14-3-3 proteins regulate intracellular localization of the bZIP transcriptional activator RSG

Mechanically induced localisation of SECONDARY WALL INTERACTING bZIP is associated with thigmomorphogenic and secondary cell wall gene expression

Plant growth requires the integration of internal and external cues, perceived and transduced into a developmental programme of cell division, elongation and wall thickening. Mechanical forces contribute to this regulation, and thigmomorphogenesis typically includes reducing stem height, increasing stem diameter, and a canonical transcriptomic response. We present data on a bZIP transcription factor involved in this process in grasses. Brachypodium distachyon SECONDARY WALL INTERACTING bZIP (SWIZ) protein translocated into the nucleus following mechanostimulation. Classical touch-responsive genes were upregulated in B. distachyon roots following touch, including significant induction of the glycoside hydrolase 17 family, which may be unique to grass thigmomorphogenesis. SWIZ protein binding to an E-box variant in exons and introns was associated with immediate activation followed by repression of gene expression. SWIZ overexpression resulted in plants with reduced stem and root elongation. These data further define plant touch-responsive transcriptomics and physiology, offering insights into grass mechanotranduction dynamics.

Should I stay or should I go? Trafficking of plant extra-nuclear transcription factors

At the heart of all biological processes lies the control of nuclear gene expression, which is primarily achieved through the action of transcription factors (TFs) that generally contain a nuclear localization signal (NLS) to facilitate their transport into the nucleus. However, some TFs reside in the cytoplasm in a transcriptionally inactive state and only enter the nucleus in response to specific signals, which in plants include biotic or abiotic stresses. These extra-nuclear TFs can be found in the cytosol or associated with various membrane systems, including the endoplasmic reticulum and plasma membrane. They may be integral proteins with transmembrane domains or associate peripherally with the lipid bilayer via acylation or membrane-binding domains. Although over 30 plant TFs, most of them involved in stress responses, have been experimentally shown to reside outside the nucleus, computational predictions suggest that this number is much larger. Understanding how extra-nuclear TFs are trafficked into the nucleus is essential for reconstructing transcriptional regulatory networks that govern major cellular pathways in response to biotic and abiotic signals. Here, we provide a perspective on what is known on plant extranuclear-nuclear TF retention, nuclear trafficking, and the post-translational modifications that ultimately enable them to regulate gene expression upon entering the nucleus.

Haplotype Analysis of GmSGF14 Gene Family Reveals Its Roles in Photoperiodic Flowering and Regional Adaptation of Soybean

Flowering time and photoperiod sensitivity are fundamental traits that determine soybean adaptation to a given region or a wide range of geographic environments. The General Regulatory Factors (GRFs), also known as 14-3-3 family, are involved in protein-protein interactions in a phosphorylation-dependent manner, thus regulating ubiquitous biological processes, such as photoperiodic flowering, plant immunity and stress response. In this study, 20 soybean GmSGF14 genes were identified and divided into two categories according to phylogenetic relationships and structural characteristics. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis revealed that GmSGF14g, GmSGF14i, GmSGF14j, GmSGF14k, GmSGF14m and GmSGF14s were highly expressed in all tissues compared to other GmSGF14 genes. In addition, we found that the transcript levels of GmSGF14 family genes in leaves varied significantly under different photoperiodic conditions, indicating that their expression responds to photoperiod. To explore the role of GmSGF14 in the regulation of soybean flowering, the geographical distribution of major haplotypes and their association with flowering time in six environments among 207 soybean germplasms were studied. Haplotype analysis confirmed that the GmSGF14m^H4 harboring a frameshift mutation in the 14-3-3 domain was associated with later flowering. Geographical distribution analysis demonstrated that the haplotypes related to early flowering were frequently found in high-latitude regions, while the haplotypes associated with late flowering were mostly distributed in low-latitude regions of China. Taken together, our results reveal that the GmSGF14 family genes play essential roles in photoperiodic flowering and geographical adaptation of soybean, providing theoretical support for further exploring the function of specific genes in this family and varietal improvement for wide adaptability.

Phytophthora infestans RxLR Effector PITG06478 Hijacks 14-3-3 to Suppress PMA Activity Leading to Necrotrophic Cell Death

Pathogens often induce cell death for their successful proliferation in the host plant. Plasma membrane H⁺-ATPases (PMAs) are targeted by either pathogens or plant immune receptors in immune response regulation. Although PMAs play pivotal roles in host cell death, the molecular mechanism of effector-mediated regulation of PMA activity has not been described. Here, we report that the Phytophthora infestans RxLR effector PITG06478 can induce cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana but the induced cell death is inhibited by fusicoccin (FC), an irreversible PMA activator. PITG06478, which is localized at the plasma membrane, is not directly associated with the PMA but is associated with Nb14-3-3s, a PMA activator. Immunoblot analyses revealed that the interaction between PITG06478 and Nb14-3-3s was disrupted by FC. PMA activity in PITG06478-expressing plants was eventually inhibited, and cell death likely occurred because the 14-3-3 protein was hijacked. Our results further confirm the significance of PMA activity in host cell death and provide new insight into how pathogens utilize essential host components to sustain their life cycle. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

14-3-3 proteins regulate photomorphogenesis by facilitating light-induced degradation of PIF3

14-3-3s are highly conserved phosphopeptide-binding proteins that play important roles in various developmental and signaling pathways in plants. However, although protein phosphorylation has been proven to be a key mechanism for regulating many pivotal components of the light signaling pathway, the role of 14-3-3 proteins in photomorphogenesis remains largely obscure. PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTOR3 (PIF3) is an extensively studied transcription factor repressing photomorphogenesis, and it is well-established that upon red (R) light exposure, photo-activated phytochrome B (phyB) interacts with PIF3 and induces its rapid phosphorylation and degradation. PHOTOREGULATORY PROTEIN KINASES (PPKs), a family of nuclear protein kinases, interact with phyB and PIF3 in R light and mediate multisite phosphorylation of PIF3 in vivo. Here, we report that two members of the 14-3-3 protein family, 14-3-3λ and κ, bind to a serine residue in the bHLH domain of PIF3 that can be phosphorylated by PPKs, and act as key positive regulators of R light-induced photomorphogenesis. Moreover, 14-3-3λ and κ preferentially interact with photo-activated phyB and promote the phyB-PIF3-PPK complex formation, thereby facilitating phyB-induced phosphorylation and degradation of PIF3 upon R light exposure. Together, our data demonstrate that 14-3-3λ and κ work in close concert with the phyB-PIF3 module to regulate light signaling in Arabidopsis.

OsFTL4, an FT-like Gene, Regulates Flowering Time and Drought Tolerance in Rice (Oryza sativa L.)

The initiation of flowering in cereals is a critical process influenced by environmental and endogenous signals. Flowering Locus T-like (FT-like) genes encode the main signals for flowering. Of the 13 FT-like genes in the rice genome, Hd3a/OsFTL2 and RFT1/OsFTL3 have been extensively studied and revealed to be critical for flowering. In this study, a rice FT-like gene, OsFTL4, was functionally characterized. Specifically, osftl4 mutants were generated using a CRISPR/Cas9 system. Compared with the wild-type control (Guangluai 4), the osftl4-1 and osftl4-2 mutants flowered 9.6 and 5.8 days earlier under natural long-day and short-day conditions, respectively. Additionally, OsFTL4 was mainly expressed in the vascular tissue, with the resulting OsFTL4 protein localized in both the nucleus and cytoplasm. Furthermore, OsFTL4 was observed to compete with Hd3a for the interaction with multiple 14-3-3 proteins. An analysis of the effects of simulated drought stress suggested that silencing OsFTL4 enhances drought tolerance by decreasing stomatal conductance and water loss. These results indicate that OsFTL4 helps integrate the flowering process and the drought response in rice.

Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases Associated Sites of Tobacco Repression of Shoot Growth Regulates Its Localization in Plant Cells

Plant defense and growth rely on multiple transcriptional factors (TFs). Repression of shoot growth (RSG) is a TF belonging to a bZIP family in tobacco, known to be involved in plant gibberellin feedback regulation by inducing the expression of key genes. The tobacco calcium-dependent protein kinase CDPK1 was reported to interact with RSG and manipulate its intracellular localization by phosphorylating Ser-114 of RSG previously. Here, we identified tobacco mitogen-activated protein kinase 3 (NtMPK3) as an RSG-interacting protein kinase. Moreover, the mutation of the predicted MAPK-associated phosphorylation site of RSG (Thr-30, Ser-74, and Thr-135) significantly altered the intracellular localization of the NtMPK3-RSG interaction complex. Nuclear transport of RSG and its amino acid mutants (T30A and S74A) were observed after being treated with plant defense elicitor peptide flg22 within 5 min, and the two mutated RSG swiftly re-localized in tobacco cytoplasm within 30 min. In addition, triple-point mutation of RSG (T30A/S74A/T135A) mimics constant unphosphorylated status, and is predominantly localized in tobacco cytoplasm. RSG (T30A/S74A/T135A) showed no re-localization effect under the treatments of flg22, B. cereus AR156, or GA₃, and over-expression of this mutant in tobacco resulted in lower expression levels of downstream gene GA20ox1. Our results suggest that MAPK-associated phosphorylation sites of RSG regulate its localization in tobacco, and that constant unphosphorylation of RSG in Thr-30, Ser-74, and Thr-135 keeps RSG predominantly localized in cytoplasm.

