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Melepat B, Li T, Vinkler M. Natural selection directing molecular evolution in vertebrate viral sensors. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2024; 154:105147. [PMID: 38325501 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2024.105147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Diseases caused by pathogens contribute to molecular adaptations in host immunity. Variety of viral pathogens challenging animal immunity can drive positive selection diversifying receptors recognising the infections. However, whether distinct virus sensing systems differ across animals in their evolutionary modes remains unclear. Our review provides a comparative overview of natural selection shaping molecular evolution in vertebrate viral-binding pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Despite prevailing negative selection arising from the functional constraints, multiple lines of evidence now suggest diversifying selection in the Toll-like receptors (TLRs), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) and oligoadenylate synthetases (OASs). In several cases, location of the positively selected sites in the ligand-binding regions suggests effects on viral detection although experimental support is lacking. Unfortunately, in most other PRR families including the AIM2-like receptor family, C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), and cyclic GMP-AMP synthetase studies characterising their molecular evolution are rare, preventing comparative insight. We indicate shared characteristics of the viral sensor evolution and highlight priorities for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balraj Melepat
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Zoology, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, EU, Czech Republic
| | - Tao Li
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Zoology, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, EU, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Vinkler
- Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Zoology, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, EU, Czech Republic.
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2
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Bottardi S, Layne T, Ramòn AC, Quansah N, Wurtele H, Affar EB, Milot E. MNDA, a PYHIN factor involved in transcriptional regulation and apoptosis control in leukocytes. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1395035. [PMID: 38680493 PMCID: PMC11045911 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1395035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Inflammation control is critical during the innate immune response. Such response is triggered by the detection of molecules originating from pathogens or damaged host cells by pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs). PRRs subsequently initiate intra-cellular signalling through different pathways, resulting in i) the production of inflammatory cytokines, including type I interferon (IFN), and ii) the initiation of a cascade of events that promote both immediate host responses as well as adaptive immune responses. All human PYRIN and HIN-200 domains (PYHIN) protein family members were initially proposed to be PRRs, although this view has been challenged by reports that revealed their impact on other cellular mechanisms. Of relevance here, the human PYHIN factor myeloid nuclear differentiation antigen (MNDA) has recently been shown to directly control the transcription of genes encoding factors that regulate programmed cell death and inflammation. While MNDA is mainly found in the nucleus of leukocytes of both myeloid (neutrophils and monocytes) and lymphoid (B-cell) origin, its subcellular localization has been shown to be modulated in response to genotoxic agents that induce apoptosis and by bacterial constituents, mediators of inflammation. Prior studies have noted the importance of MNDA as a marker for certain forms of lymphoma, and as a clinical prognostic factor for hematopoietic diseases characterized by defective regulation of apoptosis. Abnormal expression of MNDA has also been associated with altered levels of cytokines and other inflammatory mediators. Refining our comprehension of the regulatory mechanisms governing the expression of MNDA and other PYHIN proteins, as well as enhancing our definition of their molecular functions, could significantly influence the management and treatment strategies of numerous human diseases. Here, we review the current state of knowledge regarding PYHIN proteins and their role in innate and adaptive immune responses. Emphasis will be placed on the regulation, function, and relevance of MNDA expression in the control of gene transcription and RNA stability during cell death and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Bottardi
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Centre, University of Montreal, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et de Services Sociaux (CIUSSS) de l’Est-de-l’Île de Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Taylorjade Layne
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Centre, University of Montreal, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et de Services Sociaux (CIUSSS) de l’Est-de-l’Île de Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Ailyn C. Ramòn
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Centre, University of Montreal, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et de Services Sociaux (CIUSSS) de l’Est-de-l’Île de Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Norreen Quansah
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Centre, University of Montreal, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et de Services Sociaux (CIUSSS) de l’Est-de-l’Île de Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Hugo Wurtele
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Centre, University of Montreal, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et de Services Sociaux (CIUSSS) de l’Est-de-l’Île de Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - El Bachir Affar
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Centre, University of Montreal, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et de Services Sociaux (CIUSSS) de l’Est-de-l’Île de Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Eric Milot
- Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Centre, University of Montreal, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et de Services Sociaux (CIUSSS) de l’Est-de-l’Île de Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
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3
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Karakas HD, Kuloglu Z, Aydin F, Ozdemir S, Avar-Aydin PO, Tuna Kirsaclioglu C, Cakar N, Ozcakar ZB. Evaluation of Gastrointestinal System Complaints and Comorbidities in Pediatric Familial Mediterranean Fever Patients. J Clin Rheumatol 2023; 29:375-380. [PMID: 37723615 DOI: 10.1097/rhu.0000000000002027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Familial Mediterranean fever (FMF) is the most prevalent hereditary autoinflammatory disease among children. Abdominal pain and various gastrointestinal system (GIS) manifestations may arise directly from FMF or concomitantly with FMF. This study aimed to evaluate GIS complaints and findings other than classic peritonitis attacks in patients with FMF and to interpret concomitant GIS and hepatic disorders in these patients. METHODS The medical and genetic findings of patients with FMF who attended our clinic between December 2011 and December 2021 were reviewed. Gastrointestinal system symptoms, liver function tests, abdominal images, and endoscopic and histopathological data were extracted from medical records. RESULTS A total of 576 pediatric patients (female, 52.3%) diagnosed with FMF were included. Among them, almost one-fifth displayed GIS complaints, such as abdominal pain, defecation problems, and dyspepsia, distinct from typical FMF attacks. High serum aminotransferase levels were detected in 18.4% of the patients, with viral infections being the most common cause of moderate/severe hypertransaminasemia. In addition, during follow-up, 26.9% of them were referred to the pediatric gastroenterology department. At least 1 gastroenterological and hepatobiliary disorder was detected in 17.5% of the patients because of organic and functional GIS disorders or hepatobiliary disorders, such as gastroesophageal reflux disease, esophagitis, functional dyspepsia, and inflammatory bowel diseases. CONCLUSION Various GIS and hepatic disorders can be encountered in children with FMF. The spectrum of these complaints and pathologies can range from frequently observed health problems to more severe diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zarife Kuloglu
- Pediatric Gastroenterology, Ankara University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Fatma Aydin
- From the Departments of Pediatric Rheumatology
| | - Serpil Ozdemir
- Pediatric Gastroenterology, Ankara University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
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4
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Neuwald AF, Yang H, Tracy Nixon B. SPARC: Structural properties associated with residue constraints. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2022; 20:1702-1715. [PMID: 35495120 PMCID: PMC9020082 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2022.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
SPARC facilitates the generation of plausible hypotheses regarding underlying biochemical mechanisms by structurally characterizing protein sequence constraints. Such constraints appear as residues co-conserved in functionally related subgroups, as subtle pairwise correlations (i.e., direct couplings), and as correlations among these sequence features or with structural features. SPARC performs three types of analyses. First, based on pairwise sequence correlations, it estimates the biological relevance of alternative conformations and of homomeric contacts, as illustrated here for death domains. Second, it estimates the statistical significance of the correspondence between directly coupled residue pairs and interactions at heterodimeric interfaces. Third, given molecular dynamics simulated structures, it characterizes interactions among constrained residues or between such residues and ligands that: (a) are stably maintained during the simulation; (b) undergo correlated formation and/or disruption of interactions with other constrained residues; or (c) switch between alternative interactions. We illustrate this for two homohexameric complexes: the bacterial enhancer binding protein (bEBP) NtrC1, which activates transcription by remodeling RNA polymerase (RNAP) containing σ54, and for DnaB helicase, which opens DNA at the bacterial replication fork. Based on the NtrC1 analysis, we hypothesize possible mechanisms for inhibiting ATP hydrolysis until ADP is released from an adjacent subunit and for coupling ATP hydrolysis to restructuring of σ54 binding loops. Based on the DnaB analysis, we hypothesize that DnaB 'grabs' ssDNA by flipping every fourth base and inserting it into cavities between subunits and that flipping of a DnaB-specific glutamine residue triggers ATP hydrolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew F. Neuwald
- Institute for Genome Sciences and Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 670 W. Baltimore Steet, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA,Corresponding author.
| | - Hui Yang
- Department of Biology. Penn State University, 304A Frear South Building, University Park, PA 16802
| | - B. Tracy Nixon
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 335 Frear South Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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Wang S, Bai J. Functions and roles of IFIX, a member of the human HIN-200 family, in human diseases. Mol Cell Biochem 2022; 477:771-780. [PMID: 35039991 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-021-04297-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Pyrin and hematopoietic expression, interferon-inducible nature, and nuclear localization (HIN) domain family member 1 (PYHIN1), also known as IFIX, belongs to the family of pyrin proteins. This family includes structurally and functionally related mouse (e.g., p202, p203, and p204 proteins) and human (e.g., the interferon-inducible protein 16, absent in melanoma 2 protein, myeloid cell nuclear differentiation antigen, and pyrin and HIN domain family 1 or IFIX) proteins. The IFIX protein belongs to the HIN-200 family of interferon-inducible proteins that have a 200-amino acid signature motif at their C-termini. The increased expression of pyrin proteins in most cell types inhibits cell cycle control and modulates cell survival. Consistent with this role for pyrin proteins, IFIX is a potential antiviral DNA sensor that is essential for immune responses, the detection of viral DNA in the nucleus and cytoplasm, and the binding of foreign DNA via its HIN domain in a sequence non-specific manner. By promoting the ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of MDM2, IFIX acts as a tumor suppressor, thereby leading to p53/TP53 stabilization, HDAC1 regulation via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, and tumor-cell-specific silencing of the maspin gene. These data demonstrate that the potential molecular mechanism(s) underlying the action of the IFIX protein might be associated with the development of human diseases, such as viral infections, malignant tumors, and autoimmune diseases. This review summarizes the current insights into IFIX functions and how its regulation affects the outcomes of various human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Wang
- Department of Oral Pathology, Hospital of Stomatology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jie Bai
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Yiwu, 322000, People's Republic of China.
