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Graczyk AM, Leone LA, Orom H, Ziegler AM, Crandall AK, Klasko-Foster LB, Temple JL. Alcohol mixed energy drink usage and risk-taking among college students in Western New York State. JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH : J OF ACH 2022; 70:1651-1664. [PMID: 33048628 PMCID: PMC8041911 DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2020.1817036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Alcohol mixed energy drinks (AmED) may promote excessive alcohol intake and risk-taking among college students. Objective: To understand the relationship between AmED use and risky behavior as well as attitudes and motivations for AmED use. Participants: Undergraduate college students N = 422 (Study 1), N = 37 (Study 2). Methods: Using a mixed-methods approach, we first surveyed undergraduate students about their AmED and alcohol consumption and a series of risk behaviors, self-efficacy, and beliefs (Study 1). We then conducted focus groups within the same population to better understand attitudes, knowledge, and motivations for using AmED (Study 2). Results: Recent AmED use was significantly associated with an increased number of reported binge drinking occasions and self-reported driving while intoxicated events. Our qualitative data analyses revealed two major themes associated with AmED consumption: factors encouraging AmED use and decisions about driving while under the influence of alcohol. Conclusions: These findings add to the literature of beliefs and motivations for AmED use among college students.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M Graczyk
- Department of Community Health and Health Behavior, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo
| | - Lucia A Leone
- Department of Community Health and Health Behavior, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo
| | - Heather Orom
- Department of Community Health and Health Behavior, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo
| | - Amanda M Ziegler
- Department of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo
- Department of Community Health and Health Behavior, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo
| | - Amanda K Crandall
- Department of Community Health and Health Behavior, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo
| | | | - Jennifer L Temple
- Department of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo
- Department of Community Health and Health Behavior, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo
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2
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Polak K, Ngelina E, Svikis D. Comparison of Survey and Interview Methods for Collecting Recent Caffeine and Alcohol Use Data in College Students. J Caffeine Adenosine Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1089/caff.2020.0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Polak
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Enkelejda Ngelina
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Dace Svikis
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
- Institute for Women's Health, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
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Holstein SE, Barkell GA, Young MR. Caffeine increases alcohol self-administration, an effect that is independent of dopamine D 2 receptor function. Alcohol 2021; 91:61-73. [PMID: 33429015 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2020.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The rising popularity of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmEDs) has become a significant public health concern, with AmED users reporting higher levels of alcohol intake than non-AmED users. One mechanism proposed to explain this heightened level of alcohol intake in AmED users is that the high levels of caffeine found in energy drinks may increase the positive reinforcing properties of alcohol, an effect that may be dependent on interactions between adenosine receptor signaling pathways and the dopamine D2 receptor. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to confirm whether caffeine does increase the positive reinforcing effects of alcohol using both fixed ratio (FR) and progressive ratio (PR) designs, and to investigate a potential role of the dopamine D2 receptor to caffeine-induced increases in alcohol self-administration. Male Long-Evans rats were trained to self-administer a sweetened alcohol solution (10% v/v alcohol + 2% w/v sucrose) on an FR2 schedule of reinforcement, and the effects of caffeine (0, 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg, i. p. [intraperitoneally]) on the maintenance of alcohol self-administration and alcohol break point were examined. Parallel experiments in rats trained to self-administer sucrose (0.8% w/v) were conducted to determine whether caffeine's reinforcement-enhancing effects extended to a non-drug reinforcer. Caffeine pretreatment (5-10 mg/kg) significantly increased sweetened alcohol self-administration and motivation for a sweetened alcohol reinforcer. However, similar increases in self-administration of a non-drug reinforcer were not observed. Contrary to our hypothesis, the D2 receptor antagonist eticlopride did not block a caffeine-induced increase in sweetened alcohol self-administration, nor did it alter caffeine-induced increases in motivation for a sweetened alcohol reinforcer. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that caffeine increases the positive reinforcing effects of alcohol, which may explain caffeine-induced increases in alcohol intake. However, the reinforcement-enhancing effects of caffeine appear to be independent of D2 receptor function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Holstein
- Department of Psychology, Lycoming College, One College Place, Williamsport, PA, 17701, United States.
