Food Safety Issues Related to Uses of Insects for Feeds and Foods

Framework for valorizing waste- and by-products through insects and their microbiomes for food and feed

One third of the food produced for human consumption is currently lost or wasted. Insects have a high potential for converting organic waste- and by-products into food and feed for a growing human population due to symbiosis with microorganisms. These symbioses provide an untapped reservoir of functional microbiomes that can be used to improve industrial insect production but are poorly studied in most insect species. Here we review the most current understanding and challenges of valorizing organic waste- and by-products through insects and their microbiomes for food and feed, and emerging novel food technologies that can be used to investigate and manipulate host(insects)-microbiome interactions. We further construct a holistic framework, by integration of novel food technologies including holo-omics, genome editing, breeding, phage therapy, and administration of prebiotics and probiotics to investigate and manipulate host(insects)-microbiome interactions, and solutions for achieving stakeholder acceptance of novel food technologies for a sustainable food production.

Edible insects: Understanding benzo(a)pyrene toxicokinetics in yellow mealworms for safe and sustainable consumption

The global interest in edible insects as sustainable protein sources raises concerns about the bioaccumulation of contaminants, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), to problematic levels. Understanding the accumulation dynamics of PAHs in edible insects is highly relevant due to the widespread sources and toxicological profiles; however, the bioaccumulative potential of PAHs in edible insects is unexplored. This study examined the uptake and elimination dynamics of benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P), a representative and carcinogenic PAH, in yellow mealworm larvae (YMW, Tenebrio molitor). Larvae were exposed to feeding substrate with varying B(a)P concentrations (0.03, 0.3, and 3 mg kg-1), and uptake (21 days in B(a)P-contaminated substrate) and elimination (21 days in B(a)P-free substrate) kinetics were subsequently assessed. The results showed that YMW can eliminate B(a)P, revealing dose-dependent B(a)P bioaccumulation in these insects. Larvae fed on a substrate with 0.03 mg kg-1 accumulated B(a)P over 21 days, presenting values of 0.049 (Standard deviation - 0.011) mg kg-1 and a kinetic-based (BAFkinetic) of 1.93 g substrate g organism-1, exceeding the EU regulatory limits for food. However, with a B(a)P half-life (DT50) of 4.19 days in the larvae, an EU legislation safety criterion was met after a 13-day depuration period in clean substrate. Larvae exposed to substrates with 0.3 and 3 mg kg-1 showed B(a)P accumulation, with BAFkinetic values of 3.27 and 2.09 g substrate g organism-1, respectively, not meeting the current legal standards for food consumption at the end of the exposure to B(a)P. Although the B(a)P half-life values after 35 days were 4.30 and 10.22 days (DT50s), the larvae retained B(a)P levels exceeding permitted food safety limits. These findings highlight a significant oversight in regulating PAHs in animal feed and the need for comprehensive safety evaluations of PAH hazards in edible insects for improved PAH feeding guidelines.

Safety and transfer of veterinary drugs from substrate to black soldier fly larvae

There is an increasing interest in edible insects in Europe for feed and food purposes. Quantitative information on the transfer of chemical hazards from substrates to larvae is needed to evaluate food and feed safety aspects. This evaluation is especially needed when organic substrates or residual streams such as manure will be applied as substrate, contributing to a circular food system. This study investigated the transfer of veterinary drugs from spiked substrate to black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens). Veterinary drugs that are commonly administered to chicken, fattening pigs, and cattle and regularly detected in manure were included: three different antibiotics (enrofloxacin, oxytetracycline, sulfamethoxazole), three coccidiostats (narasin, salinomycin, toltrazuril) and one antiparasitic drug (eprinomectin). The chemicals were spiked to insect substrate to reach final concentrations of 0.5 and 5 mg/kg for the antibiotics and the antiparasitic drug, and 5 and 50 mg/kg for the coccidiostats. Black soldier fly larvae were reared for 1 week on the spiked substrates, and the transfer of the veterinary drugs to the larvae and frass was quantified using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Only oxytetracycline and eprinomectin reduced the average weight and/or survival of the black soldier fly larvae. The transfer of the veterinary drugs to the larvae was on average 19.2% for oxytetracycline, 12% for enrofloxacin, 9.5% for narasin, 8.1% for eprinomectin, 3.9% for salinomycin, 4.2% for toltrazuril, and 0.2% for sulfamethoxazole, relative to concentrations in the substrate. Mass-balance calculations revealed that the larvae seem to metabolise veterinary drugs, and indeed, metabolites of enrofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, and toltrazuril were detected in the larvae and frass. In conclusion, insect-rearing substrates should be evaluated for the presence of veterinary drug residues to ensure feed (and food) safety, as well as because of possible effects on insect growth.

Unlocking the Potential of Insect-Based Proteins: Sustainable Solutions for Global Food Security and Nutrition

The present review highlights the potential of insect-based proteins to address the growing need for sustainable and secure food systems. The key findings suggest that edible insects offer a viable and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional livestock, requiring significantly less land, water, and feed while emitting lower levels of greenhouse gases. Insect farming can also reduce waste and recycle nutrients, supporting circular economy models. Nutritionally, insects provide high-quality protein, essential amino acids, and beneficial fats, making them valuable to human diets. Despite these benefits, this review emphasizes the need for comprehensive regulatory frameworks to ensure food safety, manage potential allergenicity, and mitigate contamination risks from pathogens and environmental toxins. Additionally, developing innovative processing technologies can enhance the palatability and marketability of insect-based products, promoting consumer acceptance. This review concludes that with appropriate regulatory support and technological advancements, insect-based proteins have the potential to significantly contribute to global food security and sustainability efforts.

Multitrait genetic parameter estimates in a Tenebrio molitor reference population: high potential for breeding gains

To address multiple issues impacting the climate imbalance, insects, and in particular Tenebrio molitor, represent now a promising alternative for producing high-quality protein products with low environmental impact. As with any new species farmed on an industrial scale, insect breeding production must be improved through the accumulation of knowledge on rearing techniques and genetic management. Little information on the inheritance of agronomically interesting traits, dedicated to Tenebrio molitor, is available. This study aims to decipher the genetic parameters (heritability and genetic correlations) of reproduction, larval growth and survival, pupation rate and developmental time from a reference population made up of 1 931 sib-groups reared under pedigree, in controlled and stable environments and generated with single pair mating. Considering all sib-groups, 29 599 offspring have been generated and phenotyped over four generations to support this study and provide enough data to estimate, under linear animal models, the additive genetic and common environmental effects. Phenotypic analyses underlined an important variability among sib-groups and individuals, as for the total oviposition during 4 weeks counting (0-680 eggs, min - max, respectively) or larval body mass 63 days posteclosion (36.3-206.8 mg, min - max, respectively). Moderate to important heritability values have been obtained and ranged from 0.17 to 0.54 for reproduction phenotypes, 0.10-0.44 for growth parameters, 0.06-0.22 for developmental time and 0.10-0.17 for larval survival rates. The proportion of phenotypic variance explained by the environmental part varyies from 0.10 to 0.36 for reproductive traits, from 0.17 to 0.38 for growth parameters, from 0.06 to 0.36 for developmental time and 0.17-0.22 for survival rates. Genetic correlations underline relationships among phenotypes such as the trade-off between developmental time from egg to pupae and pupae weight (r2 = 0.48 ± 0.06). These important phenotypic variations coupled with promising heritability values pave the road for future breeding programs in Tenebrio molitor.