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Evaluation of the Clinical Effects and Frequency of MEFV Gene Mutation in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Gastroenterol Res Pract 2021; 2021:5538150. [PMID: 34819953 PMCID: PMC8608532 DOI: 10.1155/2021/5538150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The clinical and pathological features of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF) are similar. Objective Here, the frequency of Mediterranean Fever (MEFV) gene mutation and its effect on the outcome of IBD were evaluated. Methods DNA sequence analysis detected the variants on the MEFV gene in patients with IBD. The relationship between mutations and the need for steroids, immunomodulators, biologics, and surgery was assessed. Results We evaluated 100 patients with IBD (55 with ulcerative colitis (UC) and 45 with Crohn's disease (CD)) and 60 healthy individuals as controls. The frequency of MEFV gene mutation was 26.7% (n = 12) and 14.5% (n = 8) for UC and CD, respectively. No relationship was found between MEFV gene mutation and the need for steroids, immunomodulators, and biologics (p = 0.446; p = 0.708; p > 0.999, resp.); however, in UC, the need for surgery in those with mutation (p = 0.018) and E148Q mutation alone was significant (p = 0.037). Conclusion The rate of MEFV gene mutations was high in patients with UC who required surgery. These patients have frequent and severe attacks, indicating that the mutations are related to disease severity. MEFV mutation as a modifier factor of IBD should be considered.
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7
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Huoh YS, Hur S. Death domain fold proteins in immune signaling and transcriptional regulation. FEBS J 2021; 289:4082-4097. [PMID: 33905163 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Death domain fold (DDF) superfamily comprises of the death domain (DD), death effector domain (DED), caspase activation recruitment domain (CARD), and pyrin domain (PYD). By utilizing a conserved mode of interaction involving six distinct surfaces, a DDF serves as a building block that can densely pack into homomultimers or filaments. Studies of immune signaling components have revealed that DDF-mediated filament formation plays a central role in mediating signal transduction and amplification. The unique ability of DDFs to self-oligomerize upon external signals and induce oligomerization of partner molecules underlies key processes in many innate immune signaling pathways, as exemplified by RIG-I-like receptor signalosome and inflammasome assembly. Recent studies showed that DDFs are not only limited to immune signaling pathways, but also are involved with transcriptional regulation and other biological processes. Considering that DDF annotation still remains a challenge, the current list of DDFs and their functions may represent just the tip of the iceberg within the full spectrum of DDF biology. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of DDF functions, structures, and assembly architectures with a focus on CARD- and PYD-containing proteins. We also discuss areas of future research and the potential relationship of DDFs with biomolecular condensates formed by liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-San Huoh
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Blavatnik Institute at Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, MA, USA
| | - Sun Hur
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Blavatnik Institute at Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, MA, USA
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8
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Bracey NA, Platnich JM, Lau A, Chung H, Hyndman ME, MacDonald JA, Chun J, Beck PL, Girardin SE, Gordon PM, Muruve DA. Tissue-selective alternate promoters guide NLRP6 expression. Life Sci Alliance 2020; 4:4/3/e202000897. [PMID: 33376129 PMCID: PMC7772780 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202000897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 12/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The NLRP6 innate immune sensor is regulated by tissue-selective alternate promoters that facilitate translational gene silencing outside of the intestinal epithelium in both humans and mice. The pryin domain (PYD) domain is involved in protein interactions that lead to assembly of immune-sensing complexes such as inflammasomes. The repertoire of PYD-containing genes expressed by a cell type arms tissues with responses against a range of stimuli. The transcriptional regulation of the PYD gene family however is incompletely understood. Alternative promoter utilization was identified as a mechanism regulating the tissue distribution of human PYD gene family members, including NLRP6 that is translationally silenced outside of intestinal tissue. Results show that alternative transcriptional promoters mediate NLRP6 silencing in mice and humans, despite no upstream genomic synteny. Human NLRP6 contains an internal alternative promoter within exon 2 of the PYD, resulting in a truncated mRNA in nonintestinal tissue. In mice, a proximal promoter was used that expanded the 5′ leader sequence restricting nuclear export and abolishing translational efficiency. Nlrp6 was dispensable in disease models targeting the kidney, which expresses noncanonical isoforms. Thus, alternative promoter use is a critical mechanism not just for isoform modulation but for determining expression profile and function of PYD family members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan A Bracey
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Disease, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Jaye M Platnich
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Arthur Lau
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Disease, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Hyunjae Chung
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Disease, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - M Eric Hyndman
- Department of Surgery, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Justin A MacDonald
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Justin Chun
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Disease, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Paul L Beck
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.,Snyder Institute for Chronic Disease, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Stephen E Girardin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Paul Mk Gordon
- Centre for Health Genomics and Informatics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Daniel A Muruve
- Department of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada .,Snyder Institute for Chronic Disease, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
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9
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Tsugawa H, Kabe Y, Kanai A, Sugiura Y, Hida S, Taniguchi S, Takahashi T, Matsui H, Yasukawa Z, Itou H, Takubo K, Suzuki H, Honda K, Handa H, Suematsu M. Short-chain fatty acids bind to apoptosis-associated speck-like protein to activate inflammasome complex to prevent Salmonella infection. PLoS Biol 2020; 18:e3000813. [PMID: 32991574 PMCID: PMC7524008 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by gastrointestinal microbiota regulate immune responses, but host molecular mechanisms remain unknown. Unbiased screening using SCFA-conjugated affinity nanobeads identified apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC), an adaptor protein of inflammasome complex, as a noncanonical SCFA receptor besides GPRs. SCFAs promoted inflammasome activation in macrophages by binding to its ASC PYRIN domain. Activated inflammasome suppressed survival of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) in macrophages by pyroptosis and facilitated neutrophil recruitment to promote bacterial elimination and thus inhibit systemic dissemination in the host. Administration of SCFAs or dietary fibers, which are fermented to SCFAs by gut bacteria, significantly prolonged the survival of S. Typhimurium–infected mice through ASC-mediated inflammasome activation. SCFAs penetrated into the inflammatory region of the infected gut mucosa to protect against infection. This study provided evidence that SCFAs suppress Salmonella infection via inflammasome activation, shedding new light on the therapeutic activity of dietary fiber. This study shows that short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) bind to the inflammasome adaptor protein, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC). SCFAs thereby promote inflammasome activation in macrophages and protect against Salmonella infection via bacterial elimination in gut, shedding new light on the therapeutic activity of dietary fiber.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Tsugawa
- Department of Biochemistry, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail: (HT); (YK); (MS)
| | - Yasuaki Kabe
- Department of Biochemistry, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development (AMED), Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail: (HT); (YK); (MS)
| | - Ayaka Kanai
- Department of Biochemistry, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuki Sugiura
- Department of Biochemistry, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shigeaki Hida
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Health Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Shun’ichiro Taniguchi
- Department of Comprehensive Cancer Therapy, Shinshu University School Medicine, Matsumoto, Japan
| | - Toshio Takahashi
- Suntory Foundation for Life Sciences, Bioorganic Research Institute, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hidenori Matsui
- Omura Satoshi Memorial Institute, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | | - Keiyo Takubo
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Research Institute, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hidekazu Suzuki
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tokai University School of Medicine, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kenya Honda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Handa
- Department of Chemical Biology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makoto Suematsu
- Department of Biochemistry, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail: (HT); (YK); (MS)
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Bosso M, Prelli Bozzo C, Hotter D, Volcic M, Stürzel CM, Rammelt A, Ni Y, Urban S, Becker M, Schelhaas M, Wittmann S, Christensen MH, Schmidt FI, Gramberg T, Sparrer KMJ, Sauter D, Kirchhoff F. Nuclear PYHIN proteins target the host transcription factor Sp1 thereby restricting HIV-1 in human macrophages and CD4+ T cells. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008752. [PMID: 32760121 PMCID: PMC7433898 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Members of the family of pyrin and HIN domain containing (PYHIN) proteins play an emerging role in innate immunity. While absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) acts a cytosolic sensor of non-self DNA and plays a key role in inflammasome assembly, the γ-interferon-inducible protein 16 (IFI16) restricts retroviral gene expression by sequestering the transcription factor Sp1. Here, we show that the remaining two human PYHIN proteins, i.e. myeloid cell nuclear differentiation antigen (MNDA) and pyrin and HIN domain family member 1 (PYHIN1 or IFIX) share this antiretroviral function of IFI16. On average, knock-down of each of these three nuclear PYHIN proteins increased infectious HIV-1 yield from human macrophages by more than an order of magnitude. Similarly, knock-down of IFI16 strongly increased virus transcription and production in primary CD4+ T cells. The N-terminal pyrin domain (PYD) plus linker region containing a nuclear localization signal (NLS) were generally required and sufficient for Sp1 sequestration and anti-HIV-1 activity of IFI16, MNDA and PYHIN1. Replacement of the linker region of AIM2 by the NLS-containing linker of IFI16 resulted in a predominantly nuclear localization and conferred direct antiviral activity to AIM2 while attenuating its ability to form inflammasomes. The reverse change caused nuclear-to-cytoplasmic relocalization of IFI16 and impaired its antiretroviral activity but did not result in inflammasome assembly. We further show that the Zn-finger domain of Sp1 is critical for the interaction with IFI16 supporting that pyrin domains compete with DNA for Sp1 binding. Finally, we found that human PYHIN proteins also inhibit Hepatitis B virus and simian vacuolating virus 40 as well as the LINE-1 retrotransposon. Altogether, our data show that IFI16, PYHIN1 and MNDA restrict HIV-1 and other viral pathogens by interfering with Sp1-dependent gene expression and support an important role of nuclear PYHIN proteins in innate antiviral immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Bosso
