 million induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) from 60 European-ancestry donors from the Human iPSC Initiative dataset. I show that measuring multiple cells per donor provides sufficient power for polygenic score analyses, and that cross-psychiatric disorder risk is associated with cell area (p = 0.004). Combined with emerging methods of high-throughput iPSC phenotyping, cellular polygenic scoring is a promising method for understanding potential biological effects of the polygenic component of complex traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan R I Coleman
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience-PO80, King's College London, DeCrespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AF, UK. .,National Institute for Health and Care Research Maudsley Biomedical Research Centre, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK.
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16
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The vascular hypothesis of schizophrenia (SZ) postulates that brain endothelial dysfunction contributes to brain pathophysiology. This review discusses recent evidence for and against this hypothesis, including data related to blood-brain barrier (BBB), brain endothelium, and brain blood supply, to provide a critical weighed update. RECENT FINDINGS Different studies report a consistent proportion of SZ patients showing increased BBB permeability, reflected by higher levels of albumin in the cerebral spinal fluid. Of note, this was not a result of antipsychotic medication. The high inflammatory profile observed in some SZ patients is strongly associated with increased BBB permeability to circulating immune cells, and with more severe cognitive deficiencies. Also, sex was found to interact with BBB integrity and permeability in SZ. The strongest independent genetic association with SZ has been identified in FZD1, a hypoxia-response gene that is 600-fold higher expressed in early development endothelium as compared to adult brain endothelium. Regarding brain blood supply, there is evidence to suggest alterations in proper brain perfusion in SZ. Nonetheless, ex-vivo experiments suggested that widely used antipsychotics favor vasoconstriction; thus, alterations in cerebral perfusion might be related to the patients' medication. SUMMARY In some patients with SZ, a vulnerable brain endothelium may be interacting with environmental stressors, such as inflammation or hypoxia, converging into a more severe SZ symptomatology. Gene expression and performance of human brain endothelium could vary along with development and the establishment of the BBB; therefore, we encourage to investigate its possible contribution to SZ considering this dynamic context.
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Brandão-Teles C, Zuccoli GS, Smith BJ, Vieira GM, Crunfli F. Modeling Schizophrenia In Vitro: Challenges and Insights on Studying Brain Cells. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2022; 1400:35-51. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-97182-3_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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18
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Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Based Models for Studying Sex-Specific Differences in Neurodegenerative Diseases. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1387:57-88. [PMID: 34921676 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2021_683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases is steadily increasing worldwide, and epidemiological studies strongly suggest that many of the diseases are sex-biased. It has long been suggested that biological sex differences are crucial for neurodegenerative diseases; however, how biological sex affects disease initiation, progression, and severity is not well-understood. Sex is a critical biological variable that should be taken into account in basic research, and this review aims to highlight the utility of human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC)-derived models for studying sex-specific differences in neurodegenerative diseases, with advantages and limitations. In vitro systems utilizing species-specific, renewable, and physiologically relevant cell sources can provide powerful platforms for mechanistic studies, toxicity testings, and drug discovery. Matched healthy, patient-derived, and gene-corrected human iPSCs, from both sexes, can be utilized to generate neuronal and glial cell types affected by specific neurodegenerative diseases to study sex-specific differences in two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) human culture systems. Such relatively simple and well-controlled systems can significantly contribute to the elucidation of molecular mechanisms underlying sex-specific differences, which can yield effective, and potentially sex-based strategies, against neurodegenerative diseases.
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19
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De Los Angeles A, Fernando MB, Hall NAL, Brennand KJ, Harrison PJ, Maher BJ, Weinberger DR, Tunbridge EM. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells in Psychiatry: An Overview and Critical Perspective. Biol Psychiatry 2021; 90:362-372. [PMID: 34176589 PMCID: PMC8375580 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A key challenge in psychiatry research is the development of high-fidelity model systems that can be experimentally manipulated to explore and test pathophysiological mechanisms of illness. In this respect, the emerging capacity to derive neural cells and circuits from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has generated significant excitement. This review aims to provide a critical appraisal of the potential for iPSCs in illuminating pathophysiological mechanisms in the context of other available technical approaches. We discuss the selection of iPSC phenotypes relevant to psychiatry, the information that researchers can draw on to help guide these decisions, and how researchers choose between the use of 2-dimensional cultures and the use of more complex 3-dimensional model systems. We discuss the strengths and limitations of current models and the challenges and opportunities that they present. Finally, we discuss the potential of iPSC-based model systems for clarifying the mechanisms underlying genetic risk for psychiatry and the steps that will be needed to ensure that robust and reliable conclusions can be drawn. We argue that while iPSC-based models are ideally placed to study fundamental processes occurring within and between neural cells, they are often less well suited for case-control studies, given issues relating to statistical power and the challenges in identifying which cellular phenotypes are meaningful at the level of the whole individual. Our aim is to highlight the importance of considering the hypotheses of a given study to guide decisions about which, if any, iPSC-based system is most appropriate to address it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro De Los Angeles
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Michael B Fernando
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York; Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Nicola A L Hall
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Kristen J Brennand
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York; Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York; Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Paul J Harrison
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Brady J Maher
- Lieber Institute for Brain Development, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Daniel R Weinberger
- Lieber Institute for Brain Development, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Elizabeth M Tunbridge
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, United Kingdom.