PheGRF4e initiated auxin signaling during moso bamboo shoot development

BACKGROUND

As a ubiquitous acid-regulating protein family in eukaryotes, general regulatory factors (GRFs) are active in various life activities of plants. However, detailed investigations of the GRFs gene family in moso bamboo are scarce.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Genome-wide characteristics of the GRF gene family in moso bamboo were analyzed using the moso bamboo genome. GRF phylogeny, gene structure, conserved domains, cis-element promoters, and gene expression were systematically analyzed. A total of 20 GRF gene family members were identified in the moso bamboo genome. These genes were divided into ε and non-ε groups. qRT-PCR (real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction) showed that PheGRF genes responded to auxin and gibberellin treatment. To further study PheGRF gene functions, a yeast two-hybrid experiment was performed and verified by a bimolecular fluorescence complementation experiment. The results showed that PheGRF4e could interact with PheIAA30 (auxin/indole-3-acetic acid, an Aux/IAA family gene), and both were found to act mainly on the root tip meristem and vascular bundle cells of developing shoots by in situ hybridization assay.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that PheGRF genes were involved in hormone response during moso bamboo shoot development, and the possible regulatory functions of PheGRF genes were enriched by the fact that PheGRF4e initiated auxin signaling by binding to PheIAA30.

Stigma/Style Cell-Cycle Inhibitor 1, a Regulator of Cell Proliferation, Interacts With a Specific 14-3-3 Protein and Is Degraded During Cell Division

The final shape and size of plant organs are determined by a network of genes that modulate cell proliferation and expansion. Among those, SCI1 (Stigma/style Cell-cycle Inhibitor 1) functions by inhibiting cell proliferation during pistil development. Alterations in SCI1 expression levels can lead to remarkable stigma/style size changes. Recently, we demonstrated that SCI1 starts to be expressed at the specification of the Nicotiana tabacum floral meristem and is expressed at all floral meristematic cells. To elucidate how SCI1 regulates cell proliferation, we screened a stigma/style cDNA library through the yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) system, using SCI1 as bait. Among the interaction partners, we identified the 14-3-3D protein of the Non-Epsilon group. The interaction between SCI1 and 14-3-3D was confirmed by pulldown and co-immunoprecipitation experiments. 14-3-3D forms homo- and heterodimers in the cytoplasm of plant cells and interacts with SCI1 in the nucleus, as demonstrated by Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC). Analyses of SCI1-GFP fluorescence through the cell-cycle progression revealed its presence in the nucleoli during interphase and prophase. At metaphase, SCI1-GFP fluorescence faded and was no longer detected at anaphase, reappearing at telophase. Upon treatment with the 26S proteasome inhibitor MG132, SCI1-GFP was stabilized during cell division. Site-directed mutagenesis of seven serines into alanines in the predicted 14-3-3 binding sites on the SCI1 sequence prevented its degradation during mitosis. Our results demonstrate that SCI1 degradation at the beginning of metaphase is dependent on the phosphorylation of serine residues and on the action of the 26S proteasome. We concluded that SCI1 stability/degradation is cell-cycle regulated, consistent with its role in fine-tuning cell proliferation.

The role of 14-3-3 proteins in plant growth and response to abiotic stress

The 14-3-3 proteins widely exist in almost all plant species. They specifically recognize and interact with phosphorylated target proteins, including protein kinases, phosphatases, transcription factors and functional proteins, offering an array of opportunities for 14-3-3s to participate in the signal transduction processes. 14-3-3s are multigene families and can form homo- and heterodimers, which confer functional specificity of 14-3-3 proteins. They are widely involved in regulating biochemical and cellular processes and plant growth and development, including cell elongation and division, seed germination, vegetative and reproductive growth, and seed dormancy. They mediate plant response to environmental stresses such as salt, alkaline, osmotic, drought, cold and other abiotic stresses, partially via hormone-related signalling pathways. Although many studies have reviewed the function of 14-3-3 proteins, recent research on plant 14-3-3s has achieved significant advances. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the fundamental properties of 14-3-3 proteins and systematically summarize and dissect the emerging advances in understanding the roles of 14-3-3s in plant growth and development and abiotic stress responses. Some ambiguous questions about the roles of 14-3-3s under environmental stresses are reviewed. Interesting questions related to plant 14-3-3 functions that remain to be elucidated are also discussed.

(De)Activation (Ir)Reversibly or Degradation: Dynamics of Post-Translational Protein Modifications in Plants

The increasing dynamic functions of post-translational modifications (PTMs) within protein molecules present outstanding challenges for plant biology even at this present day. Protein PTMs are among the first and fastest plant responses to changes in the environment, indicating that the mechanisms and dynamics of PTMs are an essential area of plant biology. Besides being key players in signaling, PTMs play vital roles in gene expression, gene, and protein localization, protein stability and interactions, as well as enzyme kinetics. In this review, we take a broader but concise approach to capture the current state of events in the field of plant PTMs. We discuss protein modifications including citrullination, glycosylation, phosphorylation, oxidation and disulfide bridges, N-terminal, SUMOylation, and ubiquitination. Further, we outline the complexity of studying PTMs in relation to compartmentalization and function. We conclude by challenging the proteomics community to engage in holistic approaches towards identification and characterizing multiple PTMs on the same protein, their interaction, and mechanism of regulation to bring a deeper understanding of protein function and regulation in plants.

The 14-3-3 proteins: regulators of plant metabolism and stress responses

The 14-3-3 proteins bind to and modulate the activity of phosphorylated proteins that regulate a variety of metabolic processes in plants. Over the past decade interest in the plant 14-3-3 field has increased dramatically, mainly due to the vast number of mechanisms by which 14-3-3 proteins regulate metabolism. As this field develops, it is essential to understand the role of these proteins in metabolic and stress responses. This review summarizes current knowledge about 14-3-3 proteins in plants, including their molecular structure and function, regulatory mechanism and roles in carbon and nitrogen metabolism and stress responses. We begin with a molecular structural analysis of 14-3-3 proteins, which describes the basic principles of 14-3-3 function, and then discuss the regulatory mechanisms and roles in carbon and nitrogen metabolism of 14-3-3 proteins. We conclude with a summary of the 14-3-3 response to biotic stress and abiotic stress.

Genome-Wide Identification and Analysis of the APETALA2 (AP2) Transcription Factor in Dendrobium officinale

The APETALA2 (AP2) transcription factors (TFs) play crucial roles in regulating development in plants. However, a comprehensive analysis of the AP2 family members in a valuable Chinese herbal orchid, Dendrobium officinale, or in other orchids, is limited. In this study, the 14 DoAP2 TFs that were identified from the D. officinale genome and named DoAP2-1 to DoAP2-14 were divided into three clades: euAP2, euANT, and basalANT. The promoters of all DoAP2 genes contained cis-regulatory elements related to plant development and also responsive to plant hormones and stress. qRT-PCR analysis showed the abundant expression of DoAP2-2, DoAP2-5, DoAP2-7, DoAP2-8 and DoAP2-12 genes in protocorm-like bodies (PLBs), while DoAP2-3, DoAP2-4, DoAP2-6, DoAP2-9, DoAP2-10 and DoAP2-11 expression was strong in plantlets. In addition, the expression of some DoAP2 genes was down-regulated during flower development. These results suggest that DoAP2 genes may play roles in plant regeneration and flower development in D. officinale. Four DoAP2 genes (DoAP2-1 from euAP2, DoAP2-2 from euANT, and DoAP2-6 and DoAP2-11 from basal ANT) were selected for further analyses. The transcriptional activation of DoAP2-1, DoAP2-2, DoAP2-6 and DoAP2-11 proteins, which were localized in the nucleus of Arabidopsis thaliana mesophyll protoplasts, was further analyzed by a dual-luciferase reporter gene system in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. Our data showed that pBD-DoAP2-1, pBD-DoAP2-2, pBD-DoAP2-6 and pBD-DoAP2-11 significantly repressed the expression of the LUC reporter compared with the negative control (pBD), suggesting that these DoAP2 proteins may act as transcriptional repressors in the nucleus of plant cells. Our findings on AP2 genes in D. officinale shed light on the function of AP2 genes in this orchid and other plant species.