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Dominik Hotter
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Meta Volcic
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Annika Rammelt
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Yi Ni
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stephan Urban
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Miriam Becker
- Institute of Cellular Virology, ZMBE, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Mario Schelhaas
- Institute of Cellular Virology, ZMBE, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Sabine Wittmann
- Institute of Clinical and Molecular Virology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | | | | | - Thomas Gramberg
- Institute of Clinical and Molecular Virology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | | | - Daniel Sauter
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Frank Kirchhoff
- Institute of Molecular Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
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11
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The NLRP1 Inflammasome in Human Skin and Beyond. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21134788. [PMID: 32640751 PMCID: PMC7370280 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21134788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammasomes represent a group of protein complexes that contribute to host defense against pathogens and repair processes upon the induction of inflammation. However, aberrant and chronic inflammasome activation underlies the pathology of numerous common inflammatory diseases. Inflammasome assembly causes activation of the protease caspase-1 which in turn activates proinflammatory cytokines and induces a lytic type of cell death termed pyroptosis. Although NLRP1 (NACHT, leucine-rich repeat and pyrin domain containing 1) was the first inflammasome sensor, described almost 20 years ago, the molecular mechanisms underlying its activation and the resulting downstream events are incompletely understood. This is partially a consequence of the poor conservation of the NLRP1 pathway between human and mice. Moreover, recent evidence demonstrates a complex and multi-stage mechanism of NLRP1 inflammasome activation. In contrast to other inflammasome sensors, NLRP1 possesses protease activity required for proteolytic self-cleavage and activation mediated by the function-to-find domain (FIIND). CARD8 is a second FIIND protein and is expressed in humans but not in mice. In immune cells and AML (acute myeloid leukemia) cells, the anti-cancer drug talabostat induces CARD8 activation and causes caspase-1-dependent pyroptosis. In contrast, in human keratinocytes talabostat induces NLRP1 activation and massive proinflammatory cytokine activation. NLRP1 is regarded as the principal inflammasome sensor in human keratinocytes and UVB radiation induces its activation, which is believed to underlie the induction of sunburn. Moreover, gain-of-function mutations of NLRP1 cause inflammatory skin syndromes and a predisposition for the development of skin cancer. SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) of NLRP1 are associated with several (auto)inflammatory diseases with a major skin phenotype, such as psoriasis or vitiligo. Here, we summarize knowledge about NLRP1 with emphasis on its role in human keratinocytes and skin. Due to its accessibility, pharmacological targeting of NLRP1 activation in epidermal keratinocytes represents a promising strategy for the treatment of the numerous patients suffering from NLRP1-dependent inflammatory skin conditions and cancer.
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Wang JQ, Liu YR, Xia Q, Chen RN, Liang J, Xia QR, Li J. Emerging Roles for NLRC5 in Immune Diseases. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:1352. [PMID: 31824312 PMCID: PMC6880621 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immunity activates the corresponding immune response relying on multiple pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that includes pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), like NOD-like receptors (NLRs), RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs), and C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), which could accurately recognize invasive pathogens. In particular, NLRs belong to a large protein family of pattern recognition receptors in the cytoplasm, where they are highly correlated with activation of inflammatory response system followed by rapid clearance of invasive pathogens. Among the NLRs family, NLRC5, also known as NOD4 or NOD27, accounts for a large proportion and involves in immune responses far and wide. Notably, in the above response case of inflammation, the expression of NLRC5 remarkably increased in immune cells and immune-related tissues. However, the evidence for higher expression of NLRC5 in immune disease still remains controversial. It is noted that the growing evidence further accounts for the participation of NLRC5 in the innate immune response and inflammatory diseases. Moreover, NLRC5 has also been confirmed to exert a critical role in the control of regulatory diverse signaling pathways. Together with its broad participation in the occurrence and development of immune diseases, NLRC5 can be consequently treated as a potential therapeutic target. Nevertheless, the paucity of absolute understanding of intrinsic characteristics and underlying mechanisms of NLRC5 still make it hard to develop targeting drugs. Therefore, current summary about NLRC5 information is indispensable. Herein, current knowledge of NLRC5 is summarized, and research advances in terms of NLRC5 in characteristics, biological function, and regulatory mechanisms are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie-Quan Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Hefei Fourth People's Hospital, Hefei, China.,Department of Pharmacy, Anhui Mental Health Center, Hefei, China.,Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Psychological Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Ministry of Education, Hefei, China
| | - Ya-Ru Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Quan Xia
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Ruo-Nan Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Ministry of Education, Hefei, China.,Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jun Liang
- Department of Pharmacy, Hefei Fourth People's Hospital, Hefei, China.,Department of Pharmacy, Anhui Mental Health Center, Hefei, China.,Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Psychological Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Qing-Rong Xia
- Department of Pharmacy, Hefei Fourth People's Hospital, Hefei, China.,Department of Pharmacy, Anhui Mental Health Center, Hefei, China.,Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Psychological Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jun Li
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Ministry of Education, Hefei, China
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13
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Heim VJ, Stafford CA, Nachbur U. NOD Signaling and Cell Death. Front Cell Dev Biol 2019; 7:208. [PMID: 31632962 PMCID: PMC6783575 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2019.00208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Innate immune signaling and programmed cell death are intimately linked, and many signaling pathways can regulate and induce both, transcription of inflammatory mediators or autonomous cell death. The best-characterized examples for these dual outcomes are members of the TNF superfamily, the inflammasome receptors, and the toll-like receptors. Signaling via the intracellular peptidoglycan receptors NOD1 and NOD2, however, does not appear to follow this trend, despite involving signaling proteins, or proteins with domains that are linked to programmed cell death, such as RIP kinases, inhibitors of apoptosis (IAP) proteins or the CARD domains on NOD1/2. To better understand the connections between NOD signaling and cell death induction, we here review the latest findings on the molecular regulation of signaling downstream of the NOD receptors and explore the links between this immune signaling pathway and the regulation of cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin J Heim
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Che A Stafford
- Gene Center and Department of Biochemistry, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Ueli Nachbur
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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de Alba E. Structure, interactions and self-assembly of ASC-dependent inflammasomes. Arch Biochem Biophys 2019; 670:15-31. [PMID: 31152698 PMCID: PMC8455077 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2019.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The inflammasome is a multi-protein platform that assembles upon the presence of cues derived from infection or tissue damage, and triggers the inflammatory response. Inflammasome components include sensor proteins that detect danger signals, procaspase 1 and the adapter ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD) tethering these molecules together. Upon inflammasome assembly, procaspase 1 self-activates and renders functional cytokines to arbitrate in the defense mechanism. This assembly is mediated by self-association and protein interactions via Death Domains. The inflammasome plays a critical role in innate immunity and its dysregulation is the culprit of many autoimmune disorders. An in-depth understanding of the factors involved in inflammasome assembly could help fight these conditions. This review describes our current knowledge on the biophysical aspects of inflammasome formation from the perspective of ASC. The specific characteristics of the three-dimensional solution structure and interdomain dynamics of ASC are explained in relation to its function in inflammasome assembly. Additionally, the review elaborates on the identification of ASC interacting surfaces at the amino acid level using NMR techniques. Finally, the macrostructures formed by full-length ASC and its two Death Domains studied with Transmission Electron Microscopy are compared in the context of a directional model for inflammasome assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva de Alba
- Department of Bioengineering. School of Engineering. University of California, Merced, 5200 North Lake Road, Merced, CA, 95343, USA.