| | - Gillian A Barkell
- Department of Psychology, Lycoming College, One College Place, Williamsport, PA, 17701, United States
| | - Megan R Young
- Department of Psychology, Lycoming College, One College Place, Williamsport, PA, 17701, United States
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Waldron KA, Mallett KA, Turrisi RJ, Reavy R, Wolfe E, Plisiewicz A. Motivations to combine alcohol and nicotine in college students: A validation of the Alcohol and Nicotine Motives Scale. Addict Behav 2021; 112:106645. [PMID: 32957004 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Research on combining alcohol and nicotine (ALCNIC) has shown this risky behavior results in significantly more consequences than using either alcohol or nicotine alone. No measures currently exist to assess ALCNIC motives limiting intervention and prevention efforts. The present study developed a psychometrically sound and multidimensional measure of ALCNIC motives (the ANMS). METHODS An initial item pool of ALCNIC items was developed from literature on college student drinking, focus groups, and individual interviews. Study 1 involved students from a northeastern university who completed an online survey on the ALCNIC items (N = 55; 57.1% female; Mage = 20.3). Analysis focused on reliability (exploratory factor analysis). Study 2 involved a cross-validation national sample of college students (N = 336; 49.7% female; Mage = 21.2) completing the same survey items. Confirmatory factor analysis, criterion-related validity (ALCNIC/weekend drinking), and discriminant validity (social desirability) were assessed using structural equation modeling. RESULTS Results across two studies revealed three factors to engage in ALCNIC: antagonistic (party longer), synergistic (enhanced effects), and social (peer pressure); and one factor to avoid ALCNIC: negative effects (feeling anxious) (all alphas > 0.7). In study 2, criterion-related validity revealed that synergistic motives were significantly positively associated with ALCNIC use; and negative effects motives were significantly negatively associated with ALCNIC use. Discriminant validity showed ALCNIC subscales were not significantly associated with social desirability (except social). CONCLUSIONS The study developed a reliable and valid measure of motives for ALCNIC use. Results were robust to cross-validation across two samples of college students. These measures provide targets for intervention and prevention efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja A Waldron
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA; Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA.
| | - Kimberly A Mallett
- Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA
| | - Robert J Turrisi
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA; Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA
| | - Racheal Reavy
- Edna Bennett Pierce Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA
| | - Erin Wolfe
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA
| | - Alexa Plisiewicz
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA
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5
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Newcombe D, Knaebe B, Malloy R, Peacock A, Bruno R. Mixing alcohol and energy drinks: associations with risk-taking, alcohol consumption and motivations in a New Zealand sample. JOURNAL OF SUBSTANCE USE 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/14659891.2019.1666311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David Newcombe
- Centre for Addiction Research and School of Population Health, Faculty of Health and Medical Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Brenna Knaebe
- Centre for Addiction Research and School of Population Health, Faculty of Health and Medical Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Reuben Malloy
- Centre for Addiction Research and School of Population Health, Faculty of Health and Medical Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Amy Peacock
- School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
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Crane CA, Schlauch RC, Miller KE. Caffeinated Alcoholic Beverages and Intimate Partner Violence Victimization. J Caffeine Adenosine Res 2019; 9:60-63. [PMID: 31297491 PMCID: PMC6602101 DOI: 10.1089/caff.2018.0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Caffeinated alcoholic beverage (CAB) use is associated with general victimization beyond the use of alcohol alone. Materials and Methods: No prior research has evaluated the association between CAB use and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization. This study evaluated the CAB-IPV victimization relationship using the responses of 100 (40 female) respondents to an online survey. Results: Results of logistic regression analyses indicated that CAB use was associated with IPV physical and sexual victimization after adjusting for demographics and heavy alcohol use. Exploratory analyses detected little evidence of sex differences in the strength of the relationship between CAB use and IPV victimization. Conclusions: The current results provide initial evidence that CAB use may place males and females at greater risk of IPV victimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cory A. Crane
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York
- Behavioral Health, Canandaigua Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Canandaigua, New York
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7
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Choi J. Influence of Psychosocial Factors on Energy Drink Consumption in Korean Nursing Students: Never-consumers versus Ever-consumers. CHILD HEALTH NURSING RESEARCH 2019; 25:48-55. [PMID: 35004397 PMCID: PMC8650900 DOI: 10.4094/chnr.2019.25.1.48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose This study aimed to investigate the status of caffeine-containing energy drink consumption among Korean nursing students and to identify associated psychological factors. Methods In total, 187 Korean nursing students participated in this cross-sectional study. A self-administered questionnaire was used to identify participants' general characteristics and psychosocial factors (self-esteem, academic stress, depression, and college adjustment) associated with energy drink consumption. Data were analyzed with SPSS using descriptive statistics, the x2 test, the t-test, and logistic regression. Results More than two-thirds (73.3%) of the participants had consumed energy drinks. Among the investigated psychological factors, depression appeared to most strongly influence energy drink consumption behaviors in this population. Conclusion The consumption of caffeine-containing energy drinks was found to be common among nursing students preparing to become health care professionals; depressed nursing students were more likely to have consumed energy drinks than non-depressed students. Nursing educators should emphasize the early detection of unhealthy beverage consumption habits and provide appropriate education to enhance healthy behaviors in future health care professionals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihea Choi