Nucleocytoplasmic partitioning as a mechanism to regulate Arabidopsis signaling events

The nucleus is the site of transcription events - compartmentalization of transcription in eukaryotes allows for regulated access to chromatin. The nucleopore, a complex of many intrinsically disorder proteins, acts as the gatekeeper for nuclear entry and exit, and receptors for nuclear localization signals and nuclear export signals interact with both cargo and nucleopore components to facilitate this movement. Thus, regulated occlusion of the nuclear localization signal or nuclear export signal, tethering of proteins, or sequestration in biomolecular condensates can be used to regulate nucleocytoplasmic partitioning. In plants, regulated nucleocytoplasmic partitioning is a key mechanism to regulate signaling pathways, including those involved in various phytohormones, environmental stimuli, and pathogen responses.

Ca14-3-3 Interacts With CaWRKY58 to Positively Modulate Pepper Response to Low-Phosphorus Starvation

Low-phosphorus stress (LPS) and pathogen attack are two important stresses frequently experienced by plants in their natural habitats, but how plant respond to them coordinately remains under-investigated. Here, we demonstrate that CaWRKY58, a known negative regulator of the pepper (Capsicum annuum) response to attack by Ralstonia solanacearum, is upregulated by LPS. Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) and overexpression of CaWRKY58 in Nicotiana benthamiana plants in combination with chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA) demonstrated that CaWRKY58 positively regulates the response of pepper to LPS by directly targeting and regulating genes related to phosphorus-deficiency tolerance, including PHOSPHATE STARVATION RESPONSE1 (PHR1). Yeast two-hybrid assays revealed that CaWRKY58 interacts with a 14-3-3 protein (Ca14-3-3); this interaction was confirmed by pull-down, bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC), and microscale thermophoresis (MST) assays. The interaction between Ca14-3-3 and CaWRKY58 enhanced the activation of PHR1 expression by CaWRKY58, but did not affect the expression of the immunity-related genes CaNPR1 and CaDEF1, which are negatively regulated by CaWRKY58 in pepper upon Ralstonia solanacearum inoculation. Collectively, our data indicate that CaWRKY58 negatively regulates immunity against Ralstonia solanacearum, but positively regulates tolerance to LPS and that Ca14-3-3 transcriptionally activates CaWRKY58 in response to LPS.

Genome-wide identification of the 14-3-3 gene family and its participation in floral transition by interacting with TFL1/FT in apple

BACKGROUND

Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) is a popular cultivated fruit crop with high economic value in China. Apple floral transition is an important process but liable to be affected by various environmental factors. The 14-3-3 proteins are involved in regulating diverse biological processes in plants, and some 14-3-3 members play vital roles in flowering. However, little information was available about the 14-3-3 members in apple.

RESULTS

In the current study, we identified eighteen 14-3-3 gene family members from the apple genome database, designated MdGF14a to MdGF14r. The isoforms possess a conserved core region comprising nine antiparallel α-helices and divergent N and C termini. According to their structural and phylogenetic features, Md14-3-3 proteins could be classified into two major evolutionary branches, the epsilon (ɛ) group and the non-epsilon (non-ɛ) group. Moreover, expression profiles derived from transcriptome data and quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR analysis showed diverse expression patterns of Md14-3-3 genes in various tissues and in response to different sugars and hormone treatments during the floral transition phase. Four Md14-3-3 isoforms (MdGF14a, MdGF14d, MdGF14i, and MdGF14j) exhibiting prominent transcriptional responses to sugars and hormones were selected for further investigation. Furthermore, yeast two-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation experiments showed that the four Md14-3-3 proteins interact with key floral integrators, MdTFL1 (TERMINAL FLOWER1) and MdFT (FLOWERING LOCUS T). Subcellular localization of four selected Md14-3-3 proteins demonstrated their localization in both the cytoplasm and nucleus.

CONCLUSION

We identified the Md14-3-3 s family in apple comprehensively. Certain Md14-3-3 genes are expressed predominantly during the apple floral transition stage, and may participate in the regulation of flowering through association with flower control genes. Our results provide a preliminary framework for further investigation into the roles of Md14-3-3 s in floral transition.

CaASR1 promotes salicylic acid- but represses jasmonic acid-dependent signaling to enhance the resistance of Capsicum annuum to bacterial wilt by modulating CabZIP63

CabZIP63 acts positively in the resistance of pepper (Capsicum annuum) to bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum or tolerance to high-temperature/high-humidity stress, but it is unclear how CabZIP63 achieves its functional specificity against R. solanacearum. Here, CaASR1, an abscisic acid-, stress-, and ripening-inducible protein of C. annuum, was functionally characterized in modulating the functional specificity of CabZIP63 during the defense response of pepper to R. solanacearum. In pepper plants inoculated with R. solanacearum, CaASR1 was up-regulated before 24 h post-inoculation but down-regulated thereafter, and was down-regulated by high-temperature/high-humidity stress. Data from gene silencing and transient overexpression experiments indicated that CaASR1 acts as a positive regulator in the immunity of pepper against R. solanacearum and a negative regulator of thermotolerance. Pull-down combined with mass spectrometry revealed that CaASR1 interacted with CabZIP63 upon R. solanacearum infection; the interaction was confirmed by microscale thermophoresis and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays.CaASR1 silencing upon R. solanacearum inoculation repressed CabZIP63-mediated transcription from the promoters of the salicylic acid (SA)-dependent CaPR1 and CaNPR1, but derepressed transcription of CaHSP24 and the jasmonic acid (JA)-dependent CaDEF1. Our findings suggest that CaASR1 acts as a positive regulator of the defense response of pepper to R. solanacearum by interacting with CabZIP63, enabling it to promote SA-dependent but repress JA-dependent immunity and thermotolerance during the early stages of infection.

CONSTANS-FKBP12 interaction contributes to modulation of photoperiodic flowering in Arabidopsis

Flowering time is a key process in plant development. Photoperiodic signals play a crucial role in the floral transition in Arabidopsis thaliana, and the protein CONSTANS (CO) has a central regulatory function that is tightly regulated at the transcriptional and post-translational levels. The stability of CO protein depends on a light-driven proteasome process that optimizes its accumulation in the evening to promote the production of the florigen FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) and induce seasonal flowering. To further investigate the post-translational regulation of CO protein we have dissected its interactome network employing in vivo and in vitro assays and molecular genetics approaches. The immunophilin FKBP12 has been identified in Arabidopsis as a CO interactor that regulates its accumulation and activity. FKBP12 and CO interact through the CCT domain, affecting the stability and function of CO. fkbp12 insertion mutants show a delay in flowering time, while FKBP12 overexpression accelerates flowering, and these phenotypes can be directly related to a change in accumulation of FT protein. The interaction is conserved between the Chlamydomonas algal orthologs CrCO-CrFKBP12, revealing an ancient regulatory step in photoperiod regulation of plant development.

MdGRF11, an apple 14-3-3 protein, acts as a positive regulator of drought and salt tolerance

The 14-3-3 proteins are a family of highly conserved phosphoserine-binding proteins that participate in the regulation of diverse physiological and developmental processes. In this research, twenty 14-3-3 genes in apples, which contained a highly conserved 14-3-3 domain, were identified and divided into two subgroups. Among them, MdGRF11 was further cloned and investigated. qRT-PCR analyses and GUS staining show that MdGRF11 is expressed in various organs and tissues with the highest expression levels found in the fruit. MdGRF11 was upregulated by polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG 6000), NaCl, abscisic acid (ABA) and low temperature (4 °C) treatments. MdGRF11-overexpressing transgenic Arabidopsis and apple calli exhibited reduced sensitivity to salt and PEG 6000 treatments. Moreover, the ectopic expression of MdGRF11 improved the tolerance of transgenic tobacco to salt and drought stresses, which grew longer roots, underwent more growth, and presented higher chlorophyll levels than the wild-type control under salt and drought stress conditions. Furthermore, MdGRF11 expression remarkably reduced electrolyte leakage, malondialdehyde content levels, H₂O₂ and O2- accumulation under salt and drought stress conditions, which relied on the regulation of ROS-scavenging signaling to reduce oxidative damage of cells after salt and drought stress treatment. MdGRF11 also enhanced tolerance to stress by upregulating expression levels of ROS-scavenging and stress-related genes, especially improving responses to drought stress by modifying the water loss rates and stomatal aperture. Moreover, MdGRF11 could interact with MdAREB/ABF transcription factors through yeast two hybrid analyses. In conclusion, our results indicate that MdGRF11 acts as a positive regulator of salt and drought stress responses through regulating ROS scavenging and other signaling systems.