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15
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Interview: a conversation with Vishva M Dixit on his journey from remote African village to apoptosis, necroptosis and the inflammasome. Cell Death Differ 2019; 26:597-604. [PMID: 30737474 PMCID: PMC6460394 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-019-0294-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Vishva M. Dixit, M.D., Vice President of Physiological Chemistry at Genentech, Inc. has made many contributions to biomedicine, and his early work on apoptosis is prominent in introductory textbooks of biology and medicine. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Medicine, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a Foreign Member, European Molecular Biology Organization. Additionally, he serves on the Boards of the Gates Foundation, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Keystone Symposia.
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16
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Diaz-Parga P, de Alba E. Protein interactions of the inflammasome adapter ASC by solution NMR. Methods Enzymol 2019; 625:223-252. [PMID: 31455529 PMCID: PMC8455076 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2019.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD) is a modular protein that functions as an adapter of the inflammasome, a multi-protein complex that triggers the inflammatory response in the presence of infection or cell damage. ASC bridges the inflammasome components (PYD-containing sensors and procaspase 1) via homotypic interactions mediated by its two death domains, PYD and CARD. The self-assembly and oligomerization of multiple copies of these three proteins result in the activation of procaspase 1, in turn rendering different cytokines functional. An in-depth understanding of ASC binding capabilities is crucial to decipher the molecular mechanisms of its role in inflammasome formation. In this chapter, we discuss the use of solution NMR to identify specific interacting surfaces of the inflammasome adapter ASC, and describe detailed protocols to perform NMR titrations with Death Domains to obtain apparent dissociation constants of the resulting complexes. The incorporation of NMR restraints in molecular docking to obtain models of these protein assemblies is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Diaz-Parga
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, University of California, Merced, CA, United States,Quantitative Systems Biology Graduate Program, University of California, Merced, CA, United States
| | - Eva de Alba
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, University of California, Merced, CA, United States,Corresponding author:
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17
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Banu H, Joseph MC, Nisar MN. In-silico approach to investigate death domains associated with nano-particle-mediated cellular responses. Comput Biol Chem 2018; 75:11-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2018.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Revised: 04/01/2018] [Accepted: 04/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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18
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Jabłońska A, Studzińska M, Suski P, Kalinka J, Paradowska E. Enhanced expression of IFI16 and RIG-I in human third-trimester placentas following HSV-1 infection. Clin Exp Immunol 2018; 193:255-263. [PMID: 29688572 PMCID: PMC6046492 DOI: 10.1111/cei.13143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The innate immune response in the placenta depends on the ability of maternal immune cells and fetal trophoblast cells to detect and eliminate invading pathogens through germline-encoded pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). In the present study, we analysed the transcripts and protein expression of interferon (IFN)-inducible protein (IFI)16, melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 (MDA5), RIG-I-like receptor (RIG-I) and Toll-like receptor (TLR)-3 in third-trimester human placentas and investigated cytokine profiles generated during herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) infection. Decidual and chorionic villous biopsies (38-42 weeks of gestation) were obtained from healthy women immediately after a caesarean section. The expression of the DDX58 (RIG-I), IFIH1 (MDA5), IFI16 and TLR3 transcripts was measured using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Extracellular cytokine and PRRs levels were then quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). All examined PRRs genes, including DDX58, IFIH1, IFI16 and TLR3, were expressed constitutively at the mRNA and protein levels in the placental biopsies. The concentration of the IFI16 protein was increased in HSV-1-infected decidual and chorionic villous explants compared to those of mock-infected tissues (P = 0·029). Higher protein expression levels of RIG-I in both the maternal and fetal parts of the placenta were found (P = 0·009 and P = 0·004, respectively). In addition, increased production of IFN-β by HSV-1-infected tissues was noticed (P = 0·004 for decidua, P = 0·032 for chorionic villi). No significant differences in the IFN-α, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 levels were found. These results showed that HSV-1 infection can enhance the expression of IFI16 and RIG-I proteins in the human term placenta.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Jabłońska
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biological ChemistryInstitute of Medical Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences
| | - M. Studzińska
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biological ChemistryInstitute of Medical Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences
| | - P. Suski
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biological ChemistryInstitute of Medical Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences
| | - J. Kalinka
- Department of Perinatology, First Chair of Gynecology and ObstetricsMedical University of LodzLodzPoland
| | - E. Paradowska
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Biological ChemistryInstitute of Medical Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences
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19
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Indramohan M, Stehlik C, Dorfleutner A. COPs and POPs Patrol Inflammasome Activation. J Mol Biol 2017; 430:153-173. [PMID: 29024695 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2017.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Revised: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Sensing and responding to pathogens and tissue damage is a core mechanism of innate immune host defense, and inflammasomes represent a central cytosolic pattern recognition receptor pathway leading to the generation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β and interleukin-18 and pyroptotic cell death that causes the subsequent release of danger signals to propagate and perpetuate inflammatory responses. While inflammasome activation is essential for host defense, deregulated inflammasome responses and excessive release of inflammatory cytokines and danger signals are linked to an increasing spectrum of inflammatory diseases. In this review, we will discuss recent developments in elucidating the role of PYRIN domain-only proteins (POPs) and the related CARD-only proteins (COPs) in regulating inflammasome responses and their impact on inflammatory disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohanalaxmi Indramohan
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Christian Stehlik
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Interdepartmental Immunobiology Center and Skin Disease Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
| | - Andrea Dorfleutner
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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20
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Crow MS, Cristea IM. Human Antiviral Protein IFIX Suppresses Viral Gene Expression during Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) Infection and Is Counteracted by Virus-induced Proteasomal Degradation. Mol Cell Proteomics 2017; 16:S200-S214. [PMID: 28077445 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m116.064741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The interferon-inducible protein X (IFIX), a member of the PYHIN family, was recently recognized as an antiviral factor against infection with herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1). IFIX binds viral DNA upon infection and promotes expression of antiviral cytokines. How IFIX exerts its host defense functions and whether it is inhibited by the virus remain unknown. Here, we integrated live cell microscopy, proteomics, IFIX domain characterization, and molecular virology to investigate IFIX regulation and antiviral functions during HSV-1 infection. We find that IFIX has a dynamic localization during infection that changes from diffuse nuclear and nucleoli distribution in uninfected cells to discrete nuclear puncta early in infection. This is rapidly followed by a reduction in IFIX protein levels. Indeed, using immunoaffinity purification and mass spectrometry, we define IFIX interactions during HSV-1 infection, finding an association with a proteasome subunit and proteins involved in ubiquitin-proteasome processes. Using synchronized HSV-1 infection, microscopy, and proteasome-inhibition experiments, we demonstrate that IFIX co-localizes with nuclear proteasome puncta shortly after 3 h of infection and that its pyrin domain is rapidly degraded in a proteasome-dependent manner. We further demonstrate that, in contrast to several other host defense factors, IFIX degradation is not dependent on the E3 ubiquitin ligase activity of the viral protein ICP0. However, we show IFIX degradation requires immediate-early viral gene expression, suggesting a viral host suppression mechanism. The IFIX interactome also demonstrated its association with transcriptional regulatory proteins, including the 5FMC complex. We validate this interaction using microscopy and reciprocal isolations and determine it is mediated by the IFIX HIN domain. Finally, we show IFIX suppresses immediate-early and early viral gene expression during infection. Altogether, our study demonstrates that IFIX antiviral functions work in part via viral transcriptional suppression and that HSV-1 has acquired mechanisms to block its functions via proteasome-dependent degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marni S Crow
- From the Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544
| | - Ileana M Cristea
- From the Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544
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21
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Sidiq T, Yoshihama S, Downs I, Kobayashi KS. Nod2: A Critical Regulator of Ileal Microbiota and Crohn's Disease. Front Immunol 2016; 7:367. [PMID: 27703457 PMCID: PMC5028879 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The human intestinal tract harbors large bacterial community consisting of commensal, symbiotic, and pathogenic strains, which are constantly interacting with the intestinal immune system. This interaction elicits a non-pathological basal level of immune responses and contributes to shaping both the intestinal immune system and bacterial community. Recent studies on human microbiota are revealing the critical role of intestinal bacterial community in the pathogenesis of both systemic and intestinal diseases, including Crohn’s disease (CD). NOD2 plays a key role in the regulation of microbiota in the small intestine. NOD2 is highly expressed in ileal Paneth cells that provide critical mechanism for the regulation of ileal microbiota through the secretion of anti-bacterial compounds. Genome mapping of CD patients revealed that loss of function mutations in NOD2 are associated with ileal CD. Genome-wide association studies further demonstrated that NOD2 is one of the most critical genetic factor linked to ileal CD. The bacterial community in the ileum is indeed dysregulated in Nod2-deficient mice. Nod2-deficient ileal epithelia exhibit impaired ability of killing bacteria. Thus, altered interactions between ileal microbiota and mucosal immunity through NOD2 mutations play significant roles in the disease susceptibility and pathogenesis in CD patients, thereby depicting NOD2 as a critical regulator of ileal microbiota and CD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tabasum Sidiq
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University , College Station, TX , USA
| | - Sayuri Yoshihama
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University , College Station, TX , USA
| | - Isaac Downs
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University , College Station, TX , USA
| | - Koichi S Kobayashi
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University , College Station, TX , USA
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22
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Li S, Chen X, Peng W, Hao G, Geng X, Zhan W, Sun J. Cloning and characterization of apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD domain (ASC) gene from Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 54:294-301. [PMID: 27103005 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2016.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2016] [Revised: 04/10/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD domain (ASC) is a critical adaptor molecule in multiple inflammasome protein complexes that mediate inflammation and host defense. However, few studies have been performed in lower vertebrates such as in teleost. Here we identified and characterized a novel ASC gene (namely PoASC) from Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. The complete cDNA sequence of PoASC contains a 22 bp 5'-untranslated sequence, a 612 bp open reading frame, and a 438 bp 3'-untranslated sequence. The deduced PoASC protein is comprised of 203 amino acids with a conserved N-terminal PYD domain and a C-terminal CARD domain and shows 35-62% sequence identity with other vertebrate ASC proteins. PoASC mRNA transcripts was detected in various Japanese flounder tissues and is dominantly expressed in hepatopancreas. Oligomeric speck-like structures were observed when PoASC was exogenously expressed in Japanese flounder FG-9307 cells. Immune challenge experiments revealed that PoASC gene expression was significantly induced in the Japanese flounder head kidney macrophages and peripheral blood leukocytes by the canonical TLR ligands LPS, Poly(I:C) and zymosan stimulations. In addition, the induction of PoASC was also observed in Edwardsiella tarda challenged head kidney and gill tissues. Furthermore, we for the first time showed that extracellular ATP, an important signaling molecule in triggering innate immune response and activation of NLR inflammasome, significantly up-regulates PoASC expression in the Japanese flounder head kidney macrophages in a dose-dependent manner. Together, these findings addressed the involvement of PoASC in TLR and extracellular ATP-mediated innate immune signaling in the Japanese flounders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, 393 West Binshui Road, Xiqing District, Tianjin 300387, China.