Effects of high doses of zearalenone on some antioxidant enzymes and locomotion of Tenebrio molitor larvae (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

The mealworm Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) feeds on wheat bran and is considered both a pest and an edible insect. Its larvae contain proteins and essential amino acids, fats, and minerals, making them suitable for animal and human consumption. Zearalenone (ZEA) is the mycotoxin most commonly associated with Fusarium spp. It is found in cereals and cereal products, so their consumption is a major risk for mycotoxin contamination. One of the most important effects of ZEA is the induction of oxidative stress, which leads to physiological and behavioral changes. This study deals with the effects of high doses of ZEA (10 and 20 mg/kg) on survival, molting, growth, weight gain, activity of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione S-transferase (GST), and locomotion of mealworm larvae. Both doses of ZEA were found to (i) have no effect on survival, (ii) increase molting frequency, SOD, and GST activity, and (iii) decrease body weight and locomotion, with more pronounced changes at 20 mg/kg. These results indicated the susceptibility of T. molitor larvae to high doses of ZEA in feed.

Bacteriological Survey of Insect Products in Japan

A microbiological study was conducted on 41 insect product samples (29 raw frozen [21 domestic and 8 imported], 10 powdered, and 2 processed), which were commercially available in Japan. The total aerobic count for raw frozen insects was 5.61 log cfu/g (range: 2.52-8.40), whereas the powdered insect count was 2.89 log cfu/g (range: 1.00-4.57). The bacterial count was significantly higher in raw frozen insects (p < 0.05). The coliform count for the raw frozen insects ranged from <1 to 6.90 log cfu/g, and that for the powdered insects ranged from <1 to 1.00 log cfu/g. The number of samples with values above the detection limit was significantly higher in raw frozen insects (p < 0.05). The detection frequencies of aerobic spores (<1-4.63 log cfu/g), anaerobic spores (<0-4.40 log cfu/g), and Bacillus cereus (<1.7-3.83 log cfu/g) showed no sample type-related significant difference. Listeria spp. was isolated from four samples of raw frozen insects, one of which was Listeria monocytogenes. We did not detect any of the following: Salmonella spp., Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), Campylobacter jejuni/coli, or pathogenic Yersinia. We isolated insect products retailed in Japan harboring food poisoning bacteria, including L. monocytogenes and B. cereus. In particular, raw frozen products displayed high levels of hygienic indicator bacteria.

A systematic review on the occurrence of Salmonella in farmed Tenebrio molitor and Acheta domesticus or their derived products

Insects represent a sustainable and protein-rich food source. This new supply chain requires the study and monitoring of pathogens' presence and impact, as for other farmed animals. Among pathogens, Salmonella is of interest due to the well-established possibility for insects to harbor it. Since Acheta domesticus (cricket) and Tenebrio molitor (mealworm) are the most sold and farmed insect species, the present systematic review aimed to collect, select, and evaluate, in the available scientific literature, studies investigating the occurrence of Salmonella in these species sampled. All available studies published in peer-reviewed journals in English, French, Italian, Portuguese, German, and Spanish were considered. No time limits were imposed. We searched PUBMED, EMBASE, WEB of Science Core Collection, and Food Science and Technology Abstracts. The first date searched was May 10th, 2022; an update of the search was conducted on May 5th, 2023. The data synthesis was presented in tables reporting the number of positives on the number of total analyzed samples with other relevant characteristics of the study. The quality assessment was carried out considering relevant aspects for sampling and the method of analysis for Salmonella detection. At the end of the screening process, 10 and nine studies conducted on crickets and mealworms, respectively, were included for data extraction. The S. serovar Wandsworth and S. serovar Stanley were isolated only in one sample of ready-to-eat crickets. A second study detected OTUs related to S. enterica in cricket and mealworm powders. No studies detected Salmonella in mealworms according to cultural methods. The limitations of the present review are that few studies were retrieved and that included studies had important limitations in terms of study design as sampling was mostly based on convenience and not on a sound statistical basis. The present systematic review underlines the need to obtain reliable data about Salmonella presence in insects considering the growing market and the scaling up of existing farms. This research was funded by the Italian Ministry of Health - Ricerca Corrente IZSVe 03/21. The review protocol was published on the Systematic Reviews for Animals and Food (SYREAF) Web site (https://syreaf.org/protocols/).

The Potential of Edible Insects as a Safe, Palatable, and Sustainable Food Source in the European Union

Entomophagy describes the practice of eating insects. Insects are considered extremely nutritious in many countries worldwide. However, there is a lethargic uptake of this practice in Europe where consuming insects and insect-based foodstuffs is often regarded with disgust. Such perceptions and concerns are often due to a lack of exposure to and availability of food-grade insects as a food source and are often driven by neophobia and cultural norms. In recent years, due to accelerating climate change, an urgency to develop alternate safe and sustainable food-sources has emerged. There are currently over 2000 species of insects approved by the World Health Organization as safe to eat and suitable for human consumption. This review article provides an updated overview of the potential of edible insects as a safe, palatable, and sustainable food source. Furthermore, legislation, food safety issues, and the nutritional composition of invertebrates including, but not limited, to crickets (Orthoptera) and mealworms (Coleoptera) are also explored within this review. This article also discusses insect farming methods and the potential upscaling of the industry with regard to future prospects for insects as a sustainable food source. Finally, the topics addressed in this article are areas of potential concern to current and future consumers of edible insects.

Insect-based agri-food waste valorization: Agricultural applications and roles of insect gut microbiota

Meeting the demands of the growing population requires increased food and feed production, leading to higher levels of agri-food waste. As this type of waste seriously threatens public health and the environment, novel approaches to waste management should be developed. Insects have been proposed as efficient agents for biorefining waste, producing biomass that can be used for commercial products. However, challenges in achieving optimal outcomes and maximizing beneficial results remain. Microbial symbionts associated with insects are known to have a critical role in the development, fitness, and versatility of insects, and as such, they can be utilized as targets for the optimization of agri-food waste insect-based biorefinery systems. This review discusses insect-based biorefineries, focusing on the agricultural applications of edible insects, mainly as animal feed and organic fertilizers. We also describe the interplay between agri-food waste-utilizing insects and associated microbiota and the microbial contribution in enhancing insect growth, development, and involvement in organic waste bioconversion processes. The potential contribution of insect gut microbiota in eliminating pathogens, toxins, and pollutants and microbe-mediated approaches for enhancing insect growth and the bioconversion of organic waste are also discussed. The present review outlines the benefits of using insects in agri-food and organic waste biorefinery systems, describes the roles of insect-associated microbial symbionts in waste bioconversion processes, and highlights the potential of such biorefinery systems in addressing the current agri-food waste-related challenges.