Calcium signalling regulates the functions of the bZIP protein VIP1 in touch responses in Arabidopsis thaliana

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

VIP1 is a bZIP transcription factor in Arabidopsis thaliana. VIP1 and its close homologues transiently accumulate in the nucleus when cells are exposed to hypo-osmotic and/or mechanical stress. Touch-induced root bending is enhanced in transgenic plants overexpressing a repression domain-fused form of VIP1 (VIP1-SRDXox), suggesting that VIP1, possibly with its close homologues, suppresses touch-induced root bending. The aim of this study was to identify regulators of these functions of VIP1 in mechanical stress responses.

METHODS

Co-immunoprecipitation analysis using VIP1-GFP fusion protein expressed in Arabidopsis plants identified calmodulins as VIP1-GFP interactors. In vitro crosslink analysis was performed using a hexahistidine-tagged calmodulin and glutathione S-transferase-fused forms of VIP1 and its close homologues. Plants expressing GFP-fused forms of VIP1 and its close homologues (bZIP59 and bZIP29) were submerged in hypotonic solutions containing divalent cation chelators, EDTA and EGTA, and a potential calmodulin inhibitor, chlorpromazine, to examine their effects on the nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling of those proteins. VIP1-SRDXox plants were grown on medium containing 40 mm CaCl2, 40 mm MgCl2 or 80 mm NaCl. MCA1 and MCA2 are mechanosensitive calcium channels, and the hypo-osmotic stress-dependent nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling of VIP1-GFP in the mca1 mca2 double knockout mutant background was examined.

KEY RESULTS

In vitro crosslink products were detected in the presence of CaCl2, but not in its absence. EDTA, EGTA and chlorpromazine all inhibited both the nuclear import and the nuclear export of VIP1-GFP, bZIP59-GFP and bZIP29-GFP. Either 40 mm CaCl2or 80 mm NaCl enhanced the VIP-SRDX-dependent root bending. The nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling of VIP1 was observed even in the mca1 mca2 mutant.

CONCLUSIONS

VIP1 and its close homologues can interact with calmodulins. Their nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling requires neither MCA1 nor MCA2, but does require calcium signalling. Salt stress affects the VIP1-dependent regulation of root bending.

Shade-induced nuclear localization of PIF7 is regulated by phosphorylation and 14-3-3 proteins in Arabidopsis

Shade avoidance syndrome enables shaded plants to grow and compete effectively against their neighbors. In Arabidopsis, the shade-induced de-phosphorylation of the transcription factor PIF7 (PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTOR 7) is the key event linking light perception to stem elongation. However, the mechanism through which phosphorylation regulates the activity of PIF7 is unclear. Here, we show that shade light induces the de-phosphorylation and nuclear accumulation of PIF7. Phosphorylation-resistant site mutations in PIF7 result in increased nuclear localization and shade-induced gene expression, and consequently augment hypocotyl elongation. PIF7 interacts with 14-3-3 proteins. Blocking the interaction between PIF7 and 14-3-3 proteins or reducing the expression of 14-3-3 proteins accelerates shade-induced nuclear localization and de-phosphorylation of PIF7, and enhances the shade phenotype. By contrast, the 14-3-3 overexpressing line displays an attenuated shade phenotype. These studies demonstrate a phosphorylation-dependent translocation of PIF7 when plants are in shade and a novel mechanism involving 14-3-3 proteins, mediated by the retention of PIF7 in the cytoplasm that suppresses the shade response.

Autophosphorylation of Ser-6 via an intermolecular mechanism is important for the rapid reduction of NtCDPK1 kinase activity for substrate RSG

Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Ca2+-dependent protein kinase 1 (NtCDPK1) is involved in feedback regulation of the plant hormone gibberellin through the phosphorylation of the transcription factor, REPRESSION OF SHOOT GROWTH (RSG). Previously, Ser-6 and Thr-21 were identified as autophosphorylation sites in NtCDPK1. Autophosphorylation of Ser-6 and Thr-21 not only decreases the binding affinity of NtCDPK1 for RSG, but also inhibits the homodimerization of NtCDPK1. Furthermore, autophosphorylation decreases the phosphorylation efficiency of RSG. We demonstrated that Ser-6 and Thr-21 of NtCDPK1 are phosphorylated in response to GAs in plants. The substitution of these autophosphorylation sites with Ala enhances the NtCDPK1 overexpression-induced sensitization of seeds to a GA biosynthetic inhibitor during germination. These findings suggested that autophosphorylation of Ser-6 and Thr-21 prevents excessive phosphorylation of RSG. In this study, we attempted to determine which autophosphorylation site is responsible for the functional regulation of NtCDPK1. Ser-6 was autophosphorylated within 1 min, whereas Thr-21 required over 5 min to be completely autophosphorylated. Furthermore, we found that Ser-6 and Thr-21 were autophosphorylated by inter- and intramolecular mechanisms, respectively, which may be reflected in the faster autophosphorylation of Ser-6. Although both autophosphorylation sites were involved in the reduction of the binding affinity of NtCDPK1 for RSG and the inhibition of NtCDPK1 homodimerization, autophosphorylation of Ser-6 alone was sufficient to decrease the kinase activity of NtCDPK1 for RSG. These results suggest that autophosphorylation of Ser-6 is important for the rapid reduction of NtCDPK1 kinase activity for RSG, whereas that of Thr-21 may play an auxiliary role.

Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases in Phytohormone Signaling Pathways

Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CPKs/CDPKs) are Ca²⁺-sensors that decode Ca²⁺ signals into specific physiological responses. Research has reported that CDPKs constitute a large multigene family in various plant species, and play diverse roles in plant growth, development, and stress responses. Although numerous CDPKs have been exhaustively studied, and many of them have been found to be involved in plant hormone biosynthesis and response mechanisms, a comprehensive overview of the manner in which CDPKs participate in phytohormone signaling pathways, regulating nearly all aspects of plant growth, has not yet been undertaken. In this article, we reviewed the structure of CDPKs and the mechanism of their subcellular localization. Some CDPKs were elucidated to influence the intracellular localization of their substrates. Since little work has been done on the interaction between CDPKs and cytokinin signaling pathways, or on newly defined phytohormones such as brassinosteroids, strigolactones and salicylic acid, this paper mainly focused on discussing the integral associations between CDPKs and five plant hormones: auxins, gibberellins, ethylene, jasmonates, and abscisic acid. A perspective on future work is provided at the end.

DELLA-GAF1 Complex Is a Main Component in Gibberellin Feedback Regulation of GA20 Oxidase 2

Gibberellins (GAs) are phytohormones that regulate many aspects of plant growth and development, including germination, elongation, flowering, and floral development. Negative feedback regulation contributes to homeostasis of the GA level. DELLAs are negative regulators of GA signaling and are rapidly degraded in the presence of GAs. DELLAs regulate many target genes, including AtGA20ox2 in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), encoding the GA-biosynthetic enzyme GA 20-oxidase. As DELLAs do not have an apparent DNA-binding motif, transcription factors that act in association with DELLA are necessary for regulating the target genes. Previous studies have identified GAI-ASSOCIATED FACTOR1 (GAF1) as such a DELLA interactor, with which DELLAs act as coactivators, and AtGA20ox2 was identified as a target gene of the DELLA-GAF1 complex. In this study, electrophoretic mobility shift and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays showed that four GAF1-binding sites exist in the AtGA20ox2 promoter. Using transgenic plants, we further evaluated the contribution of the DELLA-GAF1 complex to GA feedback regulation. Mutations in four GAF1-binding sites abolished the negative feedback of AtGA20ox2 in transgenic plants. Our results showed that GAF1-binding sites are necessary for GA feedback regulation of AtGA20ox2, suggesting that the DELLA-GAF1 complex is a main component of the GA feedback regulation of AtGA20ox2.

The bHLH transcription factor CgbHLH001 is a potential interaction partner of CDPK in halophyte Chenopodium glaucum

Plants have evolved different abilities to adapt to the ever-fluctuating environments for sessility. Calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) is believed to play a pivotal role in abiotic stress signaling. So far, study on the specific substrates that CDPK recognized in response to adversity is limited. In the present study, we revealed a potential interaction between CDPK and a bHLH transcription factor under salt stress in Chenopodium glaucum. First, we identified a CgCDPK, which was up-regulated under salt and drought stress; then by Y2H screening, CgCDPK was detected to be involved in interaction with a bHLH TF (named as CgbHLH001), which also positively respond to salt and drought stress. Further computational prediction and experiments including GST-pulldown and BiFC assays revealed that potential interaction existed between CgCDPK and CgbHLH001, and they might interact on the plasma membrane. In addition, CgCDPK-overexpressed transgenic tobacco line could significantly accumulate transcripts of NtbHLH (a homolog of CgbHLH001 in N. tabacum), which provided another evidence of correlation between CgCDPK and CgbHLH001. Our results suggest that CgbHLH001 can interact with CgCDPK in signal transduction pathway in response to abiotic stress, which should provide new evidence for further understanding of the substrate specificity of plant CDPK signaling pathway.