| | - Xiaoli Chen
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, 393 West Binshui Road, Xiqing District, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Weijiao Peng
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, 393 West Binshui Road, Xiqing District, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Gaixiang Hao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, 393 West Binshui Road, Xiqing District, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Xuyun Geng
- Tianjin Center for Control and Prevention of Aquatic Animal Infectious Disease, 442 South Jiefang Road, Hexi District, Tianjin 300221, China
| | - Wenbin Zhan
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, LMMEC, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Jinsheng Sun
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, 393 West Binshui Road, Xiqing District, Tianjin 300387, China.
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Abstract
Inflammasomes are protein complexes that promote the maturation and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and danger signals as well as pyroptosis in response to infections and cellular stress. Inflammasomes consist of a sensor, an adapter, and the effector caspase-1, which interact through homotypic interactions of caspase recruitment domains (CARDs) or PYRIN domains (PYDs). Hence, decoy proteins encoding only a CARD or PYD, COPs and POPs, respectively, are assumed to inhibit inflammasome assembly. Sensors encoding a PYD belong to the families of NOD-like receptors containing a PYD (NLRPs) or AIM2-like receptors (ALRs), which interact with the PYD- and CARD-containing adapter ASC through homotypic PYD interactions. Subsequently, ASC undergoes PYD-dependent oligomerization, which promotes CARD-mediated interactions between ASC and caspase-1, resulting in caspase-1 activation. POPs are suggested to interfere with the interaction between NLRPs/ALRs and ASC to prevent nucleation of ASC and therefore prevent an oligomeric platform for caspase-1 activation. Similarly, COPs are suggested to bind to the CARD of caspase-1 to prevent its recruitment to the oligomeric ASC platform and its activation. Alternatively, the adapter ASC may regulate inflammasome activity by expressing different isoforms, which are either capable or incapable of assembling an oligomeric ASC platform. The molecular mechanism of inflammasome assembly has only recently been elucidated, but the effects of most COPs and POPs on inflammasome assembly have not been investigated. Here, we discuss our model of COP- and POP-mediated inflammasome regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Dorfleutner
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
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24
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Abstract
The PYRIN domain (PYD) is a protein-protein interaction domain, which belongs to the death domain fold (DDF) superfamily. It is best known for its signaling function in innate immune responses and particularly in the assembly of inflammasomes, which are large protein complexes that allow the induced proximity-mediated activation of caspase-1 and subsequently the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The molecular mechanism of inflammasome assembly was only recently elucidated and specifically requires PYD oligomerization. Here we discuss the recent advances in our understanding of PYD signaling and its regulation by PYD-only proteins.
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25
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Bracey NA, Duff HJ, Muruve DA. Hierarchical regulation of wound healing by NOD-like receptors in cardiovascular disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2015; 22:1176-87. [PMID: 25273899 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2014.6125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Persistent nonmicrobial tissue injury leads to the nonlinear activation of integrated wound-healing pathways. In chronic cardiovascular diseases, local tissue undergoes dynamic remodeling involving both structural cells and professional innate immune cells in attempts to limit burden of injury. While the final effector mechanisms by which these different cellular populations participate in wound healing are functionally distinct, their upstream molecular signaling pathways can often be shared. RECENT ADVANCES The NOD-like receptors (NLRs) are intracellular pattern recognition receptors that have been well characterized as key regulators of pro-inflammatory cytokine production in innate immune cells. However, recent evidence has shown that some NLR proteins are additionally expressed by resident structural cells despite negligible cytokine production. These results indicate the potential for noncanonical routes of innate immune signaling by NLRs within solid organ systems. CRITICAL ISSUES Here, we review the emerging functions of NLR proteins in professional immune and tissue-resident cells, and discuss the implications in wound healing during chronic cardiovascular diseases. Emphasis is placed on NLRP3 and its regulation of cardiac structure and function in response to injury. Specific cellular and subcellular signaling paradigms are also discussed. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The characterization of how NLRs participate in homeostasis during cellular injury is essential to develop their potential utility for therapeutic intervention in cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan A Bracey
- 1 Department of Medicine, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases , University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
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26
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Papoff G, Trivieri N, Marsilio S, Crielesi R, Lalli C, Castellani L, Balog EM, Ruberti G. N-terminal and C-terminal domains of calmodulin mediate FADD and TRADD interaction. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0116251. [PMID: 25643035 PMCID: PMC4313936 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
FADD (Fas–associated death domain) and TRADD (Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor 1-associated death domain) proteins are important regulators of cell fate in mammalian cells. They are both involved in death receptors mediated signaling pathways and have been linked to the Toll-like receptor family and innate immunity. Here we identify and characterize by database search analysis, mutagenesis and calmodulin (CaM) pull-down assays a calcium-dependent CaM binding site in the α-helices 1–2 of TRADD death domain. We also show that oxidation of CaM methionines drastically reduces CaM affinity for FADD and TRADD suggesting that oxidation might regulate CaM-FADD and CaM-TRADD interactions. Finally, using Met-to-Leu CaM mutants and binding assays we show that both the N- and C-terminal domains of CaM are important for binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuliana Papoff
- National Research Council, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Campus Adriano Buzzati-Traverso, Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Nadia Trivieri
- National Research Council, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Campus Adriano Buzzati-Traverso, Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Sonia Marsilio
- National Research Council, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Campus Adriano Buzzati-Traverso, Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberta Crielesi
- National Research Council, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Campus Adriano Buzzati-Traverso, Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Cristiana Lalli
- National Research Council, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Campus Adriano Buzzati-Traverso, Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Loriana Castellani
- National Research Council, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Campus Adriano Buzzati-Traverso, Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
- Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino, Cassino, Italy
| | - Edward M. Balog
- School of Applied Physiology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Giovina Ruberti
- National Research Council, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Campus Adriano Buzzati-Traverso, Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
- * E-mail:
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D'Cruz AA, Babon JJ, Norton RS, Nicola NA, Nicholson SE. Structure and function of the SPRY/B30.2 domain proteins involved in innate immunity. Protein Sci 2014; 22:1-10. [PMID: 23139046 DOI: 10.1002/pro.2185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Revised: 10/16/2012] [Accepted: 10/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The SPRY domain is a protein interaction module found in 77 murine and ~100 human proteins, and is implicated in important biological pathways, including those that regulate innate and adaptive immunity. The current definition of the SPRY domain is based on a sequence repeat discovered in the splA kinase and ryanodine receptors. The greater SPRY family is divided into the B30.2 (which contains a PRY extension at the N-terminus) and "SPRY-only" sub-families. In this brief review, we examine the current structural and biochemical literature on SPRY/B30.2 domain involvement in key immune processes and highlight a PRY-like 60 amino acid region in the N-terminus of "SPRY-only" proteins. Phylogenetic, structural, and functional analyses suggest that this N-terminal region is related to the PRY region of B30.2 and should be characterized as part of an extended SPRY domain. Greater understanding of the functional importance of the N-terminal region in "SPRY only" proteins will enhance our ability to interrogate SPRY interactions with their respective binding partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshay A D'Cruz
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Interleukin-1 as a Key Factor in the Development of Inflammatory Diseases. ARCHIVES OF PEDIATRIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2014. [DOI: 10.5812/pedinfect.18177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Huang CM, Xu H, Wang CC, Elmets CA. Proteomic characterization of skin and epidermis in response to environmental agents. Expert Rev Proteomics 2014; 2:809-20. [PMID: 16209658 DOI: 10.1586/14789450.2.5.809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The skin and its outer epidermis layer in particular, prevent access of various environmental agents including potential allergens, irritants, carcinogens, ultraviolet radiation and microbes. Cells in the epidermis make a significant contribution to innate as well as adaptive immune reactions in skin. The skin immunity thus provides a biologic defense in response to hazardous environmental agents. Although proteomics has been utilized to establish skin proteomes and investigate skin responses to some environmental agents, it has not been extensively used to address the complexity of skin responses to various environments. This review summarizes cutaneous genes and proteins that have been characterized as related to skin exposure to environmental agents. In parallel, this review emphasizes functional proteomics and systems biology, which are believed to be an important future direction toward characterizing the skin proteome-environmental interaction and developing successful therapeutic strategies for skin diseases caused by environmental insults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Ming Huang
- Department of Dermatology, Skin Diseases Research Center, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294-0019, USA.