Assessment of crustacean allergen detection methods: cross reactivity with edible insect samples

Increased interest in consumption of insects in recent years has led to an increased focus on associated food safety concerns, and allergy is one of the most relevant. In the United States, crustacean shellfish are regulated as a major allergenic food group per the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act. Insects and crustacean shellfish are both arthropods, and clinical cross-reactivity between the two groups has been demonstrated. The goal of this work was to establish whether that clinical cross-reactivity translates into analytical cross-reactivity with detection assays targeting crustacean shellfish allergens. Edible insect samples were analyzed using four different crustacean allergen detection methods: Multi-Analyte Profiling Food Allergen Detection Assay (xMAP FADA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), western blot, and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results indicate that the immunoassay-based xMAP FADA, ELISA, and western blot were susceptible to cross-reactivity, while the DNA-based PCR methods had minimal reactivity with insect samples. These results confirm that edible insects show analytical cross-reactivity with the immunoassays which may result in false positive detection of crustacean allergens in insect samples. Confirmation using DNA-based PCR, which shows little to no cross-reactivity, clarifies ambiguous results.

Insects as Valuable Sources of Protein and Peptides: Production, Functional Properties, and Challenges

As the global population approaches 10 billion by 2050, the critical need to ensure food security becomes increasingly pronounced. In response to the urgent problems posed by global population growth, our study adds to the growing body of knowledge in the field of alternative proteins, entomophagy, insect-based bioactive proteolysates, and peptides. It also provides novel insights with essential outcomes for guaranteeing a safe and sustainable food supply in the face of rising global population demands. These results offer insightful information to researchers and policymakers tackling the intricate relationship between population expansion and food supplies. Unfortunately, conventional agricultural practices are proving insufficient in meeting these demands. Pursuing alternative proteins and eco-friendly food production methods has gained urgency, embracing plant-based proteins, cultivated meat, fermentation, and precision agriculture. In this context, insect farming emerges as a promising strategy to upcycle agri-food waste into nutritious protein and fat, meeting diverse nutritional needs sustainably. A thorough analysis was conducted to evaluate the viability of insect farming, investigate insect nutrition, and review the techniques and functional properties of protein isolation. A review of peptide generation from insects was conducted, covering issues related to hydrolysate production, protein extraction, and peptide identification. The study addresses the nutritional value and global entomophagy habits to elucidate the potential of insects as sources of peptides and protein. This inquiry covers protein and hydrolysate production, highlighting techniques and bioactive peptides. Functional properties of insect proteins' solubility, emulsification, foaming, gelation, water-holding, and oil absorption are investigated. Furthermore, sensory aspects of insect-fortified foods as well as challenges, including Halal and Kosher considerations, are explored across applications. Our review underscores insects' promise as sustainable protein and peptide contributors, offering recommendations for further research to unlock their full potential.

Upcycling of recycled minerals from sewage sludge through black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens): Impact on growth and mineral accumulation

Phosphorous (P) resources are finite. Sewage sludge recyclates (SSR) are not only of interest as plant fertilizer but also as potential source of minerals in animal nutrition. However, besides P and calcium (Ca), SSR contain heavy metals. Under EU legislation, the use of SSR derivatives in animal feed is not permitted, but given the need to improve nutrient recycling, it could be an environmentally sound future mineral source. Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) convert low-grade biomass into valuable proteins and lipids, and accumulate minerals in their body. It was hypothesized that BSFL modify and increase their mineral content in response to feeding on SSR containing substrates. The objective was to evaluate the upcycling of minerals from SSR into agri-food nutrient cycles through BSFL. Growth, nutrient and mineral composition were compared in BSFL reared either on a modified Gainesville fly diet (FD) or on FD supplemented with either 4% of biochar (FD + BCH) or 3.6% of single-superphosphate (FD + SSP) recyclate (n = 6 BSFL rearing units/group). Larval mass, mineral and nutrient concentrations and yields were determined, and the bioaccumulation factor (BAF) was calculated. The FD + SSP substrate decreased specific growth rate and crude fat of BSFL (P < 0.05) compared to FD. The FD + SSP larvae had higher Ca and P contents and yields but the BAF for Ca was lowest. The FD + BCH larvae increased Ca, iron, cadmium and lead contents compared to FD. Larvae produced on FD + SSP showed lower lead and higher arsenic concentration than on FD + BCH. Frass of FD + BCH had higher heavy metal concentration than FD + SSP and FD (P < 0.05). Except for cadmium and manganese, the larval heavy metal concentration was below the legally permitted upper concentrations for feed. In conclusion, the SSR used could enrich BSFL with Ca and P but at the expense of growth. Due to the accumulation of Cd and Mn, BSFL or products thereof can only be a component of farmed animal feed whereas in BSFL frass heavy metal concentrations remained below the upper limit authorized by EU.

A review on edible insects in China: Nutritional supply, environmental benefits, and potential applications

This review explored the potential of edible insects to address the challenges of malnutrition and food security. Although grain production in China has met the Food and Agriculture Organization standards, the shortage of protein supply is still a big issue. Moreover, expanding livestock farming is considered unsustainable and environmentally unfriendly. Edible insects have become an alternative with higher sustainable and ecological properties. There are 324 species of insects currently consumed in China, and they have high nutritional value, with a rich source of protein and unsaturated fatty acids. Insect farming provides numerous benefits, including green feeds for livestock, poultry, and aquaculture, sustainable organic waste management, as well as industrial and pharmaceutical raw materials. The food toxicological evaluations conducted in China indicated that edible insects are safe for general consumption by the Chinese, but allergies and other related food safety issues should not be ignored. Consumer acceptance is another barrier to overcome, with different schemas between China and Western countries. More research on the potential functions of edible insects and their product development may enhance their acceptance in China. Overall, incorporating edible insects into our diet is a promising solution to address challenges related to protein supply and food security. To ensure safety and sustainability, appropriate legislation, quality regulations, large-scale insect farms, and acceptable processing techniques are necessary. Moreover, more scientific research and social awareness are required to promote the culture and utilization of edible insects in China.