Autophosphorylation Affects Substrate-Binding Affinity of Tobacco Ca2+-Dependent Protein Kinase1

Protein kinases regulate diverse physiological processes. Because many kinases preserve inherent autophosphorylation capability, autophosphorylation appears to be one of the most important mechanisms for cellular signaling. However, physiological functions of autophosphorylation are still largely unknown, other than the self-activation by phosphorylation of activation loop in the catalytic domain. REPRESSION OF SHOOT GROWTH (RSG) is the transcription factor involved in gibberellin (GA) feedback regulation. The tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Ca2+-dependent protein kinase, NtCDPK1, phosphorylates RSG, resulting in the negative regulation of RSG. NtCDPK1 was previously shown to be autophosphorylated in a Ca2+-dependent manner. Here, we investigated the functional importance of autophosphorylation in NtCDPK1. Ser-6 and Thr-21 were identified as autophosphorylation sites of NtCDPK1. Autophosphorylation not only reduced the binding affinity of NtCDPK1 for RSG, but also inhibited the homodimerization of NtCDPK1. Furthermore, autophosphorylation decreased the phosphorylation efficiency of RSG yet increased that of myelin basic protein. Ser-6 and Thr-21 of NtCDPK1 were phosphorylated in response to GAs in plants. The substitution of these autophosphorylation sites with Ala enhanced the NtCDPK1 overexpression-induced sensitization of seeds to a GA biosynthetic inhibitor during germination. These results suggest new functions of autophosphorylation in CDPKs, namely, autophosphorylation can prevent the excessive phosphorylation of substrates and alter the substrate preference of CDPKs.

Integrated proteomic analysis of Brachypodium distachyon roots and leaves reveals a synergistic network in the response to drought stress and recovery

In this study, we performed the first integrated physiological and proteomic analysis of the response to drought and recovery from drought, using Brachypodium distachyon L. Roots and leaves. Drought stress resulted in leaves curling, root tips becoming darker in color and significant changes in some physiological parameters. Two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) identified 78 and 98 differentially accumulated protein (DAP) spots representing 68 and 73 unique proteins responding to drought stress and/or recovery in roots and leaves, respectively. Differences between the root and leaf proteome were most marked for photosynthesis, energy metabolism, and protein metabolism. In particular, some DAPs involved in energy and protein metabolism had contrasting accumulation patterns in roots and leaves. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis of roots and leaves revealed complex protein interaction networks that can generate synergistic responses to drought stress and during recovery from drought. Transcript analysis using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) validated the differential expression of key proteins involved in the PPI network. Our integrated physiological and proteomic analysis provides evidence for a synergistic network involved in responses to drought and active during recovery from drought, in Brachypodium roots and leaves.

The Tudor Staphylococcal Nuclease Protein of Entamoeba histolytica Participates in Transcription Regulation and Stress Response

Entamoeba histolytica is the protozoa parasite responsible of human amoebiasis, disease that causes from 40,000 to 100,000 deaths annually worldwide. However, few are known about the expression regulation of molecules involved in its pathogenicity. Transcription of some virulence-related genes is positively controlled by the cis-regulatory element named URE1. Previously we identified the transcription factor that binds to URE1, which displayed a nuclear and cytoplasmic localization. This protein belongs to the Tudor Staphyococcal nuclease (TSN) family, which in other systems participates in virtually all pathways of gene expression, suggesting that this amoebic transcription factor (EhTSN; former EhURE1BP) could also play multiple functions in E. histolytica. The aim of this study was to identify the possible cellular events where EhTSN is involved. Here, we found that EhTSN in nucleus is located in euchromatin and close to, but not into, heterochromatin. We also showed the association of EhTSN with proteins involved in transcription and that the knockdown of EhTSN provokes a diminishing in the mRNA level of the EhRabB gene, which in its promoter region contains the URE1 motif, confirming that EhTSN participates in transcription regulation. In cytoplasm, this protein was found linked to the membrane of small vesicles and to plasma membrane. Through pull-down assays and mass spectrometry we identity thirty two candidate proteins to interact with EhTSN. These proteins participate in transcription, metabolism, signaling, and stress response, among other cellular processes. Interaction of EhTSN with some candidate proteins involved in metabolism, and signaling was validated by co-immunoprecipitation or co-localization. Finally we showed the co-localization of EhTSN and HSP70 in putative stress granules during heat shock and that the knockdown of EhTSN increases the cell death during heat shock treatment, reinforcing the hypothesis that EhTSN has a role during stress response. All data support the proposal that EhTSN is a multifunctional protein of E. histolytica.

Potato Tuber Induction is Regulated by Interactions Between Components of a Tuberigen Complex

Photoperiod-regulated flowering and potato tuber formation involve leaf-produced mobile signals, florigen and tuberigen, respectively. The major protein component of florigen has been identified as the FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) protein. In rice, an FT-like protein, Heading date 3a (Hd3a), induces flowering by making the florigen activation complex (FAC) through interactions with 14-3-3 and OsFD1, a rice FD-like protein. In potato, StSP6A, an FT-like protein, was identified as a major component of tuberigen. However, the molecular mechanism of how StSP6A triggers tuber formation remains elusive. Here we analyzed the significance of the formation of a complex including StSP6A, 14-3-3 and FD-like proteins in tuberization. Yeast two-hybrid, bimolecular fluorescence complementation and in vitro pull-down assays showed that StSP6A and StFDL1, a potato FD-like protein, interact with St14-3-3s. StSP6A overexpression induced early tuberization in a 14-3-3-dependent manner, and suppression of StFDL1 delayed tuberization. These results strongly suggest that an FAC-like complex, the tuberigen activation complex (TAC), comprised of StSP6A, St14-3-3s and StFDL1, regulates potato tuber formation.

StCDPK3 Phosphorylates In Vitro Two Transcription Factors Involved in GA and ABA Signaling in Potato: StRSG1 and StABF1

Calcium-dependent protein kinases, CDPKs, decode calcium (Ca2+) transients and initiate downstream responses in plants. In order to understand how CDPKs affect plant physiology, their specific target proteins must be identified. In tobacco, the bZIP transcription factor Repression of Shoot Growth (NtRSG) that modulates gibberellin (GA) content is a specific target of NtCDPK1. StCDPK3 from potato is homologous (88% identical) to NtCDPK1 even in its N-terminal variable domain. In this work, we observe that NtRSG is also phosphorylated by StCDPK3. The potato RSG family of transcription factors is composed of three members that share similar features. The closest homologue to NtRSG, which was named StRSG1, was amplified and sequenced. qRT-PCR data indicate that StRSG1 is mainly expressed in petioles, stems, lateral buds, and roots. In addition, GA treatment affected StRSG1 expression. StCDPK3 transcripts were detected in leaves, petioles, stolons, roots, and dormant tubers, and transcript levels were modified in response to GA. The recombinant StRSG1-GST protein was produced and tested as a substrate for StCDPK3 and StCDPK1. 6xHisStCDPK3 was able to phosphorylate the potato StRSG1 in a Ca2+-dependent way, while 6xHisStCDPK1 could not. StCDPK3 also interacts and phosphorylates the transcription factor StABF1 (ABRE binding factor 1) involved in ABA signaling, as shown by EMSA and phosphorylation assays. StABF1 transcripts were mainly detected in roots, stems, and stolons. Our data suggest that StCDPK3 could be involved in the cross-talk between ABA and GA signaling at the onset of tuber development.

Proteomics provides insights into biological pathways altered by plant growth promoting bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhiza in sorghum grown in marginal soil

Sorghum is an economically important crop, a model system for gene discovery and a biofuel source. Sorghum seedlings were subjected to three microbial treatments, plant growth promoting bacteria (B), arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi mix with two Glomus species (G. aggregatum and G. etunicatum), Funelliformis mosseae and Rhizophagus irregularis (My), and B and My combined (My+B). Proteomic analysis was conducted followed by integration with metabolite, plant biomass and nutrient data. Out of 366 differentially expressed proteins in sorghum roots, 44 upregulated proteins overlapping among three treatment groups showed positive correlation with sorghum biomass or element uptake or both. Proteins upregulated only in B group include asparagine synthetase which showed negative correlation with biomass and uptake of elements. Phosphoribosyl amino imidazole succinocarboxamide protein with more than 50-fold change in My and My+B groups correlated positively with Ca, Cu, S and sucrose levels in roots. The B group showed the highest number of upregulated proteins among the three groups with negative correlation with sorghum biomass and element uptake. KEGG pathway analysis identified carbon fixation as the unique pathway associated with common upregulated proteins while biosynthesis of amino acids and fatty acid degradation were associated with common downregulated proteins. Protein-protein interaction analysis using STRING identified a major network with thirteen downregulated proteins. These findings suggest that plant-growth-promoting-bacteria alone or in combination with mycorrhiza enhanced radical scavenging system and increased levels of specific proteins thereby shifting the metabolism towards synthesis of carbohydrates resulting in sorghum biomass increase and uptake of nutrients.