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20
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des Rieux A. Stem cells and their extracellular vesicles as natural and bioinspired carriers for the treatment of neurological disorders. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cocis.2021.101460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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21
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Nakatsuka N, Heard KJ, Faillétaz A, Momotenko D, Vörös J, Gage FH, Vadodaria KC. Sensing serotonin secreted from human serotonergic neurons using aptamer-modified nanopipettes. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:2753-2763. [PMID: 33767349 PMCID: PMC9997689 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-021-01066-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The serotonergic system in the human brain modulates several physiological processes, and altered serotonergic neurotransmission has been implicated in the neuropathology of several psychiatric disorders. The study of serotonergic neurotransmission in psychiatry has long been restricted to animal models, but advances in cell reprogramming technology have enabled the generation of serotonergic neurons from patient-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). While iPSC-derived human serotonergic neurons offer the possibility to study serotonin (5-HT) release and uptake, particularly by 5-HT-modulating drugs such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a major limitation is the inability to reliably quantify 5-HT secreted from neurons in vitro. Herein, we address this technical gap via a novel sensing technology that couples 5-HT-specific DNA aptamers into nanopores (glass nanopipettes) with orifices of ~10 nm to detect 5-HT in complex neuronal culture medium with higher selectivity, sensitivity, and stability than existing methods. The 5-HT aptamers undergo conformational rearrangement upon target capture and serve as gatekeepers of ionic flux through the nanopipette opening. We generated human serotonergic neurons in vitro and detected secreted 5-HT using aptamer-coated nanopipettes in a low nanomolar range, with the possibility of detecting significantly lower (picomolar) concentrations. Furthermore, as a proof of concept, we treated human serotonergic neurons in vitro with the SSRI citalopram and detected a significant increase in extracellular 5-HT using the aptamer-modified nanopipettes. We demonstrate the utility of such methods for 5-HT detection, raising the possibility of fast quantification of neurotransmitters secreted from patient-derived live neuronal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nako Nakatsuka
- Laboratory of Biosensors and Bioelectronics, Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kelly J Heard
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Alix Faillétaz
- Laboratory of Biosensors and Bioelectronics, Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dmitry Momotenko
- Laboratory of Biosensors and Bioelectronics, Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - János Vörös
- Laboratory of Biosensors and Bioelectronics, Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Fred H Gage
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Krishna C Vadodaria
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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22
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Mutukula N, Man Z, Takahashi Y, Iniesta Martinez F, Morales M, Carreon-Guarnizo E, Hernandez Clares R, Garcia-Bernal D, Martinez Martinez L, Lajara J, Nuñez Delicado E, Meca Lallana JE, Izpisua Belmonte JC. Generation of RRMS and PPMS specific iPSCs as a platform for modeling Multiple Sclerosis. Stem Cell Res 2021; 53:102319. [PMID: 33894548 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2021.102319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The advent of cellular reprogramming technology converting somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has revolutionized our understandings of neurodegenerative diseases that are otherwise hard to access and model. Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic demyelinating, inflammatory disease of central nervous system eventually causing neuronal death and accompanied disabilities. Here, we report the generation of several relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) and primary progressive MS (PPMS) iPSC lines from MS patients along with their age matched healthy controls from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). These patient specific iPSC lines displayed characteristic embryonic stem cell (ESC) morphology and exhibited pluripotency marker expression. Moreover, these MS iPSC lines were successfully differentiated into neural progenitor cells (NPC) after subjecting to neural induction. Furthermore, we identified the elevated expression of cellular senescence hallmarks in RRMS and PPMS neural progenitors unveiling a novel drug target avenue of MS pathophysiology. Thus, our study altogether offers both RRMS and PPMS iPSC cellular models as a good tool for better understanding of MS pathologies and drug testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naresh Mutukula
- Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Zhiqiu Man
- Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Yuta Takahashi
- Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Francisca Iniesta Martinez
- Clinical Neuroimmunology Unit and Multiple Sclerosis CSUR, Department of Neurology. "Virgen de la Arrixaca" Clinical University Hospital, IMIB-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain; Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia (UCAM), Murcia, Spain
| | - Mariana Morales
- Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Ester Carreon-Guarnizo
- Clinical Neuroimmunology Unit and Multiple Sclerosis CSUR, Department of Neurology. "Virgen de la Arrixaca" Clinical University Hospital, IMIB-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain; Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia (UCAM), Murcia, Spain
| | - Rocio Hernandez Clares
- Clinical Neuroimmunology Unit and Multiple Sclerosis CSUR, Department of Neurology. "Virgen de la Arrixaca" Clinical University Hospital, IMIB-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain; Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia (UCAM), Murcia, Spain
| | - David Garcia-Bernal
- Hematopoietic Transplant and Cellular Therapy Unit, Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria Virgen de la Arrixaca, Medicine Department, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | | | - Jeronimo Lajara
- Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia (UCAM), Murcia, Spain
| | | | - Jose E Meca Lallana
- Clinical Neuroimmunology Unit and Multiple Sclerosis CSUR, Department of Neurology. "Virgen de la Arrixaca" Clinical University Hospital, IMIB-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain; Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia (UCAM), Murcia, Spain.
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