Molecular Characterization of Serratia marcescens Strain Isolated from Yellow Mealworms, Tenebrio molitor, in The Netherlands

Insect culture has developed rapidly worldwide; it faces important security and safety control issues, including animal infections and disease development. In the Netherlands, in 2021, a ~30% mortality of mealworms, Tenebrio molitor, occurred at one farm, where over-humid sites in the substrate were observed. Bacterial cultures from both the external and internal partsof fry and larger mealworms were identified by MALDI-TOF to predominantly Serratia marcescens, Staphylococcus xylosus and Staphylococus saprofyticus. Due to the important role of S. marcescens as a potential zoonotic bacterium, we performed a molecular characterization of the isolated strain. Genomic analysis showed a multidrug-resistant S. marcescens isolate carrying a tet (41), aac (6')-Ic, and blaSST-1 chromosomal class C beta-lactamase-resistantgenes, all located on the chromosome. Additionally, several virulence genes were identified. The phylogenetic tree revealed that the S. marcescens strain from this study was similar to other S. marcescens strains from different ecological niches. Although the entomopathogenic activity was not confirmed, this case demonstrates that T. molitor can act as a reservoir and as an alternative path for exposing clinically important antibiotic-resistant bacteria that can affect animals and humans. It underlines the need to keep management factors optimal, before insects and their products enter the feed and food chain.

Deciphering the functional diversity of the gut microbiota of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens): recent advances and future challenges

Bioconversion using insects is a promising strategy to convert organic waste (catering leftovers, harvest waste, food processing byproducts, etc.) into biomass that can be used for multiple applications, turned into high added-value products, and address environmental, societal and economic concerns. Due to its ability to feed on a tremendous variety of organic wastes, the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) has recently emerged as a promising insect for bioconversion of organic wastes on an industrial scale. A growing number of studies have highlighted the pivotal role of the gut microbiota in the performance and health of this insect species. This review aims to provide a critical overview of current knowledge regarding the functional diversity of the gut microbiota of H. illucens, highlighting its importance for bioconversion, food safety and the development of new biotechnological tools. After providing an overview of the different strategies that have been used to outline the microbial communities of H. illucens, we discuss the diversity of these gut microbes and the beneficial services they can provide to their insect host. Emphasis is placed on technical strategies and aspects of host biology that require special attention in the near future of research. We also argue that the singular digestive capabilities and complex gut microbiota of H. illucens make this insect species a valuable model for addressing fundamental questions regarding the interactions that insects have evolved with microorganisms. By proposing new avenues of research, this review aims to stimulate research on the microbiota of a promising insect to address the challenges of bioconversion, but also fundamental questions regarding bacterial symbiosis in insects.

A systematic review of experimental studies on Salmonella persistence in insects

The consumption of insects as food and feed has been recently suggested as a possible alternative to the rising global food need, thus it is crucial to monitor any potential food safety hazards in the insect supply chain. The aims of this systematic review were to collect, select, and evaluate studies investigating the persistence of Salmonella in insects. We searched PUBMED, EMBASE, WEB of Science Core Collection, and Food Science and Technology Abstracts. In total, 36 papers investigating the persistence of Salmonella in insects (both holometabolous and heterometabolous) were included after screening. Regarding complete metamorphosis insects, the longest Salmonella persistence was reported in Phormia regina, in which the pathogen persisted for 29 days at 5 °C. Similarly, Salmonella persisted in the feces of Alphitobius diaperinus for 28 days. The incomplete metamorphosis insect showing the longest Salmonella persistence (>10 months) was Blatella germanica. Periplaneta americana excreted Salmonella via feces for 44 days until all the insects were dead. The retrieved data on the persistence of Salmonella can be useful for further analysis by risk assessors and decision-makers involved in the safety of insect-based food, contributing to defining the sanitary requirements and risk mitigation measures along the supply chain. The review protocol is registered in PROSPERO database (CRD42022329213).

Insects as an alternative protein source for poultry nutrition: a review

This review summarizes the most relevant scientific literature related to the use of insects as alternative protein sources in poultry diets. The black soldier fly, the housefly, the beetle, mealworms, silkworms, earthworms, crickets, and grasshoppers are in the spotlight because they have been identified as an important future source of sustainable animal proteins for poultry feeding. Insect meals meet poultry requirements in terms of nutritional value, essential amino acid composition, nutrient digestibility, and feed acceptance. Furthermore, they are enriched with antimicrobial peptides and bioactive molecules that can improve global health. Results from poultry studies suggest equivalent or enhanced growth performances and quality of end-products as compared to fish meal and soybean meal. To outline this body of knowledge, this article states established threads of research about the nutrient profiles and the digestibility of insect meals, their subsequent effects on the growth and laying performances of poultry as well as the quality of meat, carcass, and eggs. To fully exploit insect-derived products, the effects of insect bioactive molecules (antimicrobial peptides, fatty acids, and polysaccharides) were addressed. Furthermore, as edible insects are likely to take a meaningful position in the feed and food chain, the safety of their derived products needs to be ensured. Some insights into the current knowledge on the prevalence of pathogens and contaminants in edible insects were highlighted. Finally, the effect of insect farming and processing treatment on the nutritive value of insect larvae was discussed. Our overview reveals that using insects can potentially solve problems related to reliance on other food sources, without altering the growth performances and the quality of meat and eggs.

The current state of research and potential applications of insects for resource recovery and aquaculture feed

Concerns about fishmeal use and its ecological footprints must be addressed for the aquaculture industry to move on as a sustainable food production sector. Through recent research outcomes, the insect-based meals in fish diets have promise and harnessed promises for commercial applications. In this midst, the efficiency of the selected insects in valorizing biological waste, as well as the nutritional profile of the harvested insects for use in fish diets, will be the driving forces behind such an approach. More extensive research has been published on the suitability of the waste substrate, the nutritional profiling of the meals, the level of substitution, the effects on growth, the immune physiology, and the flesh quality of the animals. Previously, there are only a few reviews available in insect protein applications in aqua feed that focused particularly on the nutritional quality and substitution levels. Considering the dearth of available work, the goal of this review is to provide a more comprehensive account of the resource recovery potential of insects and its derivatives, with a special emphasis on quality as determined by substrate used and processing techniques. Suggestions and policy implications for a sustainable approach to achieving a circular bio-economy of insect farming and its application in aquaculture are discussed for progression and advancement of the existing state of the art.

Biotransfer of heavy metals along the soil-plant-edible insect-human food chain in Africa

Although mining is Zambia's major economic activity, it is implicated in environmental contamination, particularly with heavy metals. This study investigated the accumulation and transfer of heavy metals along the soil-plant-edible insect-human food chain. Our results revealed the presence of eight heavy metals (Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Iron, Nickel, Lead, and Zinc) with a 28-60 % increase in soil concentrations at the proximity of the mining facilities. There was a higher accumulation of Cd, Cu, Ni, Fe, Pb, and Zn than As and Cr in plant species near the mine. Among the insect species studied, C. forda accumulated nickel significantly higher (70-81 %), I. obscura had higher cadmium (2-84 %) and lead (10-79 %), while I. rubra and M. falciger accumulated higher iron (41-96 %) and zinc (1-67 %), respectively, than other insect species. The quantity of I. obscura consumed (248 g person^-1 day^-1) was significantly higher (9-37 %) than other insect species. It was noted that the consumption of insects increased the daily intake of heavy metals, enhanced the target hazard quotient, and increased the associated health risks by up to 9 folds compared to the WHO permissible limits meaning that the daily intake of metals consumed depends on the daily quantity of insects consumed. Our findings suggest that the accumulation of heavy metals along the soil-plant-edible insect-human food chain could pose severe human and environmental health risks along the mining gradients. The potential consequences of heavy metal mobility in the consumer trophic levels and the ecotoxicological consequences are particularly concerning. Furthermore, physiological and biological studies are needed to investigate the abovementioned effects.