Functional characterization of the Arabidopsis transcription factor bZIP29 reveals its role in leaf and root development

Plant bZIP group I transcription factors have been reported mainly for their role during vascular development and osmosensory responses. Interestingly, bZIP29 has been identified in a cell cycle interactome, indicating additional functions of bZIP29 in plant development. Here, bZIP29 was functionally characterized to study its role during plant development. It is not present in vascular tissue but is specifically expressed in proliferative tissues. Genome-wide mapping of bZIP29 target genes confirmed its role in stress and osmosensory responses, but also identified specific binding to several core cell cycle genes and to genes involved in cell wall organization. bZIP29 protein complex analyses validated interaction with other bZIP group I members and provided insight into regulatory mechanisms acting on bZIP dimers. In agreement with bZIP29 expression in proliferative tissues and with its binding to promoters of cell cycle regulators, dominant-negative repression of bZIP29 altered the cell number in leaves and in the root meristem. A transcriptome analysis on the root meristem, however, indicated that bZIP29 might regulate cell number through control of cell wall organization. Finally, ectopic dominant-negative repression of bZIP29 and redundant factors led to a seedling-lethal phenotype, pointing to essential roles for bZIP group I factors early in plant development.

The bZIP Protein VIP1 Is Involved in Touch Responses in Arabidopsis Roots

VIP1 is a bZIP transcription factor in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). VIP1 transiently accumulates in the nucleus when cells are exposed to hypoosmotic conditions, but its physiological relevance is unclear. This is possibly because Arabidopsis has approximately 10 close homologs of VIP1 and they function redundantly. To examine their physiological roles, transgenic plants overexpressing a repression domain-fused form of VIP1 (VIP1-SRDXox plants), in which the gene activation mediated by VIP1 is expected to be repressed, were generated. Because hypoosmotic stress can mimic mechanical stimuli (e.g. touch), the touch-induced root-waving phenotypes and gene expression patterns in those transgenic plants were examined. VIP1-SRDXox plants exhibited more severe root waving and lower expression of putative VIP1 target genes. The expression of the VIP1-green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion protein partially suppressed the VIP1-SRDX-induced increase in root waving when expressed in the VIP1-SRDXox plants. These results suggest that VIP1 can suppress the touch-induced root waving. The VIP1-SRDX-induced increase in root waving was also suppressed when the synthetic auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid or the ethylene precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, which is known to activate auxin biosynthesis, was present in the growth medium. Root cap cells with the auxin marker DR5rev::GFP were more abundant in the VIP1-SRDXox background than in the wild-type background. Auxin is transported via the root cap, and the conditions of outermost root cap layers were abnormal in VIP1-SRDXox plants. These results raise the possibility that VIP1 influences structures of the root cap and thereby regulates the local auxin responses in roots.

Transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and posttranslational regulation of SHOOT MERISTEMLESS gene expression in Arabidopsis determines gene function in the shoot apex

The activity of SHOOT MERISTEMLESS (STM) is required for the functioning of the shoot apical meristem (SAM). STM is expressed in the SAM but is down-regulated at the site of leaf initiation. STM is also required for the formation of compound leaves. However, how the activity of STM is regulated at the transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and posttranslational levels is poorly understood. We previously found two conserved noncoding sequences in the promoters of STM-like genes across angiosperms, the K-box and the RB-box. Here, we characterize the function of the RB-box in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). The RB-box, along with the K-box, regulates the expression of STM in leaf sinuses, which are areas on the leaf blade with meristematic potential. The RB-box also contributes to restrict STM expression to the SAM. We identified FAR1-RELATED SEQUENCES-RELATED FACTOR1 (FRF1) as a binding factor to the RB-box region. FRF1 is an uncharacterized member of a subfamily of four truncated proteins related to the FAR1-RELATED SEQUENCES factors. Internal deletion analysis of the STM promoter identified a region required to repress the expression of STM in hypocotyls. Expression of STM in leaf primordia under the control of the JAGGED promoter produced plants with partially undifferentiated leaves. We further found that the ELK domain has a role in the posttranslational regulation of STM by affecting the nuclear localization of STM.

The naked endosperm genes encode duplicate INDETERMINATE domain transcription factors required for maize endosperm cell patterning and differentiation

The aleurone is the outermost layer of cereal endosperm and functions to digest storage products accumulated in starchy endosperm cells as well as to confer important dietary health benefits. Whereas normal maize (Zea mays [Zm]) has a single aleurone layer, naked endosperm (nkd) mutants produce multiple outer cell layers of partially differentiated cells that show sporadic expression of aleurone identity markers such as a viviparous1 promoter-β-glucuronidase transgene. The 15:1 F2 segregation ratio suggested that two recessive genes were involved, and map-based cloning identified two homologous genes in duplicated regions of the genome. The nkd1 and nkd2 genes encode the INDETERMINATE1 domain (IDD) containing transcription factors ZmIDDveg9 and ZmIDD9 on chromosomes 2 and 10, respectively. Independent mutant alleles of nkd1 and nkd2, as well as nkd2-RNA interference lines in which both nkd genes were knocked down, also showed the nkd mutant phenotype, confirming the gene identities. In wild-type kernels, the nkd transcripts were most abundant around 11 to 16 d after pollination. The NKD proteins have putative nuclear localization signals, and green fluorescent protein fusion proteins showed nuclear localization. The mutant phenotype and gene identities suggest that NKD controls a gene regulatory network involved in aleurone cell fate specification and cell differentiation.

Pear 14-3-3a gene (Pp14-3-3a) is regulated during fruit ripening and senescense, and involved in response to salicylic acid and ethylene signalling

14-3-3 proteins play important roles in regulating plant development and phytohormone (abscisic acid, gibberellin and brassinosteroids) signalling. However, their regulation in fruit ripening and senescense, and response to salicylic acid and ethylene signalling are yet to be illustrated. One cDNA encoding putative 14-3-3 protein was isolated from pear (Pyrus pyrifolia) and designated Pp14-3-3a. Phylogenetic analysis clearly demonstrated that Pp14-3-3a belonged to ε-like group of 14-3-3 superfamilies. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis indicated that the expression of Pp14-3-3a gene was developmentally regulated in the fruit. Further study demonstrated that Pp14-3-3a expression was inhibited by salicylic acid and induced by ethylene precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid in pear fruit. These data suggested that Pp14-3-3a might be involved in response to salicylic acid and ethylene signalling during fruit ripening and senescence of pear.

Higher order Arabidopsis 14-3-3 mutants show 14-3-3 involvement in primary root growth both under control and abiotic stress conditions

Arabidopsis 14-3-3 proteins are a family of conserved proteins that interact with numerous partner proteins in a phospho-specific manner, and can affect the target proteins in a number of ways; e.g. modification of enzymatic activity. We isolated T-DNA insertion lines in six 14-3-3 genes within the non-epsilon group that phylogenetically group in three closely related gene pairs. In total, 6 single, 3 double, 12 triple, and 3 quadruple mutants were generated. The mutants were phenotyped for primary root growth on control plates: single and double mutants were indistinguishable from WT, whereas six triples and all quadruples showed a shorter primary root. In addition, length of the first epidermal cell with a visible root hair bulge (LEH) was used to determine primary root elongation on medium containing mannitol and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC). This analysis showed clear differences depending on the stress and 14-3-3 gene combinations. Next to the phenotypic growth analyses, a 14-3-3 pull-down assay on roots treated with and without mannitol showed that mannitol stress strongly affects the 14-3-3 interactome. In conclusion, we show gene specificity and functional redundancy among 14-3-3 proteins in primary root elongation under control and under abiotic stress conditions and changes in the 14-3-3 interactome during the onset of stress adaptation.