- Assistant Professor, Department of Nursing, Yonsei University Wonju College of Medicine, Wonju, Korea
- Corresponding author Jihea Choi Department of Nursing, Yonsei University Wonju College of Medicine, 20 Ilsan-ro, Wonju 26426, Korea TEL +82-33-741-0379 FAX +82-33-743-9490 E-MAIL
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8
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Attipoe S, Delahanty L, Stephens M, Deuster PA. Energy Beverage Use Among U.S. Service Members. Mil Med 2018; 183:e554-e561. [DOI: 10.1093/milmed/usy169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Revised: 05/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Selasi Attipoe
- Naval Medical Center Portsmouth, 620 John Paul Jones Cir, Portsmouth, VA
| | - Liam Delahanty
- Naval Medical Center Portsmouth, 620 John Paul Jones Cir, Portsmouth, VA
| | - Mark Stephens
- Department of Military and Emergency Medicine, Uniformed Services University, 4301 Jones Bridge Rd, Bethesda, MD
| | - Patricia A Deuster
- Department of Military and Emergency Medicine, Uniformed Services University, 4301 Jones Bridge Rd, Bethesda, MD
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9
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Verster JC, Benson S, Johnson SJ, Alford C, Godefroy SB, Scholey A. Alcohol mixed with energy drink (AMED): A critical review and meta-analysis. Hum Psychopharmacol 2018; 33:e2650. [PMID: 29417616 PMCID: PMC5901036 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to critically review the (1) prevalence of alcohol mixed with energy drink (AMED) consumption, (2) motives for AMED consumption, (3) correlates of AMED consumption, and (4) whether AMED consumption has an impact on (a) alcohol consumption, (b) subjective intoxication, and (c) risk-taking behavior. Overall a minority of the population consumes AMED, typically infrequently. Motives for AMED consumption are predominantly hedonistic and social. Meta-analyses revealed that AMED consumers drink significantly more alcohol than alcohol-only (AO) consumers. Within-subject comparisons restricted to AMED consumers revealed that alcohol consumption does not significantly differ between typical AMED and AO occasions. On past month heaviest drinking occasions, AMED users consume significantly less alcohol on AMED occasions when compared to AO occasions. AMED consumers experience significantly fewer negative consequences and risk-taking behavior on AMED occasions compared with AO occasions. Meta-analyses of subjective intoxication studies suggest that AMED consumption does not differentially affect subjective intoxication when compared to AO consumption. In conclusion, when compared to AO consumption, mixing alcohol with energy drink does not affect subjective intoxication and seems unlikely to increase total alcohol consumption, associated risk-taking behavior, nor other negative alcohol-related consequences. Further research may be necessary to fully reveal the effects of AMED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joris C. Verster
- Division of PharmacologyUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
- Institute for Risk Assessment SciencesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
- Centre for Human PsychopharmacologySwinburne UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Sarah Benson
- Centre for Human PsychopharmacologySwinburne UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Sean J. Johnson
- Psychological Sciences Research GroupUniversity of the West of EnglandBristolUK
- Centre for Research in BiosciencesUniversity of the West of EnglandBristolUK
| | - Chris Alford
- Psychological Sciences Research GroupUniversity of the West of EnglandBristolUK
- Centre for Research in BiosciencesUniversity of the West of EnglandBristolUK
| | - Samuel Benrejeb Godefroy
- Department of Food Sciences, Food Risk Analysis and Regulatory Excellence Platform (FRAREP)Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods (INAF), Université LavalQuebec CityQCCanada
- Institute for Global Food SecurityQueen's UniversityBelfastUK
| | - Andrew Scholey
- Centre for Human PsychopharmacologySwinburne UniversityMelbourneAustralia
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10
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Visram S, Crossley SJ, Cheetham M, Lake A. Children and young people's perceptions of energy drinks: A qualitative study. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0188668. [PMID: 29190753 PMCID: PMC5708842 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Consumption of soft drinks is declining in many countries, yet energy drink sales continue to increase, particularly amongst young consumers. Little is currently known about the drivers behind these trends. Energy drinks are high in sugar and caffeine, and evidence indicates that regular or heavy use by under 18s is likely to be detrimental to health. This study aimed to explore children and young people's attitudes and perceptions in relation to energy drinks in a UK context. METHODS Eight focus groups were conducted with pupils aged 10-11 years (n = 20) and 13-14 years (n = 17) from four schools in northern England. A sub-sample also took part in a mapping exercise to generate further insights. Data were analysed using the constant comparative approach. RESULTS Energy drinks were reportedly consumed in a variety of public and private places, generally linked to social activities, sports and computer gaming (particularly amongst boys). Participants demonstrated strong brand awareness and preferences that were linked to taste and perceived value for money. The relatively low price of energy drinks and their widespread availability were identified as key factors, along with gendered branding and marketing. Some participants demonstrated a critical approach to manufacturers' claims and many were keen to become better informed, often through school- or peer-based interventions. Other potential interventions included age restrictions, voluntary schemes involving retailers and improved labelling. CONCLUSIONS The lack of a single dominant factor in participants' consumption choices suggests that there is unlikely to be a 'silver bullet' in attempting to address this issue. However, the findings provide support for policy-level interventions that seek to change the behaviours of manufacturers and retailers as well as consumers, and actively involve children and young people where possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelina Visram
- School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health, Durham University Queen’s Campus, Stockton-on-Tees, United Kingdom