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Abstract
This chapter describes reports of the structural characterization of death ligands and death receptors (DRs) from the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and TNF receptor families. The review discusses the interactions of these proteins with agonist ligands, inhibitors, and downstream signaling molecules. Though historically labeled as being implicated in programmed cell death, the function of these proteins extends to nonapoptotic pathways. The review highlights, from a structural biology perspective, the complexity of DR signaling and the ongoing challenge to discern the precise mechanisms that occur at the point of DR activation, including how the degree to which the receptors are induced to cluster may be related to the nature of the impact upon the cell. The potential for posttranslational modification and receptor internalization to play roles in DR signaling is briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul C Driscoll
- Division of Molecular Structure, Medical Research Council, National Institute for Medical Research, London, United Kingdom.
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Aruna R, Geetha A, Suguna P. Expression of caspase activation recruitment and pyrin domain levels of apoptosis-associated speck-like protein complex in the pancreas of rats subjected to experimental pancreatitis: influence of rutin administration. Hum Exp Toxicol 2013; 33:940-8. [PMID: 24287373 DOI: 10.1177/0960327113512337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigated the effect of rutin, a natural flavonoid, on the expression of caspase activation recruitment domain (CARD) and pyrin domain (PYD) of apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC), a mediator of inflammation, in the pancreas of rats administered with ethanol (EtOH) and high-fat diet (HFD). Pancreatitis was induced in male albino Wistar rats by administering EtOH (8-12 g/kg/day) and HFD (22% fat) for 90 days. In addition, rats also received 100 mg rutin/kg body weight orally from 31st day till the experimental period. Serum levels of cytokines, interleukin 18 (IL-18) and IL-6; activity levels of caspase-1 and myeloperoxidase (MPO); messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), caspase-1, CARD and PYD of ASC; and histological changes in pancreas were assessed. We observed a significant elevation in serum IL-18, IL-6, caspase-1 and MPO activities, mRNA expression of PYD, TNF-α and caspase-1 in the pancreas of rats administered with EtOH and HFD. Rutin administration along with EtOH and HFD significantly upregulated the mRNA expression of CARD and downregulated PYD, caspase-1, and TNF-α expressions. Rutin supplementation was also found to reduce IL-18 and IL-6 levels; and inflammatory changes in tissue architecture were evidenced by histological observations. The anti-inflammatory activity of rutin might be due to its effect on modulating the expression of ASC complex that mediates inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Aruna
- Department of Biochemistry, Bharathi Women's College, University of Madras, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
| | - A Geetha
- Department of Biochemistry, Bharathi Women's College, University of Madras, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
| | - P Suguna
- Department of Biochemistry, Bharathi Women's College, University of Madras, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
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Le HT, Harton JA. Pyrin- and CARD-only Proteins as Regulators of NLR Functions. Front Immunol 2013; 4:275. [PMID: 24062743 PMCID: PMC3775265 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon activation Nod-like receptors (NLRs) assemble into multi-protein complexes such as the NODosome and inflammasome. This process relies upon homo domain interactions between the structurally related Pyrin and caspase-recruitment (CARD) domains and adaptor proteins, such as ASC, or effector proteins, such as caspase-1. Although a variety of NLRP and NLRC complexes have been described along with their activating stimuli and associated proteins, less familiar are processes limiting assembly and/or promoting dissociation of NLR complexes. Given the importance of limiting harmful, chronic inflammation, such regulatory mechanisms are significant and likely numerous. Proteins comprised of a solitary Pyrin domain (Pyrin-only) or CARD domain (CARD-only) posses an obvious potential ability to act as competitive inhibitors of NLR complexes. Indeed, both Pyrin-only proteins (POPs) and CARD-only proteins (COPs) have been described as regulators of caspase-1 and/or NLR-inflammasome activation and not surprisingly as factors mediating pathogenesis. Although clear examples of pathogen encoded POPs are currently limited to members of the poxviridae, the human genome likely encodes three POPs (POP1, POP2, and a potential POP3), of which only POP2 is known to prevent NLR:ASC interaction, and three COPs (COP/Pseudo-ICE, INCA, and ICEBERG), initially described for their ability to inhibit caspase-1 activity. Surprisingly, among eukaryotic species POPs and COPs appear to be evolutionarily recent and restricted to higher primates, suggesting strong selective pressures driving their emergence. Despite the importance of understanding the regulation of NLR functions, relatively little attention has been devoted to revealing the biological impact of these intriguing proteins. This review highlights the current state of our understanding of POPs and COPs with attention to protein interaction, functions, evolution, implications for health and disease, and outstanding questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongnga T Le
- Center for Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College , Albany, NY , USA ; Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Science, Vietnam National University-Ho Chi Minh City , Ho Chi Minh City , Vietnam
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Jin T, Perry A, Smith P, Jiang J, Xiao TS. Structure of the absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) pyrin domain provides insights into the mechanisms of AIM2 autoinhibition and inflammasome assembly. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:13225-35. [PMID: 23530044 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.468033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AIM2 binds dsDNA and associates with ASC through their PYDs to form an inflammasome. RESULTS The AIM2 PYD structure illustrates distinct charge distribution and a unique hydrophobic patch. CONCLUSION The AIM2 PYD may bind the ASC PYD and the AIM2 HIN domain through overlapping surface. SIGNIFICANCE These findings provide insights into the mechanisms of AIM2 autoinhibition and inflammasome assembly. Absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) is a cytosolic double-stranded (dsDNA) sensor essential for innate immune responses against DNA viruses and bacteria such as Francisella and Listeria. Upon dsDNA engagement, the AIM2 amino-terminal pyrin domain (PYD) is responsible for downstream signaling to the adapter protein apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC) through homotypic PYD-PYD interactions and the assembly of an inflammasome. Toward a better understanding of the AIM2 signaling mechanism, we determined the crystal structure of the human AIM2 PYD. The structure reveals a death domain fold with a short α3 helix that is buttressed by a highly conserved lysine residue at the α2 helix, which may stabilize the α3 helix for potential interaction with partner domains. The surface of the AIM2 PYD exhibits distinct charge distribution with highly acidic α1-α2 helices and highly basic α5-α6 helices. A prominent solvent-exposed hydrophobic patch formed by residues Phe-27 and Phe-28 at the α2 helix resembles a similar surface involved in the death effector domain homotypic interactions. Docking studies suggest that the AIM2 PYD may bind the AIM2 hematopoietic interferon-inducible nuclear (HIN) domain or ASC PYD using overlapping surface near the α2 helix. This may ensure that AIM2 interacts with the downstream adapter ASC only upon release of the autoinhibition by the dsDNA ligand. Our work thus unveils novel structural features of the AIM2 PYD and provides insights into the potential mechanisms of the PYD-HIN and PYD-PYD interactions important for AIM2 autoinhibition and inflammasome assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tengchuan Jin
- Structural Immunobiology Unit, Laboratory of Immunology, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-0430, USA
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Yeretssian G. Effector functions of NLRs in the intestine: innate sensing, cell death, and disease. Immunol Res 2013; 54:25-36. [PMID: 22454103 DOI: 10.1007/s12026-012-8317-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs) are central regulators of pathogen recognition, the induction of innate immune effectors and inflammation with utmost importance in human diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases. Most NLRs are key mediators of inflammasome complexes that activate caspase-1 and drive proteolytic processing of pro-inflammatory cytokines; however, a few tightly regulate inflammasome-independent activation of nuclear factor-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. NLR signaling has evolved in intestinal epithelial cells to avoid overactive inflammatory responses toward the resident microbiota and to preserve epithelial barrier integrity and functions by maintaining homeostasis. In the present review, I examine new insights into the role of the NLRs in antimicrobial defenses. I pay particular attention to the emerging role of these receptors in engaging a complex cross talk between cell death and innate immunity pathways. Furthermore, I discuss the physiological functions of the NLRs in shaping the innate immune response within the intestine, maintaining homeostasis, inducing tissue repair following injury and promoting tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garabet Yeretssian
- Department of Medicine, Immunology Institute, Icahn Medical Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, 1425 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10029, USA.