Effects of undesired substances and their bioaccumulation on the black soldier fly larvae, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)-a literature review

Black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), is predominantly reared on organic wastes and other unused complementary substrates. However, BSF may have a buildup of undesired substances in their body. The contamination of undesired substance, e.g., heavy metals, mycotoxins, and pesticides, in BSF mainly occurred during the feeding process in the larval stage. Yet, the pattern of accumulated contaminants in the bodies of BSF larvae (BSFL) is varied distinctively depending on the diets as well as the contaminant types and concentrations. Heavy metals, including cadmium, copper, arsenic, and lead, were reported to have accumulated in BSFL. In most cases, the cadmium, arsenic, and lead concentration in BSFL exceeded the recommended standard for heavy metals occurring in feed and food. Following the results concerning the accumulation of the undesired substance in BSFL's body, they did not affect the biological parameters of BSFL, unless the amounts of heavy metals in their diets are highly exceeding their thresholds. Meanwhile, a study on the fate of pesticides and mycotoxins in BSFL indicates that no bioaccumulation was detected for any of the target substances. In addition, dioxins, PCBs, PAHs, and pharmaceuticals did not accumulate in BSFL in the few existing studies. However, future studies are needed to assess the long-term effects of the aforementioned undesired substances on the demographic traits of BSF and to develop appropriate waste management technology. Since the end products of BSFL that are contaminated pose a threat to both human and animal health, their nutrition and production process must be well managed to create end products with a low contamination level to achieve a closed food cycle of BSF as animal feed.

Mycotoxins on edible insects: Should we be worried?

Edible insects are a solid alternative to meet the growing demand for animal protein. However, there are doubts regarding the safety of insect consumption. Mycotoxins are substances of concern for food safety, as they may cause harmful effects on the human organism and accumulate in the tissues of some animals. This study focuses on the characteristics of the main mycotoxins, the mitigation of human consumption of contaminated insects, and the effects of mycotoxins on insect metabolism. To date, studies reported the interaction of the mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1, and T-2, isolated or combined, in three insect species from Coleoptera and one from Diptera order. The use of rearing substrates with low mycotoxin contamination did not reduce the survival and development of insects. Fasting practices and replacing contaminated substrate with a decontaminated one decreased the concentration of mycotoxins in insects. There is no evidence that mycotoxins accumulate in the tissues of the insects' larvae. Coleoptera species showed high excretion capacity, while Hermetia illucens had a lower excretion capacity of ochratoxin A, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol. Thus, a substrate with low mycotoxin contamination could be used for raising edible insects, particularly from the Coleoptera order.

Could Insect Products Provide a Safe and Sustainable Feed Alternative for the Poultry Industry? A Comprehensive Review

The planet is home to more than 2000 species of edible insects, some of which have been consumed as food for many years. Recently, edible insect products have been gradually increasing in several countries, such as Italy and Egypt, as novel feed resources for humans and animals due to their availability, potential economic benefits, and high nutritive value. The insect industry can provide a new solution for livestock nutrition and offer many additional advantages, but there are obstacles to overcome, such as some nutritional organizations that forbid its usage. Nevertheless, previous research indicates that different insect species could be used safely as nutraceuticals in poultry farming to improve broiler growth performance (>3%) and layer egg production (>5%). Among these species, there are various products and extracts that can be used in poultry nutrition in a sustainable manner. This review provides an outline of insect composition, nutrient values, application in poultry feed, safety, and guidelines, and finally, the future perspectives of insects as an alternative feed source in poultry diets.

The accumulation of heavy metals in feeder insects and their impact on animal production

Insects have emerged as a novel feed protein source that could help to produce enough food to feed the growing global population. Good-quality protein content, minerals and bioactive compounds are the main reasons for the use of insects in livestock. Nonetheless, insects should be proven to be safe for use before being used as feeder insects for livestock. The accumulation of heavy metals in the feedstuff is becoming a major food safety concern, as this poses a serious problem to animal health and threatens human health through the transmission of toxic substances into the human food chain. It has been shown that feeder insects grown from agricultural waste materials contain chemical contaminants such as pesticides and veterinary drug residues. Current research mostly focuses on the safety evaluation of undesirable substances in edible insects for human consumption, but rarely indicates if these insects are safe to use in livestock feeds, particularly for avian species. Therefore, owing to the potential risks of heavy metal in animal production, heavy metal residues in feeder insects have received scientific attention. Hence, this review article is intended to evaluate and discuss selected heavy metals in insects, comparing them with toxicity limits for feedstuff of animal origin, and their potential risks of exposure. A literature search on metal elements present in insects was conducted using electronic databases. In addition, the citations included in articles were used to find other relevant articles or documents on this topic. Identified published articles were grouped and evaluated according to the insect species, growth stage and substrate from which the insects were grown. It was observed that the accumulation of heavy metals in insects is mainly associated with agricultural waste materials fed to insects. Furthermore, metal toxicity in animals varies according to animal species and age, metal type, concentration, and chemical form.

Comparative untargeted metabolic analysis of natural- and laboratory-reared larvae of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)

In the present study, we examined the metabolic composition of black soldier fly (BSF) larvae from natural populations (Ruhama: R and She'ar Yashuv: S) and from a laboratory-reared colony (C) using untargeted metabolomics analysis. The results revealed significant over-accumulation of metabolites from phenylalanine and purine metabolism and biosynthesis of phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan, and arginine in both natural populations, and enriched pathway analysis, compared to the laboratory-reared colony. In addition, we found accumulation of glutathione metabolism and aminoacyl tRNA biosynthesis related metabolites in R, and linoleic acid and tryptophan metabolism related metabolites in S. Moreover, we found down-accumulation of metabolites belonging to alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism in both natural populations: amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism only in the R population and aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism only in the S population. Overall, the results suggest that the naturally growing larvae require large quantities of metabolites from aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan) for defense against pathogens under natural conditions e.g., melanization. In addition, glutathione metabolites help the BSF to survive under oxidative stress. Further study of the functional metabolomics of naturally growing and laboratory-reared larvae could provide a platform for better understanding of BSF larval survival mechanisms in complex environments.

Insects and Public Health: An Overview

Insects are, by far, the most common animals on our planet. The ubiquity and plethora of ecological niches occupied by insects, along with the strict and sometimes forced coexistence between insects and humans, make insects a target of public health interest. This article reports the negative aspects historically linked to insects as pests and vectors of diseases, and describes their potential as bioindicators of environmental pollution, and their use as food and feed. Both negative and positive impacts of insects on human and animal health need to be addressed by public health professionals who should aim to strike a balance within the wide range of sometimes conflicting goals in insect management, such as regulating their production, exploiting their potential, protecting their health and limiting their negative impact on animals and humans. This requires increased insect knowledge and strategies to preserve human health and welfare. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of traditional and emerging topics bridging insects and public health to highlight the need for professionals, to address these topics during their work. The present and future role and activities of public health authorities regarding insects are analyzed.