- Fuse (UKCRC Centre for Translational Research in Public Health), Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen J. Crossley
- School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health, Durham University Queen’s Campus, Stockton-on-Tees, United Kingdom
| | - Mandy Cheetham
- Fuse (UKCRC Centre for Translational Research in Public Health), Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom
- School of Health and Social Care, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
| | - Amelia Lake
- School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health, Durham University Queen’s Campus, Stockton-on-Tees, United Kingdom
- Fuse (UKCRC Centre for Translational Research in Public Health), Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom
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11
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Marczinski CA, Fillmore MT, Stamates AL, Maloney SF. Alcohol-Induced Impairment of Balance is Antagonized by Energy Drinks. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2017; 42:144-152. [PMID: 29112285 DOI: 10.1111/acer.13521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The acute administration of alcohol reliably impairs balance and motor coordination. While it is common for consumers to ingest alcohol with other stimulant drugs (e.g., caffeine, nicotine), little is known whether prototypical alcohol-induced balance impairments are altered by stimulant drugs. The purpose of this study was to examine whether the coadministration of a high-caffeine energy drink with alcohol can antagonize expected alcohol-induced increases in body sway. METHODS Sixteen social drinkers (of equal gender) participated in 4 separate double-blind dose administration sessions that involved consumption of alcohol and energy drinks, alone and in combination. Following dose administration, participants completed automated assessments of balance stability (both eyes open and eyes closed) measured using the Biosway Portable Balance System. Participants completed several subjective measures including self-reported ratings of sedation, stimulation, fatigue, and impairment. Blood pressure and pulse rate were recorded repeatedly. RESULTS The acute administration of alcohol increased body sway, and the coadministration of energy drinks antagonized this impairment. When participants closed their eyes, alcohol-induced body sway was similar whether or not energy drinks were ingested. While alcohol administration increased ratings of sedation and fatigue, energy drink administration increased ratings of stimulation and reduced ratings of fatigue. Modest increases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure following energy drink administration were also observed. CONCLUSIONS Visual assessment of balance impairment is frequently used to indicate that an individual has consumed too much alcohol (e.g., as part of police-standardized field sobriety testing or by a bartender assessing when someone should no longer be served more alcohol). The current findings suggest that energy drinks can antagonize alcohol-induced increases in body sway, indicating that future work is needed to determine whether this observation regarding neuromotor functioning applies to alcohol in combination with all types of stimulant drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecile A Marczinski
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, Kentucky
| | - Mark T Fillmore
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Amy L Stamates
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, Kentucky
| | - Sarah F Maloney
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, Kentucky
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Scalese M, Denoth F, Siciliano V, Bastiani L, Cotichini R, Cutilli A, Molinaro S. Energy Drink and Alcohol mixed Energy Drink use among high school adolescents: Association with risk taking behavior, social characteristics. Addict Behav 2017; 72:93-99. [PMID: 28388494 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Revised: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aims of the study were to: a) examine the prevalence of energy drink (ED) and alcohol mixed with energy drink (AmED) consumption; b) investigate the relationships between ED and AmED with alcohol, binge drinking and drugs accounting for at risk behaviors among a representative sample of Italian adolescents. METHODS A representative sample of 30,588 Italian high school students, aged 15-19years, was studied. Binary and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to determine the independent association of the potential predictors' characteristics with the ED and AmED drinking during the last year. RESULTS Respectively 41.4% and 23.2% of respondents reported drinking EDs and AmEDs in the last year. Multivariate analysis revealed that consumption of EDs and AmEDs during the last year were significantly associated with daily smoking, binge drinking, use of cannabis and other psychotropic drugs. Among life habits and risky behaviors the following were positively associated: going out with friends for fun, participating in sports, experiencing physical fights/accidents or injury, engaging in sexual intercourse without protection and being involved in accidents while driving. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates the popularity of ED and AmED consumption among the Italian school population aged 15-19years old: 4 out of 10 students consumed EDs in the last year and 2 out of 10 AmED. Multivariate analysis highlighted the association with illicit drug consumption and harming behaviors, confirming that consumption of EDs and AmEDs is a compelling issue especially during adolescence, as it can effect health as well as risk taking behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Scalese
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Council of Research, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, PI, Italy
| | - Francesca Denoth
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Council of Research, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, PI, Italy
| | - Valeria Siciliano
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Council of Research, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, PI, Italy
| | - Luca Bastiani
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Council of Research, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, PI, Italy
| | - Rodolfo Cotichini
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Council of Research, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, PI, Italy
| | - Arianna Cutilli
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Council of Research, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, PI, Italy
| | - Sabrina Molinaro
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Council of Research, Via Moruzzi 1, 56124 Pisa, PI, Italy.