Analysis of functions of VIP1 and its close homologs in osmosensory responses of Arabidopsis thaliana

VIP1 is a bZIP protein in Arabidopsis thaliana. VIP1 accumulates in the nucleus under hypo-osmotic conditions and interacts with the promoters of hypo-osmolarity-responsive genes, CYP707A1 and CYP707A3 (CYP707A1/3), but neither overexpression of VIP1 nor truncation of its DNA-binding region affects the expression of CYP707A3 in vivo, raising the possibility that VIP and other proteins are functionally redundant. Here we show further analyses on VIP1 and its close homologs, namely, Arabidopsis group I bZIP proteins. The patterns of the signals of the GFP-fused group I bZIP proteins were similar in onion and Arabidopsis cells, suggesting that they have similar subcellular localization. In a yeast one-hybrid assay, the group I bZIP proteins caused reporter gene activation in the yeast reporter strain. VIP1 and other group I bZIP proteins showed positive results in a yeast two-hybrid assay and a bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay, suggesting that they physically interact. These results support the idea that they have somewhat similar functions. By gel shift assays, VIP1-binding sequences in the CYP707A1/3 promoters were confirmed to be AGCTGT/G. Their presence in the promoters of the genes that respond to hypo-osmotic conditions was evaluated using previously published microarray data. Interestingly, a significantly higher proportion of the promoters of the genes that were up-regulated by rehydration treatment and/or submergence treatment (treatment by a hypotonic solution) and a significantly lower proportion of the promoters of the genes that were down-regulated by such treatment shared AGCTGT/G. To further assess the physiological role of VIP1, constitutively nuclear-localized variants of VIP1 were generated. When overexpressed in Arabidopsis, some of them as well as VIP1 caused growth retardation under a mannitol-stressed condition, where VIP1 is localized mainly in the cytoplasm. This raises the possibility that the expression of VIP1 itself rather than its nuclear localization is responsible for regulating the mannitol responses.

Scaffold Function of Ca2+-Dependent Protein Kinase: Tobacco Ca2+-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE1 Transfers 14-3-3 to the Substrate REPRESSION OF SHOOT GROWTH after Phosphorylation

A molecular mechanism to ensure signaling specificity is a scaffold. REPRESSION OF SHOOT GROWTH (RSG) is a tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) transcription factor that is involved in gibberellin feedback regulation. The 14-3-3 proteins negatively regulate RSG by sequestering it in the cytoplasm in response to gibberellins. The N. tabacum Ca²⁺-dependent protein kinase NtCDPK1 was identified as an RSG kinase that promotes 14-3-3 binding of RSG by phosphorylation of RSG. CDPKs are unique sensor responders of Ca²⁺ that are only found in plants and some protozoans. Here, we report a scaffolding function of CDPK. 14-3-3 proteins bound to NtCDPK1 by a new mode. Autophosphorylation of NtCDPK1 was necessary for the formation of the binding between NtCDPK1 and 14-3-3 but not for its maintenance. NtCDPK1 formed a heterotrimer with RSG and 14-3-3. Furthermore, we found that NtCDPK1 transfers 14-3-3 to RSG after phosphorylation of RSG and that RSG dissociates from NtCDPK1 as a complex with 14-3-3. These results suggest that NtCDPK1 is an interesting scaffolding kinase that increases the specificity and efficiency of signaling by coupling catalysis with scaffolding on the same protein.

Multisite phosphorylation of 14-3-3 proteins by calcium-dependent protein kinases

Plant 14-3-3 proteins are phosphorylated at multiple sites in vivo; however, the protein kinase(s) responsible are unknown. Of the 34 CPK (calcium-dependent protein kinase) paralogues in Arabidopsis thaliana, three (CPK1, CPK24 and CPK28) contain a canonical 14-3-3-binding motif. These three, in addition to CPK3, CPK6 and CPK8, were tested for activity against recombinant 14-3-3 proteins χ and ε. Using an MS-based quantitative assay we demonstrate phosphorylation of 14-3-3 χ and ε at a total of seven sites, one of which is an in vivo site discovered in Arabidopsis. CPK autophosphorylation was also comprehensively monitored by MS and revealed a total of 45 sites among the six CPKs analysed, most of which were located within the N-terminal variable and catalytic domains. Among these CPK autophosphorylation sites was Tyr463 within the calcium-binding EF-hand domain of CPK28. Of all CPKs assayed, CPK28, which contained an autophosphorylation site (Ser43) within a canonical 14-3-3-binding motif, showed the highest activity against 14-3-3 proteins. Phosphomimetic mutagenesis of Ser72 to aspartate on 14-3-3χ, which is adjacent to the 14-3-3-binding cleft and conserved among all 14-3-3 isoforms, prevented 14-3-3-mediated inhibition of phosphorylated nitrate reductase.

Identification of putative TAL effector targets of the citrus canker pathogens shows functional convergence underlying disease development and defense response

Background

Transcriptional activator-like (TAL) effectors, formerly known as the AvrBs3/PthA protein family, are DNA-binding effectors broadly found in Xanthomonas spp. that transactivate host genes upon injection via the bacterial type three-secretion system. Biologically relevant targets of TAL effectors, i.e. host genes whose induction is vital to establish a compatible interaction, have been reported for xanthomonads that colonize rice and pepper; however, citrus genes modulated by the TAL effectors PthA“s” and PthC“s” of the citrus canker bacteria Xanthomonas citri (Xc) and Xanthomonas aurantifolii pathotype C (XaC), respectively, are poorly characterized. Of particular interest, XaC causes canker disease in its host lemon (Citrus aurantifolia), but triggers a defense response in sweet orange.

Results

Based on, 1) the TAL effector-DNA binding code, 2) gene expression data of Xc and XaC-infiltrated sweet orange leaves, and 3) citrus hypocotyls transformed with PthA2, PthA4 or PthC1, we have identified a collection of Citrus sinensis genes potentially targeted by Xc and XaC TAL effectors. Our results suggest that similar with other strains of Xanthomonas TAL effectors, PthA2 and PthA4, and PthC1 to some extent, functionally converge. In particular, towards induction of genes involved in the auxin and gibberellin synthesis and response, cell division, and defense response. We also present evidence indicating that the TAL effectors act as transcriptional repressors and that the best scoring predicted DNA targets of PthA“s” and PthC“s” in citrus promoters predominantly overlap with or localize near to TATA boxes of core promoters, supporting the idea that TAL effectors interact with the host basal transcriptional machinery to recruit the RNA pol II and start transcription.

Conclusions

The identification of PthA“s” and PthC“s” targets, such as the LOB (LATERAL ORGAN BOUNDARY) and CCNBS genes that we report here, is key for the understanding of the canker symptoms development during host susceptibility, or the defenses of sweet orange against the canker bacteria. We have narrowed down candidate targets to a few, which pointed out the host metabolic pathways explored by the pathogens.

Phosphorylation-independent binding of 14-3-3 to NtCDPK1 by a new mode

14-3-3 pproteins play essential roles in diverse cellular processes through the direct binding to target proteins. REPRESSION OF SHOOT GROWTH (RSG) is a tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) transcription factor that is involved in gibberellin (GA) feedback regulation. The 14-3-3 proteins bind to RSG depending on the RSG phosphorylation of Ser-114 and negatively regulate RSG by sequestering it in the cytoplasm in response to GAs. The Ca(2+)-dependent protein kinase NtCDPK1 was identified as an RSG kinase that promotes 14-3-3 binding of RSG by phosphorylation of RSG. 14-3-3 weakly binds to NtCDPK1 by a new mode. The autophosphorylation of NtCDPK1 was necessary for the formation of the binding between NtCDPK1 and 14-3-3 but not for its maintenance. In this study, we showed that 14-3-3 binding to NtCDPK1 does not require the autophosphorylation when RSG was bound to NtCDPK1. These data suggest that 14-3-3 binds to an unphosphorylated motif in NtCDPK1 exposed by a conformational change in NtCDPK1 but not to a phosphate group generated by autophosphorylation of NtCDPK1.

The yeast two-hybrid and related methods as powerful tools to study plant cell signalling

One basic property of proteins is their ability to specifically target and form non-covalent complexes with other proteins. Such protein-protein interactions play key roles in all biological processes, extending from the formation of cellular macromolecular structures and enzymatic complexes to the regulation of signal transduction pathways. Identifying and characterizing protein interactions and entire interaction networks (interactomes) is therefore prerequisite to understand these processes on a molecular and biophysical level. Since its original description in 1989, the yeast two-hybrid system has been extensively used to identify protein-protein interactions from many different organisms, thus providing a convenient mean to both screen for proteins that interact with a protein of interest and to characterize the known interaction between two proteins. In these years the technique has improved to overcome the limitations of the original assay, and many efforts have been made to scale up the technique and to adapt it to large scale studies. In addition, variations have been introduced to enlarge the range of proteins and interactors that can be assayed by hybrid-based approaches. Several groups studying molecular mechanisms that underlie plant cell signal transduction pathways have successfully used the yeast two-hybrid system or related methods. In this review we provide a brief description of the technology, attempt to point out some of the pitfalls and benefits of the different systems that can be employed, and mention some of the areas, within the plant cell signalling field, where hybrid-based interaction assays have been particularly informative.