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35
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Milot E, Fotouhi-Ardakani N, Filep JG. Myeloid nuclear differentiation antigen, neutrophil apoptosis and sepsis. Front Immunol 2012; 3:397. [PMID: 23293639 PMCID: PMC3530780 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2012] [Accepted: 12/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sepsis and septic shock are characterized by prolonged inflammation and delayed resolution, which are associated with suppression of neutrophil apoptosis. The role of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway and intracellular factors in regulation of neutrophil apoptosis remain incompletely understood. We previously reported that the nuclear factor MNDA (myeloid nuclear differentiation antigen) is fundamental to execution of the constitutive neutrophil death program. During neutrophil apoptosis MNDA is cleaved by caspases and relocated to the cytoplasm. However, when challenged with known mediators of sepsis, human neutrophils of healthy donors or neutrophils from patients with sepsis exhibited impaired MNDA relocation/cleavage parallel with myeloid cell leukemia-1 (MCL-1) accumulation and suppression of apoptosis. MNDA knockdown in a model cell line indicated that upon induction of apoptosis, MNDA promotes proteasomal degradation of MCL-1, thereby aggravating mitochondrial dysfunction. Thus, MNDA is central to a novel nucleus-mitochondrion circuit that promotes progression of apoptosis. Disruption of this circuit contributes to neutrophil longevity, thereby identifying MNDA as a potential therapeutic target in sepsis and other inflammatory pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Milot
- Department of Medicine, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Center, University of Montréal Montréal, QC, Canada
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36
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Oktenli C, Celik S. High frequency of inherited variants in the MEFV gene in patients with hematologic neoplasms: a genetic susceptibility? Int J Hematol 2012; 95:380-5. [PMID: 22453916 DOI: 10.1007/s12185-012-1061-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2011] [Revised: 03/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Familial Mediterranean fever is an autosomal recessive disease occurring in populations originating from the Mediterranean basin. This autoinflammatory syndrome is caused by mutations in the Mediterranean FeVer (MEFV) gene. MEFV encodes a 781 amino acid protein known as pyrin. Pyrin is an important modulator of apoptosis, inflammation, and cytokine processing. In more recent pilot studies, inherited variant analysis of the MEFV gene in patients with hematologic neoplasm showed an unexpectedly high frequency of these variants in the gene. Here, we summarize the current state of knowledge of the relationship between inherited variants in the MEFV gene and hematologic neoplasms. Although no single underlying defect could be targeted in all hematologic neoplasms, it will be important to fully exploit the mechanisms underlying the neoplasm promoting role of inherited variants in MEFV. However, it is unclear how inherited variants in the MEFV gene are associated with tumor susceptibility or promotion in hematologic neoplasms. Further investigations are needed to determine the actual role of the MEFV gene in pathogenesis of these neoplasms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cagatay Oktenli
- Department of Internal Medicine and Geriatrics, Anadolu Medical Center, 41400 Kocaeli, Turkey.
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37
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Meissner TB, Li A, Kobayashi KS. NLRC5: a newly discovered MHC class I transactivator (CITA). Microbes Infect 2011; 14:477-84. [PMID: 22209772 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2011.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2011] [Revised: 12/09/2011] [Accepted: 12/12/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and class II are crucial for the function of the human adaptive immune system. An NLR protein, CIITA (MHC class II transactivator), is a master regulator of MHC class II gene expression as well as of some of the genes involved in MHC class II antigen presentation. It has recently been discovered that another member of the NLR protein family, NLRC5, transcriptionally activates MHC class I genes, and thus acts as "CITA" (MHC class I transactivator), a counterpart to CIITA. In addition to MHC class I genes, NLRC5 can induce the expression of β2M, TAP1 and LMP2, essential components of MHC class I antigen presentation. These findings indicate that NLRC5 and CIITA are transcriptional regulators that orchestrate the concerted expression of critical components in the MHC class I and MHC class II pathways, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten B Meissner
- Department of Cancer Immunology & AIDS, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Dana 1420A, Boston, MA 02215, United States
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Atianand MK, Harton JA. Uncoupling of Pyrin-only protein 2 (POP2)-mediated dual regulation of NF-κB and the inflammasome. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:40536-47. [PMID: 21976665 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.274290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Activation of transcription factor NF-κB and inflammasome-directed caspase-1 cleavage of IL-1β are key processes in the inflammatory response to pathogen or host-derived signals. Pyrin-only proteins (POPs) are restricted to Old World monkeys, apes, and humans and have previously been shown to impair inflammasome assembly and/or NF-κB p65 transcriptional activity in transfected epithelial cells. However, the biological role of POP2 and the molecular basis for its observed functions are not well understood. In this report we demonstrate that POP2 regulates TNFα and IL-1β responses in human monocytic THP-1 cells and in stable transfectants of mouse J774A.1 macrophages. Deletion analysis of POP2 revealed that the first α-helix (residues 1-19) is necessary and sufficient for both inflammasome and NF-κB inhibitory functions. Further, key acidic residues Glu(6), Asp(8), and Glu(16), believed critical for Pyrin/Pyrin domain interaction, are important for inflammasome inhibition. Moreover, these mutations did not reduce the effect of POP2 upon NF-κB, indicating that the inflammasome and NF-κB inhibitory properties of POP2 can be uncoupled mechanistically. Collectively, these data demonstrate that POP2 acts as a regulator of inflammatory signals and exerts its two known functions through distinct modalities employed by its first α-helix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maninjay K Atianand
- Center for Immunology and Microbial Disease, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York 12208, USA
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Ogawa C, Liu YJ, Kobayashi KS. Muramyl dipeptide and its derivatives: peptide adjuvant in immunological disorders and cancer therapy. CURRENT BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS 2011; 7:180-197. [PMID: 22180736 PMCID: PMC3241611 DOI: 10.2174/157340711796817913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Muramyl dipeptide (MDP) is a synthetic immunoreactive peptide consisting of N-acetyl muramic acid attached to a short amino acid chain of L-Ala-D-isoGln. It was first identified in bacterial cell wall peptidoglycan as an active component in Freund's complete adjuvant. In the cell, MDP is detected by NOD2, a cytoplasmic receptor belonging to the human innate immune system. NOD2 mutations are frequently observed in patients with Crohn's disease, an autoimmune disorder, suggesting the significance of the MDP-NOD2 pathway in activating immunity. For this reason, structural modifications of MDP and its derivatives have been extensively studied in an attempt to increase adjuvant activity and boost the immune response effectively for clinical use in the treatment of cancer and other diseases. This review summarizes the synthetic chemistry of MDP and its derivatives and discusses their pharmacological action and stereoselective synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chikako Ogawa
- Eisai Research Institute, 4 Corporate drive, Andover, MA 01810
| | - Yuen-Joyce Liu
- Department of Cancer Immunology & AIDS, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 44 Binney Street, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Koichi S. Kobayashi
- Department of Cancer Immunology & AIDS, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 44 Binney Street, Boston, MA 02115
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, 44 Binney Street, Boston, MA 02115
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40
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Biswas A, Petnicki-Ocwieja T, Kobayashi KS. Nod2: a key regulator linking microbiota to intestinal mucosal immunity. J Mol Med (Berl) 2011; 90:15-24. [PMID: 21861185 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-011-0802-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Revised: 07/27/2011] [Accepted: 08/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The human intestine harbors a large number of bacteria that are constantly interacting with the intestinal immune system, eliciting non-pathological basal level immune responses. Increasing evidence points to dysbiosis of microbiota in the intestine as an underlying factor in inflammatory bowel disease susceptibility. Loss-of-function mutations in NOD2 are among the stronger genetic factors linked to ileal Crohn's disease. Indeed, Nod2 is a key regulator of microbiota in the intestine, as microflora in the terminal ileum is dysregulated in Nod2-deficient mice. Nod2 is highly expressed in Paneth cells, which are responsible for the regulation of ileal microflora by anti-microbial compounds, and Nod2-deficient ileal intestinal epithelia are unable to kill bacteria efficiently. It is therefore likely that NOD2 mutations in Crohn's disease may increase disease susceptibility by altering interactions between ileal microbiota and mucosal immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amlan Biswas
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Dana 1420A, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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Automated protein structure modeling with SWISS-MODEL Workspace and the Protein Model Portal. Methods Mol Biol 2011; 857:107-36. [PMID: 22323219 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-588-6_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Comparative protein structure modeling is a computational approach to build three-dimensional structural models for proteins using experimental structures of related protein family members as templates. Regular blind assessments of modeling accuracy have demonstrated that comparative protein structure modeling is currently the most reliable technique to model protein structures. Homology models are often sufficiently accurate to substitute for experimental structures in a wide variety of applications. Since the usefulness of a model for specific application is determined by its accuracy, model quality estimation is an essential component of protein structure prediction. Comparative protein modeling has become a routine approach in many areas of life science research since fully automated modeling systems allow also nonexperts to build reliable models. In this chapter, we describe practical approaches for automated protein structure modeling with SWISS-MODEL Workspace and the Protein Model Portal.