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13
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Droste N, Peacock A, Bruno R, Pennay A, Zinkiewicz L, Lubman DI, Miller P. Combined use of alcohol and energy drinks: Dose relationship with self-reported physiological stimulation and sedation side effects. Addict Behav 2017; 71:68-74. [PMID: 28273488 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/25/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Negative physiological stimulation and sedation side effects are experienced by a significant proportion of consumers who consume alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmED). Few studies have compared the frequency of side effects between sessions of AmED and sessions of alcohol only within-subject, and none have explored a dose relationship. OBJECTIVES Explore the occurrence of self-reported physiological stimulant and sedative side effects between sessions of AmED and alcohol only, and at varying ED dosage levels within AmED sessions. METHODS A convenience sample of 2953 residents of New South Wales, Australia completed an online survey. N=731 AmED users reported daily caffeine intake, typical alcohol and AmED consumption, and past 12-month experience of physiological stimulation and sedation side effects during AmED and alcohol only sessions. Within-subject analyses compared occurrence of side effects between session types. Hierarchical binary logistic regression analyses explored the association of ED dose during AmED sessions with the experience of physiological side effects. RESULTS There were greater odds of most stimulant side effects, and lower odds of sedation side effects, during AmED sessions compared to alcohol only sessions. Compared to one ED, consumption of three or more EDs was significantly associated with the majority of both stimulant and alcohol intoxication side effects after controlling for demographics and consumption covariates. CONCLUSIONS AmED is associated with perceived changes in physiological stimulant and sedation side effects of alcohol. Experience of side effects is positively associated with ED dosage. Future research should account for varying ED dosage, and reflect real world consumption levels.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Energy drink consumption, with or without concurrent alcohol use, is common among young adults. This study sought to clarify risk for negative alcohol outcomes related to the timing of energy drink use. METHODS The authors interviewed a community sample of 481 young adults, aged 18-25, who drank alcohol in the last month. Past-30-day energy drink use was operationalized as no-use, use without concurrent alcohol, and concurrent use of energy drinks with alcohol ("within a couple of hours"). Negative alcohol outcomes included past-30-day binge drinking, past-30-day alcohol use disorder, and drinking-related consequences. RESULTS Just over half (50.5%) reported no use of energy drinks,18.3% reported using energy drinks without concurrent alcohol use, and 31.2% reported concurrent use of energy drinks and alcohol. Relative to those who reported concurrent use of energy drinks with alcohol, and controlling for background characteristics and frequency of alcohol consumption, those who didn't use energy drinks and those who used without concurrent alcohol use had significantly lower binge drinking, negative consequences, and rates of alcohol use disorder (P < .05 for all outcomes). There were no significant differences between the no-use and energy drink without concurrent alcohol groups on any alcohol-related measure (P > .10 for all outcomes). CONCLUSIONS Concurrent energy drink and alcohol use is associated with increased risk for negative alcohol consequences in young adults. Clinicians providing care to young adults could consider asking patients about concurrent energy drink and alcohol use as a way to begin a conversation about risky alcohol consumption while addressing 2 substances commonly used by this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celeste M Caviness
- a General Medicine Research Unit, Butler Hospital , Providence , Rhode Island , USA
| | - Bradley J Anderson
- a General Medicine Research Unit, Butler Hospital , Providence , Rhode Island , USA
| | - Michael D Stein
- a General Medicine Research Unit, Butler Hospital , Providence , Rhode Island , USA.,b Boston University School of Public Health, Medical Campus , Department of Health, Law, Policy and Management , Boston , Massachusetts , US
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Linden-Carmichael AN, Lau-Barraco C. A daily diary examination of caffeine mixed with alcohol among college students. Health Psychol 2017; 36:881-889. [PMID: 28530429 DOI: 10.1037/hea0000506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Caffeinated alcoholic beverage (CAB) use is associated with a range of substance-related problems. The majority of prior research on CABs is based on cross-sectional and retrospective reports, which do not account for intraindividual differences in use and may be subject to recall biases. The current research used a daily diary, within-subjects design to compare days where individuals simultaneously mixed alcohol with caffeine (CAB days) and days where individuals drank other types of alcohol (non-CAB days) on alcohol use outcomes. These relationships were tested further by examining the impact of the type of mixer (i.e., energy drink or cola-caffeinated). METHOD Participants were 122 (73.8% women) heavy drinking, college student CAB users. Mean age was 20.39 (SD = 2.08) years. Students completed a baseline questionnaire and up to 14 consecutive daily surveys about the previous night's drinking behavior. RESULTS Multilevel modeling results indicated that CAB days were associated with heavier alcohol use, regardless of mixer type. In addition, beyond amount of alcohol consumed the previous night and trait impulsivity, CAB days were linked with more alcohol-related problems, but only when the mixer was an energy drink. CAB days did not differ from non-CAB days on driving or sex after drinking. CONCLUSIONS This study was the first to demonstrate the unique risks posed by simultaneously consuming caffeine and alcohol in a within-subjects, daily diary design. Future research investigating use patterns may benefit from the use of fine-grained approaches in order to provide information relevant for CAB prevention and intervention efforts. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Hyder S, Coomber K, Pennay A, Droste N, Curtis A, Mayshak R, Lam T, Gilmore W, Chikritzhs T, Miller PG. Correlates of verbal and physical aggression among patrons of licensed venues in Australia. Drug Alcohol Rev 2017; 37:6-13. [PMID: 28440068 DOI: 10.1111/dar.12552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AND AIMS The current study aimed to examine the association between patron demographics and substance use, and experiences of verbal and physical aggressive incidents within the last 3 months among patrons of night-time entertainment precincts (NEP) in Australia. DESIGN AND METHODS Patron interviews (n = 4216) were conducted around licensed venues in the NEPs of five Australian cities. Seven correlates of verbal and physical aggressive incidents were examined: gender, age, occupation, blood alcohol concentration, pre-drinking, energy drink use and illicit drug use in the current session. RESULTS A total of 7.5% and 8.2% of respondents reported involvement in a verbally and physically aggressive incident in the past 3 months, respectively. Multivariate logistic regression models indicated men and people <25 years old were significantly more likely to report both verbal and physical aggressive incidents. A significant occupation effect showed lower levels of both verbal and physical aggression in managers/professionals compared with non-office workers. The likelihood of being involved in a verbally aggressive incident significantly increased with energy drink consumption, while the likelihood of being involved in a physically aggressive incident significantly increased with blood alcohol concentration, energy drink consumption and illicit drug use. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS This study highlights the different correlates of verbal and physical aggression within NEPs, suggesting they should be viewed as distinct types of violence, rather than points on a continuum. Major modifiable correlates with verbal and physical aggression included intoxication, energy drink consumption, and illicit drug use, suggesting the need for further interventions and policy development to address these key issues. [Hyder S, Coomber K, Pennay A, Droste N, Curtis A, Mayshak R, Lam T, Gilmore W, Chikritzhs T, Miller PG. Correlates of verbal and physical aggression among patrons of licensed venues in Australia. Drug Alcohol Rev 2018;37:6-13].
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon Hyder
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Kerri Coomber
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Amy Pennay
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia.,Centre for Alcohol Policy Research, Department of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Nicolas Droste
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Ashlee Curtis
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Richelle Mayshak
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Tina Lam
- National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - William Gilmore
- National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - Tanya Chikritzhs
- National Drug Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - Peter G Miller
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
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17
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Arria AM, Caldeira KM, Bugbee BA, Vincent KB, O'Grady KE. Energy Drink Use Patterns Among Young Adults: Associations with Drunk Driving. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2016; 40:2456-2466. [PMID: 27676240 PMCID: PMC5074694 DOI: 10.1111/acer.13229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Highly caffeinated "energy drinks" (ED) are commonly consumed and sometimes mixed with alcohol. Associations between ED consumption, risk-taking, and alcohol-related problems have been observed. This study examines the relationship between ED consumption-both with and without alcohol-and drunk driving. METHODS Data were derived from a longitudinal study of college students assessed annually via personal interviews. In Year 6 (modal age 23; n = 1,000), participants self-reported their past-year frequency of drunk driving, ED consumption patterns (frequency of drinking alcohol mixed with energy drinks [AmED] and drinking energy drinks without alcohol [ED]), alcohol use (frequency, quantity), and other caffeine consumption. Earlier assessments captured suspected risk factors for drunk driving. Structural equation modeling was used to develop an explanatory model for the association between ED consumption patterns and drunk driving frequency while accounting for other suspected risk factors. RESULTS More than half (57%) consumed ED at least once during the past year. Among ED consumers, 71% drank AmED and 85% drank ED alone; many (56%) engaged in both styles of ED consumption while others specialized in one or the other (29% drank ED alone exclusively, while, 15% drank AmED exclusively). After accounting for other risk factors, ED consumption was associated with drunk driving frequency in 2 ways. First, a direct path existed from ED frequency (without alcohol) to drunk driving frequency. Second, an indirect path existed from AmED frequency through alcohol quantity to drunk driving frequency. CONCLUSIONS Among this sample, ED consumption with and without alcohol was common, and both styles of ED consumption contributed independently to drunk driving frequency. Results call for increased attention to the impact of different patterns of ED consumption on alcohol-related consequences, such as drunk driving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelia M Arria
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, Maryland.