Cytoplasmic degradation of the Arabidopsis transcription factor abscisic acid insensitive 5 is mediated by the RING-type E3 ligase KEEP ON GOING

To mitigate the effects of environmental stress the abscisic acid (ABA)-responsive transcription factor ABI5 is required to delay growth of germinated seedlings. In the absence of stress, KEEP ON GOING (KEG) E3 is required to maintain low levels of ABI5. However, the mechanism underlying KEG-dependent turnover of ABI5 is not known. In addition, localization studies place KEG at the trans-Golgi network, whereas ABI5 is nuclear. Here we show that KEG interacts directly with ABI5 via its conserved C3 region. Interactions between KEG and ABI5 were observed in the cytoplasm and trans-Golgi network only when the RING domain of KEG was inactivated or when ABI5 was stabilized via mutations. Deletion of the C-terminal region of ABI5 or substituting lysine 344 for alanine (K344A) prohibited protein turnover. Furthermore, ABI5 is observed in the cytoplasm of Arabidopsis thaliana root cells when the K344A mutation is combined with the deletion of a nuclear localization signal. Other lysine mutations (K353A, K364A, and K376A) in conjunction with the nuclear localization signal deletion did not result in cytoplasmic accumulation of ABI5. Loss of lysine 344 did not affect the ability of ABI5 to promote ABA responses, which demonstrates that the mutant transcription factor is still functional. Based on the results, a model is suggested where KEG targets ABI5 for degradation in the cytoplasm, thus reducing nuclear accumulation of the transcription factor in the absence of ABA.

Plant 14-3-3 proteins as spiders in a web of phosphorylation

Protein phosphorylation is essential for many aspects of plant growth and development. To fully modulate the activity of specific proteins after phosphorylation, interaction with members of the 14-3-3 family is necessary. 14-3-3 Proteins are important for many processes because they "assist" a wide range of target proteins with divergent functions. In this review, we will describe how plant 14-3-3 proteins are as spiders in a web of phosphorylation: they act as sensors for phospho-motifs, they themselves are phosphorylated with unknown consequences and they have kinases as target, where some of these phosphorylate 14-3-3 binding motifs in other proteins. Two specific classes of 14-3-3 targets, protein kinases and transcription factors of the bZIP and basic helix-loop-helix-like families, with important and diverse functions in the plant as a whole will be discussed. An important question to be addressed in the near future is how the interaction with 14-3-3 proteins has diverged, both structurally and functionally, between different members of the same protein family, like the kinases and transcription factors.

Functional diversification of FD transcription factors in rice, components of florigen activation complexes

Florigen, a protein encoded by the FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) in Arabidopsis and Heading date 3a (Hd3a) in rice, is the universal flowering hormone in plants. Florigen is transported from leaves to the shoot apical meristem and initiates floral evocation. In shoot apical cells, conserved cytoplasmic 14-3-3 proteins act as florigen receptors. A hexameric florigen activation complex (FAC) composed of Hd3a, 14-3-3 proteins, and OsFD1, a transcription factor, activates OsMADS15, a rice homolog of Arabidopsis APETALA1, leading to flowering. Because FD is a key component of the FAC, we characterized the FD gene family and their functions. Phylogenetic analysis of FD genes indicated that this family is divided into two groups: (i) canonical FD genes that are conserved among eudicots and non-Poaceae monocots; and (ii) Poaceae-specific FD genes that are organized into three subgroups: Poaceae FD1, FD2 and FD3. The Poaceae FD1 group shares a small sequence motif, T(A/V)LSLNS, with FDs of eudicots and non-Poaceae monocots. Overexpression of OsFD2, a member of the Poaceae FD2 group, produced smaller leaves with shorter plastochrons, suggesting that OsFD2 controls leaf development. In vivo subcellular localization of Hd3a, 14-3-3 and OsFD2 suggested that in contrast to OsFD1, OsFD2 is restricted to the cytoplasm through its interaction with the cytoplasmic 14-3-3 proteins, and interaction of Hd3a with 14-3-3 facilitates nuclear translocation of the FAC containing OsFD2. These results suggest that FD function has diverged between OsFD1 and OsFD2, but formation of a FAC is essential for their function.

Phytochrome B inhibits binding of phytochrome-interacting factors to their target promoters

Phytochromes are red and far-red light receptors in plants that mediate critical responses to light throughout the lifecycle. They achieve this in part by targeting negatively acting bHLH transcription factors called phytochrome-interacting factors (PIFs) for degradation within the nucleus. However, it is not known whether protein degradation is the primary mechanism by which phytochromes inhibit these repressors of photomorphogenesis. Here, we use chromatin immunoprecipitation to show that phyB inhibits the regulatory activity of PIF1 and PIF3 by releasing them from their DNA targets. The N-terminal fragment of phyB (NG-GUS-NLS; NGB) also inhibits binding of PIF3 to its target promoters. However, unlike full-length phyB, NGB does not promote PIF3 degradation, establishing the activity of NGB reflects its ability to inhibit PIF binding to DNA. We further show that Pfr forms of both full-length phyB and NGB inhibit DNA binding of PIF1 and PIF3 in vitro. Taken together, our results indicate that phyB inhibition of PIF function involves two separate processes: sequestration and protein degradation.

Phosphoproteome dynamics upon changes in plant water status reveal early events associated with rapid growth adjustment in maize leaves

Plant growth adjustment during water deficit is a crucial adaptive response. The rapid fine-tuned control achieved at the post-translational level is believed to be of considerable importance for regulating early changes in plant growth reprogramming. Aiming at a better understanding of early responses to contrasting plant water statuses, we carried out a survey of the protein phosphorylation events in the growing zone of maize leaves upon a range of water regimes. In this study, the impact of mild and severe water deficits were evaluated in comparison with constant optimal watering and with recovery periods lasting 5, 10, 20, 30, 45, and 60 min. Using four biological replicates per treatment and a robust quantitative phosphoproteomic methodology based on stable-isotope labeling, we identified 3664 unique phosphorylation sites on 2496 proteins. The abundance of nearly 1250 phosphorylated peptides was reproducibly quantified and profiled with high confidence among treatments. A total of 138 phosphopeptides displayed highly significant changes according to water regimes and enabled to identify specific patterns of response to changing plant water statuses. Further quantification of protein amounts emphasized that most phosphorylation changes did not reflect protein abundance variation. During water deficit and recovery, extensive changes in phosphorylation status occurred in critical regulators directly or indirectly involved in plant growth and development. These included proteins influencing epigenetic control, gene expression, cell cycle-dependent processes and phytohormone-mediated responses. Some of the changes depended on stress intensity whereas others depended on rehydration duration, including rapid recoveries that occurred as early as 5 or 10 mins after rewatering. By combining a physiological approach and a quantitative phosphoproteomic analysis, this work provides new insights into the in vivo early phosphorylation events triggered by rapid changes in plant water status, and their possible involvement in plant growth-related processes.

Gibberellin biosynthesis and its regulation

The GAs (gibberellins) comprise a large group of diterpenoid carboxylic acids that are ubiquitous in higher plants, in which certain members function as endogenous growth regulators, promoting organ expansion and developmental changes. These compounds are also produced by some species of lower plants, fungi and bacteria, although, in contrast to higher plants, the function of GAs in these organisms has only recently been investigated and is still unclear. In higher plants, GAs are synthesized by the action of terpene cyclases, cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenases and 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases localized, respectively, in plastids, the endomembrane system and the cytosol. The concentration of biologically active GAs at their sites of action is tightly regulated and is moderated by numerous developmental and environmental cues. Recent research has focused on regulatory mechanisms, acting primarily on expression of the genes that encode the dioxygenases involved in biosynthesis and deactivation. The present review discusses the current state of knowledge on GA metabolism with particular emphasis on regulation, including the complex mechanisms for the maintenance of GA homoeostasis.

Nicotiana tabacum Tsip1-interacting ferredoxin 1 affects biotic and abiotic stress resistance

Tsip1, a Zn finger protein that was isolated as a direct interactor with tobacco stress-induced 1 (Tsi1), plays an important role in both biotic and abiotic stress signaling. To further understand Tsip1 function, we searched for more Tsip1-interacting proteins by yeast two-hybrid screening using a tobacco cDNA library. Screening identified a new Tsip1-interacting protein, Nicotiana tabacum Tsip1-interacting ferredoxin 1 (NtTfd1), and binding specificity was confirmed both in vitro and in vivo. The four repeats of a cysteine-rich motif (CXXCXGXG) of Tsip1 proved important for binding to NtTfd1. Virus-induced gene silencing of NtTfd1, Tsip1, and NtTfd1/Tsip1 rendered plants more susceptible to salinity stress compared with TRV2 control plants. NtTfd1- and Tsip1-silenced tobacco plants were more susceptible to infection by Cucumber mosaic virus compared with control plants. These results suggest that NtTfd1 might be involved in the regulation of biotic and abiotic stresses in chloroplasts by interaction with Tsip1.