Foodborne Diseases in the Edible Insect Industry in Europe-New Challenges and Old Problems

Insects play a key role in European agroecosystems. Insects provide important ecosystem services and make a significant contribution to the food chain, sustainable agriculture, the farm-to-fork (F2F) strategy, and the European Green Deal. Edible insects are regarded as a sustainable alternative to livestock, but their microbiological safety for consumers has not yet been fully clarified. The aim of this article is to describe the role of edible insects in the F2F approach, to discuss the latest veterinary guidelines concerning consumption of insect-based foods, and to analyze the biological, chemical, and physical hazards associated with edible insect farming and processing. Five groups of biological risk factors, ten groups of chemical risk factors, and thirteen groups of physical risks factors have been identified and divided into sub-groups. The presented risk maps can facilitate identification of potential threats, such as foodborne pathogens in various insect species and insect-based foods. Ensuring safety of insect-based foods, including effective control of foodborne diseases, will be a significant milestone on the path to maintaining a sustainable food chain in line with the F2F strategy and EU policies. Edible insects constitute a new category of farmed animals and a novel link in the food chain, but their production poses the same problems and challenges that are encountered in conventional livestock rearing and meat production.

Monitoring Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) as a Potential Novel Allergenic Food: Effect of Food Processing and Matrix

The consumption of insects has increased in western countries, raising concerns about their potential to induce food allergic reactions in sensitized/allergic individuals. This work intended to develop a real-time PCR approach for the detection/quantification of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) as a potential allergenic food in complex matrices. For this purpose, reference mixtures simulating the production of pork sausages and wheat biscuits containing known amounts of mealworm were used. Real-time PCR with TaqMan probe targeting the cytochrome b gene of T. molitor was able to detect up to 2 fg of insect DNA, and 1.0 and 0.1 mg/kg of mealworm flour in autoclaved sausages and baked biscuits, respectively. Generally, the method showed acceptable analytical performance parameters, confirming its suitability/applicability for a wide range of foods. However, real-time PCR data showed significant differences among food matrix and processing, highlighting the importance of using appropriate calibration models for quantitative analysis. Finally, the real-time PCR approach was successfully validated with blind mixtures and applied to commercial samples, demonstrating its efficacy and reliability in the quantification of mealworm in processed foodstuffs.

Nutritional Composition, Health Benefits, and Application Value of Edible Insects: A Review

For thousands of years, edible insects have been used as food to alleviate hunger and improve malnutrition. Some insects have also been used as medicines because of their therapeutic properties. This is not only due to the high nutritional value of edible insects, but more importantly, the active substances from edible insects have a variety of biofunctional activities. In this paper, we described and summarized the nutritional composition of edible insects and discussed the biological functions of edible insects and their potential benefits for human health. A summary analysis of the findings for each active function confirms that edible insects have the potential to develop functional foods and medicines that are beneficial to humans. In addition, we analyzed the issues that need to be considered in the application of edible insects and the current status of edible insects in food and pharmaceutical applications. We concluded with a discussion of regulations related to edible insects and an outlook on future research and applications of edible insects. By analyzing the current state of research on edible insects, we aim to raise awareness of the use of edible insects to improve human health and thus promote their better use and development.

Safety Assessment of Locusta migratoria Powder Enriched Peanut-Based Ready-to-Use Therapeutic Foods (RUTF)

Migratory locust has been widely reported as a quality protein source. However, there are food safety problems related with the usage of insects as food. In this study, migratory locust powder (MLP) was used as a protein supply alternative to milk powder (MP) in peanut-based RUTFs. Seven formulations were obtained at different substitution levels (0 – 30%) of MP with MLP. Pesticide residues, aflatoxins, triazine and toxic metals were analysed using a GC-MS system and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Formulation with 30% MLP and without milk have the highest level of organochlorine (3.22 µg/kg), organophosphorus (0.40-4.56µg/kg) amongst others. Aflatoxins of the therapeutic foods increased with increasing levels of MLP. The heavy metals, melamine, and cyanuric acid of the RUTFs were below the standard permissible limits. Migratory locust powder could be used as an alternate protein source in the formulation of peanut based RUTFs without posing health threat.

Environmental effects of harvesting some Mexican wild edible insects: An overview

Most traditional edible insects are collected from the forest and agricultural fields, where they are considered pests. However, their importance goes beyond this. They also have an ecological role and potential to be an emerging alternative source of high-quality nutrients that can help satisfy the growing food demand for the human population. Agricultural insect pests are a healthy food source during the harvesting season in many tropical countries. In Mexico, wild insects such as chicatana (queen of flying leaf-cutter ant, Atta mexicana Smith, 1,858; Hymenoptera: Formicidae), chapulín (grasshopper, Pyrgomorphidae), chinicuil (agave red worm, Comadia redtenbacheri Hammerschmidt, 1,848: Lepidoptera, Cossidae), and meocuil (agave white worm, Aegiale hesperiaris Walker 1,856, Lepidoptera, Hesperiidae) are seasonally collected from the agricultural land and forest for food and medicine. Thus, their consumption might be regarded as support for biological plague control. However, in most countries (Mexico included), there is a lack of legislation about edible insects from harvesting to sacrifice and even their main safety aspects. So then, this research aims to provide an updated assessment of the potential use of agricultural pest insects as a sustainable alternative for food, considering current international legislative and ethical concerns about harvesting and consuming wild edible insects, focusing on some of the wild edible pest insects in Mexico.

Agrochemical contaminants in six species of edible insects from Uganda and Kenya

Edible insects are currently promoted worldwide as an alternative animal protein source, but they are mostly still harvested from the wild where they are predisposed to contamination with agrochemicals. This study analysed six species of edible insects (Ruspolia differens, Rhynchophorus phoenicis, Schistocerca gregaria, Oryctes sp, Pachnoda ephippiata and Acanthoplus sp) collected from different habitats and/or reared in the laboratory in Kenya and Uganda for safety from agrochemical contaminants using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The residue levels were statistically compared with the Codex Alimentarius Commission maximum residue limits (MRLs). Residues of only nine agrochemicals were detected in the insects out of 374 chemicals which were screened. The detected agrochemicals include two insecticides (aminocarb and pymetrozine), three herbicides (atraton, methabenzthiazuron and metazachlor) and four fungicides (carboxin, fenpropimorph, fludioxonil and metalaxyl). Ruspolia differens and adult Oryctes sp were free from detectable levels of any agrochemical. Whereas the pesticides residue levels in most insect samples were within maximum residue limits, some of them notably P. ephippiata from black soldier fly larval frass, R. phoenicis from oil palm and P. ephippiata from plant compost contained 2-, 8- and 49-fold higher levels of atraton, methabenzthiazuron and metazachlor, respectively, than MRLs. These findings demonstrate that edible insects may accumulate harmful residues of agrochemicals from the environment where they breed or forage, rendering them unsafe for human consumption or feeding animals. The mechanisms for possible bioaccumulation of these agrochemicals in the insects remains to be investigated. Development of methods for farming edible insects under regulated indoor conditions to ensure their safety as sources of food or feed is recommended.