| | - Kimberly M Caldeira
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, Maryland
| | - Brittany A Bugbee
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, Maryland
| | - Kathryn B Vincent
- Center on Young Adult Health and Development, Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of Maryland School of Public Health, College Park, Maryland
| | - Kevin E O'Grady
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
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18
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Tucker JS, Troxel WM, Ewing BA, D'Amico EJ. Alcohol mixed with energy drinks: Associations with risky drinking and functioning in high school. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 167:36-41. [PMID: 27522534 PMCID: PMC5037025 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Revised: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/16/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mixing alcohol with energy drinks is associated with heavier drinking and related problems among college students. However, little is known about how high school drinkers who mix alcohol with energy drinks (AmED) compare to those who do not (AwoED). This study compares high school AmED and AwoED users on their alcohol use during middle and high school, as well as key domains of functioning in high school. METHODS Two surveys were conducted three years apart in adolescents initially recruited from 16 middle schools in Southern California. The analytic sample consists of 696 past month drinkers. Multivariable models compared AmED and AwoED users on alcohol use, mental health, social functioning, academic orientation, delinquency and other substance use at age 17, and on their alcohol use and related cognitions at age 14. RESULTS AmED was reported by 13% of past month drinkers. AmED and AwoED users did not differ on alcohol use or cognitions in middle school, but AmED users drank more often, more heavily, and reported more negative consequences in high school. AmED users were also more likely to report poor grades, delinquent behavior, substance use-related unsafe driving, public intoxication, and drug use than AwoED users in high school. Group differences were not found on mental health, social functioning, or academic aspirations. CONCLUSIONS AmED use is common among high school drinkers. The higher risk behavioral profile of these young AmED users, which includes drug use and substance use-related unsafe driving, is a significant cause for concern and warrants further attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan S Tucker
- RAND Corporation, 1776 Main Street, Santa Monica, CA 90407-2138, USA.
| | - Wendy M Troxel
- RAND Corporation, 4570 Fifth Avenue, Suite 600, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-2665, USA
| | - Brett A Ewing
- RAND Corporation, 1776 Main Street, Santa Monica, CA 90407-2138, USA
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19
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Peacock A, Droste N, Bruno R. Prime Time for In Situ Measurement: What Are the Drivers and Implications of Energy Drink Co-Ingestion on Alcohol Priming? Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2016; 40:2073-2075. [PMID: 27534379 DOI: 10.1111/acer.13179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amy Peacock
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. .,School of Medicine (Psychology), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.
| | - Nicolas Droste
- School of Psychology, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Medicine (Psychology), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
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20
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Droste N, Miller P, Pennay A, Zinkiewicz L, Lubman DI. Environmental contexts of combined alcohol and energy drink use: Associations with intoxication in licensed venues. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2016; 36:58-66. [PMID: 27497238 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Revised: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Environmental factors inside licensed venues have been found to influence the intoxication levels and consumption practices of patrons. The consumption of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmED) occurs primarily at or prior to attending licensed venues, however there is a lack of in situ research investigating AmED use in these contexts. Given that AmED use has been linked with increased alcohol consumption, intoxication, illicit substance use, and risk taking behaviours, this paper explores the environmental correlates and levels of intoxication associated with AmED use in licensed venues. METHODS Structured observations were undertaken in five Australian cities on Friday and Saturday nights. Covert teams spent 4-5h in venues and recorded hourly observations on patron, venue, and staff characteristics, alcohol, illicit drug and AmED consumption patterns and intoxication levels. RESULTS 898 hourly observations were recorded across 68 venues. All but one venue served energy drinks, and patron AmED use was observed during 34.9% of hourly records. AmED use was more prevalent after 12am and in nightclub venues compared to bars and pubs, and was positively associated with high intoxication levels, illicit drug use, and younger crowds. After controlling for environmental factors (i.e. venue crowding, service practices, venue characteristics, patron demographics and behaviour) AmED use did not predict high intoxication at a venue level in multivariable models. CONCLUSION AmED consumption is ubiquitous in the licensed venues of Australian night-time entertainment districts, particularly busy nightclub venues where intoxication and risky consumption are heightened. However, AmED use was not associated with high patron intoxication when environmental factors were considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Droste
- School of Psychology, Deakin University, Level 3, 27 Brougham St, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Peter Miller
- School of Psychology, Deakin University, Level 3, 27 Brougham St, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Amy Pennay
- Centre for Alcohol Policy Research, La Trobe University, 215 Franklin Street, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Lucy Zinkiewicz
- School of Psychology, Deakin University, Level 3, 27 Brougham St, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dan I Lubman
- Turning Point, Eastern Health, 54-62 Gertrude St, Fitzroy, Victoria 3065, Australia; Eastern Health Clinical School, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