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Celik S, Erikci AA, Tunca Y, Sayan O, Terekeci HM, Umur EE, Torun D, Tangi F, Top C, Oktenli C. The rate of MEFV gene mutations in hematolymphoid neoplasms. Int J Immunogenet 2010; 37:387-91. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-313x.2010.00938.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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44
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Chakraborty S, Kaushik DK, Gupta M, Basu A. Inflammasome signaling at the heart of central nervous system pathology. J Neurosci Res 2010; 88:1615-31. [PMID: 20127816 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.22343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a complex innate response of neural tissue against harmful effects of diverse stimuli viz., pathogens, damaged cells and irritants within the Central Nervous System (CNS). Studies show that multiple inflammatory mediators including cytokines, chemokines and prostaglandins are elevated in the Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) and in post-mortem brain tissues of patients with history of neuroinflammatory conditions as well as neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Multiple Sclerosis. The innate immunity mediators in the brain, namely microglia and astrocytes, express certain Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs), which are always on 'high-alert' for pathogens or other inflammatory triggers and participate in the assembly and activation of the inflammasome. The inflammasome orchestrates the activation of the precursors of proinflammatory caspases, which in turn, cleave the precursor forms of interleukin-1beta, IL-18 and IL-33 into their active forms; the secretion of which leads to a potent inflammatory response, and/or influences the release of toxins from glial and endothelial cells. Altered expression of inflammasome mediators can either promote or inhibit neurodegenerative processes. Therefore, modulating the inflammasome machinery seems a better combat strategy than summarily suppressing all inflammation in most neuroinflammatory conditions. In the current review we have surveyed the identified triggers and pathways of inflammasome activation and the following events which ultimately accomplish the innate inflammatory response in the CNS, with a goal to provide an analytical insight into disease pathogenesis that might provide cues for devising novel therapeutic strategies.
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Jiang B, Liao R. The Paradoxical Role of Inflammation in Cardiac Repair and Regeneration. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 2010; 3:410-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s12265-010-9193-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2010] [Accepted: 04/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Langefeld T, Mohamed W, Ghai R, Chakraborty T. Toll-like receptors and NOD-like receptors: domain architecture and cellular signalling. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2009; 653:48-57. [PMID: 19799111 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-0901-5_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/27/2023]
Abstract
The innate immune system forms the first line of defense against pathogens. The Toll-like receptors and the Nod-like receptors are at the forefront of both extracellular and intracellular pathogen recognition. They recognize the most conserved structures of microbes and initiate the response to infection. In addition to the microbial stimuli, they are now also being implicated in the recognition of danger-associated stimuli, making them pivotal in disorders unrelated to microbial pathogenesis. Toll-like receptors and the Nod-like receptors share commonalities in structure, ligands and downstream signalling but they differ in their localization, and extent of influence on a wide variety of cellular processes including apoptosis. Here we discuss the common ligand recognition and signalling modules in both these classes of receptors.
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Rahman MM, Mohamed MR, Kim M, Smallwood S, McFadden G. Co-regulation of NF-kappaB and inflammasome-mediated inflammatory responses by myxoma virus pyrin domain-containing protein M013. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5:e1000635. [PMID: 19851467 PMCID: PMC2762494 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2009] [Accepted: 09/25/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
NF-kappaB and inflammasomes both play central roles in orchestrating anti-pathogen responses by rapidly inducing a variety of early-response cytokines and chemokines following infection. Myxoma virus (MYXV), a pathogenic poxvirus of rabbits, encodes a member of the cellular pyrin domain (PYD) superfamily, called M013. The viral M013 protein was previously shown to bind host ASC-1 protein and inhibit the cellular inflammasome complex that regulates the activation and secretion of caspase 1-regulated cytokines such as IL-1beta and IL-18. Here, we report that human THP-1 monocytic cells infected with a MYXV construct deleted for the M013L gene (vMyxM013-KO), in stark contrast to the parental MYXV, rapidly induce high levels of secreted pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF, IL-6, and MCP-1, all of which are regulated by NF-kappaB. The induction of these NF-kappaB regulated cytokines following infection with vMyxM013-KO was also confirmed in vivo using THP-1 derived xenografts in NOD-SCID mice. vMyxM013-KO virus infection specifically induced the rapid phosphorylation of IKK and degradation of IkappaBalpha, which was followed by nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB/p65. Even in the absence of virus infection, transiently expressed M013 protein alone inhibited cellular NF-kappaB-mediated reporter gene expression and nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB/p65. Using protein/protein interaction analysis, we show that M013 protein also binds directly with cellular NF-kappaB1, suggesting a direct physical and functional linkage between NF-kappaB1 and ASC-1. We further demonstrate that inhibition of the inflammasome with a caspase-1 inhibitor did not prevent the induction of NF-kappaB regulated cytokines following infection with vMyxM013-KO virus, but did block the activation of IL-1beta. Thus, the poxviral M013 inhibitor exerts a dual immuno-subversive role in the simultaneous co-regulation of both the cellular inflammasome complex and NF-kappaB-mediated pro-inflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masmudur M. Rahman
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Mohamed R. Mohamed
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Manbok Kim
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Sherin Smallwood
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Grant McFadden
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Pisani LF, Ramelli P, Lazzari B, Braglia S, Ceciliani F, Mariani P. Characterization of maternal antigen that embryos require (MATER/NLRP5) gene and protein in pig somatic tissues and germ cells. J Reprod Dev 2009; 56:41-8. [PMID: 19815987 DOI: 10.1262/jrd.09-098a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Maternal effect genes produce mRNA or proteins that accumulate in the egg during oogenesis and control the developmental program until embryonic genome activation takes place. NLRP5 (NLR family, Pyrin domain containing 5), also called MATER (Maternal Antigen That Embryos Require) is one of the genes required for normal early embryonic development, although its precise function remains to be elucidated. The aim of the present study was to analyze the NLRP5 gene expression pattern and protein distribution in somatic tissues and germ cells in the pig. Reverse transcription was performed on mRNA from germinal vescicle (GV) oocytes and total RNA from spermatozoa and tissues from different organs. The transcript for NLRP5 gene was identified only in ovaries and oocytes. The presence of NLRP5 protein was detected only in ovaries by western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry.
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Masters SL, Simon A, Aksentijevich I, Kastner DL. Horror autoinflammaticus: the molecular pathophysiology of autoinflammatory disease (*). Annu Rev Immunol 2009; 27:621-68. [PMID: 19302049 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.25.022106.141627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 750] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The autoinflammatory diseases are characterized by seemingly unprovoked episodes of inflammation, without high-titer autoantibodies or antigen-specific T cells. The concept was proposed ten years ago with the identification of the genes underlying hereditary periodic fever syndromes. This nosology has taken root because of the dramatic advances in our knowledge of the genetic basis of both mendelian and complex autoinflammatory diseases, and with the recognition that these illnesses derive from genetic variants of the innate immune system. Herein we propose an updated classification scheme based on the molecular insights garnered over the past decade, supplanting a clinical classification that has served well but is opaque to the genetic, immunologic, and therapeutic interrelationships now before us. We define six categories of autoinflammatory disease: IL-1beta activation disorders (inflammasomopathies), NF-kappaB activation syndromes, protein misfolding disorders, complement regulatory diseases, disturbances in cytokine signaling, and macrophage activation syndromes. A system based on molecular pathophysiology will bring greater clarity to our discourse while catalyzing new hypotheses both at the bench and at the bedside.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth L Masters
- The National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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