Comparison of protein extraction protocols and allergen mapping from black soldier fly Hermetia illucens

Exploration of important insect proteins - including allergens - and proteomes can be limited by protein extraction buffer selection and the complexity of the proteome. Herein, LC-MS/MS-based proteomics experiments were used to assess the protein extraction efficiencies for a suite of extraction buffers and the effect of ingredient processing on proteome and allergen detection. Discovery proteomics revealed that SDS-based buffer yields the maximum number of protein groups from three types of BSF samples. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that buffer composition and ingredient processing could influence allergen detection. Upon applying multi-level filtering criteria, 33 putative allergens were detected by comparing the detected BSF proteins to sequences from public allergen protein databases. A targeted LC-MRM-MS assay was developed for the pan-allergen tropomyosin and used to assess the influence of buffer composition and ingredient processing using peptide abundance measurements. SIGNIFICANCE: We demonstrated that the selection of protein extraction buffer and the processing method could influence protein yield and cross-reactive allergen detection from processed and un-processed black soldier fly (BSF) samples. In total, 33 putative allergens were detected by comparing the detected BSF proteins to sequences from public allergen protein databases. An LC-MRM-MS assay was developed for tropomyosin, indicating the importance of buffer selection and processing conditions to reduce BSF samples' allergenicity.

An Analysis of the Ethical, Economic, and Environmental Aspects of Entomophagy

Population growth is causing a high demand for meat products, which, coupled with the current climate crisis, has fueled research into alternative protein sources. This review discusses the role of edible insects as an alternative protein source to complement our diet. We compare nutritional, environmental, economic, and food safety aspects between edible insects and current protein sources and conclude with a discussion on ethical considerations. Edible insects are a good protein source, with a higher average protein content than most protein-rich products we consume today. In addition, they provide fiber, fats such as monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and essential amino acids and are also rich in some minerals and vitamins. Product safety is yet to be studied; however, they have a much lower environmental impact than other intensive livestock products. Moreover, the production of edible insects is not expected to be expensive. The consumption of edible insects is a good alternative to conventional animal foods in modern times: a major climate crisis accompanied by numerous societal inequalities due to population growth.

Alternative proteins for meat and dairy replacers: Food safety and future trends

Traditionally, meat and dairy products have been important protein sources in the human diet. Consumers are eating more plant-based proteins, which is reflected in current market trends. Assessing how alternative proteins are processed and their impact on food safety helps realize market opportunities while ensuring food safety. In this review, an analysis of the food safety hazards, along with current industry trends and processing methods associated with alternative proteins for meat and dairy products for the European Union market is described. Understanding the effects of processing and safety alternative proteins is paramount to ensuring food safety and understanding the risks to consumers. However, the data here is limited. With the expected further increase in protein alternatives in consumers' diets, the risk of food allergens is apparent. The occurrence of processing contaminants in plant-based alternatives may occur, along with anti-nutritional compounds, which interfere with the absorption of nutrients. Further, typical food safety hazards related to the plant, the product itself, or processing are relevant. Although hazards in insects and seaweed are being addressed, other protein alternatives like cultured meat and SCPs warrant attention. Our findings can aid industry and governmental authorities in understanding current trends and prioritizing hazards for future monitoring.

Insects as Feed for Companion and Exotic Pets: A Current Trend

Simple Summary

Currently, there is a wide variety of insect-based pet foods and treats; however, there are several questions about the nutritional contribution of insects for dogs and cats, their health effects, safety aspects and the legal framework for their use as ingredients or feed. The insect-based ingredients used are mainly meal and fat from black soldier fly larvae, mealworm larvae and adult house crickets. There are few studies on the use of insects as food ingredients for pets, and most of them have studied some aspects in dogs. It has been said that they do not affect health, are well accepted and tolerated, do not alter the microbiota and could have the potential to be used as hypoallergenic ingredients. Insects provide a high nutritional value, with a high content of protein and amino acids with good digestibility for dogs. In cats, there is scarce information and more studies are needed. In exotic pets, their use is generalized. Dog owners are willing to use insects as ingredients, but in processed formats such as meal or as part of food or treats. Future research should focus on safety issues and effects on the health, nutrition and feeding behavior of traditional pets, such as dogs and cats.

Abstract

The objective of this review was to carry out a comprehensive investigation of the benefits of incorporating insects as a pet food ingredient and the implications this can have in determining a market demand for insect-based pet foods. Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens), mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) and adult house crickets (Acheta domesticus) are currently used in pet food. These insects are widely fed to exotic pets, mainly in whole, live or dehydrated formats. They are also incorporated as meal or fat and are offered to cats and dogs as dry or wet food and treats. Scientific studies about the use of insects for dog and cat feed are scarce. Most studies are in dogs. Research shows that insect nutrients, mainly amino acids, have high digestibility, are beneficial to health, do not have any detrimental effect on the gut microbiota and are accepted by dogs. In several countries, insects are approved for use in pet food and commercialization has spread throughout the world. Pet owners are willing to try foods made with insect meal for their pets. In conclusion, the use of insects in pet food is a reality that is taking on more and more prominence.

Potential Utilization of Insect Meal as Livestock Feed

Globally, the utilization of alternative protein sources in livestock feed has been extensively deliberated and established to be the best novel approach. Extensive research indicated that insects provide good opportunities as a sustainable, high quality, and low-cost component of animal feed. The use of insects in animal diet sounds to be the prospective opportunity leading to sustainability of animal feeds and meet the intensifying worldwide plea for livestock products. The value of these protein sources has, however, increased due to limited production, competition between humans and animals. The use of insects for feeding farmed animals represents a promising alternative because of the nutritional properties of insects and the possible environmental benefits, given the sustainability of this type of farming. Yet little has been documented about the nutrient composition of various insect meals, the impact of insect meal in the animal feed industry, safety, and attitude and willingness of farmers to accept insect-based animal feed and food. Therefore, this chapter seeks to document the potential utilization of insect meal as livestock feed.

How to Develop Strategies to Use Insects as Animal Feed: Digestibility, Functionality, Safety, and Regulation

Various insects have emerged as novel feed resources due to their economical, eco-friendly, and nutritive characteristics. Fish, poultry, and pigs are livestock that can feed on insects. The digestibility of insect-containing meals were presented by the species, life stage, nutritional component, and processing methods. Several studies have shown a reduced apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) when insects were supplied as a replacement for commercial meals related to chitin. Although the expression of chitinase mRNA was present in several livestock, indigestible components in insects, such as chitin or fiber, could be a reason for the reduced ADC. However, various components can positively affect livestock health. Although the bio-functional properties of these components have been verified in vitro, they show positive health-promoting effects owing to their functional expression when directly applied to animal diets. Changes in the intestinal microbiota of animals, enhancement of immunity, and enhancement of antibacterial activity were confirmed as positive effects that can be obtained through insect diets. However, there are some issues with the safety of insects as feed. To increase the utility of insects as feed, microbial hazards, chemical hazards, and allergens should be regulated. The European Union, North America, East Asia, Australia, and Nigeria have established regulations regarding insect feed, which could enhance the utility of insects as novel feed resources for the future.

Feed Insects as a Reservoir of Granadaene-Producing Lactococci

Insects are a component of the diet of different animal species and have been suggested as the major source of human dietary protein for the future. However, insects are also carriers of potentially pathogenic microbes that constitute a risk to food and feed safety. In this study, we reported the occurrence of a hemolytic orange pigmented producing phenotype of Lactococcus garvieae/petauri/formosensis in the fecal microbiota of golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia) and feed larvae (Zophobas atratus). Feed insects were identified as a regular source of L. garvieae/petauri/formosensis based on a reanalysis of available 16S rRNA gene libraries. Pan-genome analysis suggested the existence of four clusters within the L. garvieae/petauri/formosensis group. The presence of cyl cluster indicated that some strains of the L. garvieae/petauri/formosensis group produced a pigment similar to granadaene, an orange cytotoxic lipid produced by group B streptococci, including Streptococcus agalactiae. Pigment production by L. garvieae/petauri/formosensis strains was dependent on the presence of the fermentable sugars, with no pigment being observed at pH <4.7. The addition of buffering compounds or arginine, which can be metabolized to ammonium, restored pigment formation. In addition, pigment formation might be related to the source of peptone. These data suggest that edible insects are a possible source of granadaene-producing lactococci, which can be considered a pathogenic risk with zoonotic potential.

The Bacterial Microbiota of Edible Insects Acheta domesticus and Gryllus assimilis Revealed by High Content Analysis

In the concept of novel food, insects reared under controlled conditions are considered mini livestock. Mass-reared edible insect production is an economically and ecologically beneficial alternative to conventional meat gain. Regarding food safety, insect origin ingredients must comply with food microbial requirements. House crickets (Acheta domesticus) and Jamaican field crickets (Gryllus assimilis) are preferred insect species that are used commercially as food. In this study, we examined cricket-associated bacterial communities using amplicon-based sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene region (V3–V4). The high taxonomic richness of the bacterial populations inhabiting both tested cricket species was revealed. According to the analysis of alpha and beta diversity, house crickets and Jamaican field crickets displayed significantly different bacterial communities. Investigation of bacterial amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) diversity revealed cricket species as well as surface and entire body-associated bacterial assemblages. The efficiency of crickets processing and microbial safety were evaluated based on viable bacterial counts and identified bacterial species. Among the microorganisms inhabiting both tested cricket species, the potentially pathogenic bacteria are documented. Some bacteria representing identified genera are inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract of animals and humans, forming a normal intestinal microflora and performing beneficial probiotic functions. The novel information on the edible insect-associated microbiota will contribute to developing strategies for cricket processing to avoid bacteria-caused risks and reap the benefits.

Overcoming Technical and Market Barriers to Enable Sustainable Large-Scale Production and Consumption of Insect Proteins in Europe: A SUSINCHAIN Perspective

Simple Summary

Insects are increasingly being used in Europe as a new or alternative source of protein for both direct human consumption and ingredients for feed and food production. Upscaling edible insect production and processing to a sustainable industrial sector is critical to supply the market and meet the foreseen future demands. In a market where transition to more sustainable protein sources is one of the primary challenges, sustainable insect products can contribute to a circular and sustainable economy as well as food security. SUSINCHAIN (SUStainable INsect CHAIN) is a European Horizon 2020 project that aims to contribute to overcome technical and market barriers to enable sustainable large-scale production and consumption of insect proteins in Europe by generating and sharing knowledge, as well as testing, piloting, and demonstrating newly developed insect chain innovations and increasing societal engagement. This article provides an outline of the various obstacles to upscaling of the insect sector and the project’s contributions to overcome these. The project covers the topics of: market opportunities, consumer perception, optimization of insect rearing conditions and substrates, insect transportation and processing techniques, application of insect products in food and feed, food safety issues in insect production and processing, together with economic and environmental sustainability. The project’s outcomes will provide tools for scaling up and commercializing the European insect sector.

Abstract

The expected global population growth to 9.7 billion people in 2050 and the significant change in global dietary patterns require an increase in global food production by about 60%. The protein supply for feed and food is most critical and requires an extension in protein sources. Edible insects can upgrade low-grade side streams of food production into high-quality protein, amino acids and vitamins in a very efficient way. Insects are considered to be the “missing link” in the food chain of a circular and sustainable economy. Insects and insect-derived products have entered the European market since first being acknowledged as a valuable protein source for feed and food production in around 2010. However, today, scaling up the insect value chain in Europe is progressing at a relatively slow pace. The mission of SUSINCHAIN (SUStainable INsect CHAIN)—a four-year project which has received funding from the European Commission—is to contribute to novel protein provision for feed and food in Europe by overcoming the remaining barriers for increasing the economic viability of the insect value chain and opening markets by combining forces in a comprehensive multi-actor consortium. The overall project objective is to test, pilot and demonstrate recently developed technologies, products and processes, to realize a shift up to Technology Readiness Level 6 or higher. In addition to these crucial activities, the project engages with stakeholders in the insect protein supply chain for feed and food by living labs and workshops. These actions provide the necessary knowledge and data for actors in the insect value chain to decrease the cost price of insect products, process insects more efficiently and market insect protein applications in animal feed and regular human diets that are safe and sustainable. This paves the way for further upscaling and commercialization of the European insect sector.

Food waste bioconversion into new food: A mini-review on nutrients circularity in the production of mushrooms, microalgae and insects

The global challenge of feeding an ever-increasing world population is leading scientists' attention towards nutritious and sustainable foods whose production should have low impacts on environment, economy and society. In case the input feedstock can be waste nutrients, the label of such productions becomes even greener. Nutrients circularity is nowadays an important circular economy practice. This mini-review focuses on the valorisation of food waste as precious biomass to grow new food and feed. In particular, three functional edibles are discussed in the present paper: mushrooms, microalgae and insects. These foods are part of people diets since ages in certain areas of the world and the original aspect of their cultivation and breeding found on waste nutrients recovery is here reviewed. Proofs of such food waste biorefinery viability are already given by several researches featuring the main traits of a suitable growing medium: optimal pool of nutrients and optimal pH. However, lot of work still needs to be done in order to assess the optimal growth and cultivation conditions and the health security of the harvested/bred edibles. A SWOT factors analysis was performed.