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21
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Marczinski CA, Fillmore MT, Stamates AL, Maloney SF. Desire to Drink Alcohol is Enhanced with High Caffeine Energy Drink Mixers. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2016; 40:1982-90. [PMID: 27419377 DOI: 10.1111/acer.13152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Consumption of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmED) has been associated with a variety of risks beyond that observed with alcohol alone. Consumers of AmED beverages are more likely to engage in heavy episodic (binge) drinking. This study was to investigate whether the consumption of high caffeine energy drink mixers with alcohol would increase the desire to drink alcohol compared to the same amount of alcohol alone using a double-blind, within-subjects, placebo-controlled study design. METHODS Participants (n = 26) of equal gender who were social drinkers attended 6 double-blind dose administration sessions that involved consumption of alcohol and energy drinks, alone and in combination. On each test day, participants received 1 of 6 possible doses: (i) 1.21 ml/kg vodka + 3.63 ml/kg decaffeinated soft drink, (ii) 1.21 ml/kg vodka + 3.63 ml/kg energy drink, (iii) 1.21 ml/kg vodka + 6.05 ml/kg energy drink, (iv) 3.63 ml/kg decaffeinated soft drink, (v) 3.63 ml/kg energy drink, and (vi) 6.05 ml/kg energy drink. Following dose administration, participants repeatedly completed self-reported ratings on the Desire-for-Drug questionnaire and provided breath alcohol readings. RESULTS Alcohol alone increased the subjective ratings of "desire for more alcohol" compared to placebo doses. Energy drink mixers with the alcohol increased desire for more alcohol ratings beyond that observed with alcohol alone. CONCLUSIONS This study provides laboratory evidence that AmED beverages lead to greater desire to drink alcohol versus the same amount of alcohol consumed alone. The findings are consistent with results from animal studies indicating that caffeine increases the rewarding and reinforcing properties of alcohol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecile A Marczinski
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, Kentucky
| | - Mark T Fillmore
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Amy L Stamates
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, Kentucky
| | - Sarah F Maloney
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, Kentucky
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22
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Sheehan BE, Linden-Carmichael AN, Lau-Barraco C. Caffeinated and non-caffeinated alcohol use and indirect aggression: The impact of self-regulation. Addict Behav 2016; 58:53-9. [PMID: 26905765 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Research shows that heavier alcohol use is associated with physical aggression. Scant research has examined the way in which alcohol relates to other forms of aggression, such as indirect aggression (e.g., malicious humor, social exclusion). Given the possible negative consequences of indirect aggression and the limited evidence suggesting alcohol use can elicit indirectly aggressive responses, research is needed to further investigate the association between drinking behavior and indirect aggression. Additionally, specific alcoholic beverages, such as caffeinated alcoholic beverages (CABs; e.g., Red Bull and vodka), may potentiate aggression above the influence of typical use, and thus warrant examination with regard to indirect aggression. One factor that may impact the strength of the alcohol-indirect aggression and CAB-indirect aggression relationships is one's level of self-regulation. Consequently, our study examined the relationships between (1) alcohol use and indirect aggression, (2) CAB use and indirect aggression, and (3) self-regulation as a moderator. Participants were 733 (67.6% female) undergraduate students who reported their CAB and alcohol use, self-regulation, and aggressive behaviors. Results revealed that heavier alcohol use was associated with more frequent indirect aggression after controlling for dispositional aggression. Heavier CAB use was related to more frequent indirect aggression after accounting for typical use and dispositional aggression. Self-regulation moderated these associations such that for those with lower self-regulation, greater alcohol and CAB consumption was associated with greater indirect aggression. Our findings suggest that heavier alcohol and CAB consumption may be risk factors for engaging in indirect aggression and this risk is impacted by one's regulatory control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brynn E Sheehan
- Old Dominion University, Mills Godwin Building, Norfolk, VA 23529-0267, USA.
| | | | - Cathy Lau-Barraco
- Old Dominion University, Mills Godwin Building, Norfolk, VA 23529-0267, USA; Virginia Consortium Program in Clinical Psychology, 700 Park Avenue/MCAR-410, Norfolk, VA 23504, USA.
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23
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Rossheim ME, Thombs DL, Weiler RM, Barry AE, Suzuki S, Walters ST, Barnett TE, Paxton RJ, Pealer LN, Cannell B. Alcohol mixed with energy drink: Use may be a consequence of heavy drinking. Addict Behav 2016; 57:55-61. [PMID: 26890245 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Revised: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
AIMS In recent years, studies have indicated that consumers of alcohol mixed with energy drink (AmED) are more likely to drink heavily and experience more negative consequences than consumers who avoid these beverages. Although researchers have identified a number of plausible hypotheses that explain how alcohol-energy drink co-ingestion could cause greater alcohol consumption, there has been no postulation about reverse causal relations. This paper identifies several plausible hypotheses for the observed associations between AmED consumption and greater alcohol consumption, and provides initial evidence for one such hypothesis suggesting that heavy drinking may be a determinant of AmED use. METHOD Data collected from 511bar patrons were used to examine the plausibility of one of the proposed hypotheses, i.e., AmED is an artifact of heavy drinking. Associations between the consumption of an assortment of alcoholic beverage types and total alcohol consumption were examined at the event-level, to assess whether AmED is uniquely related with greater alcohol consumption. RESULTS Increased alcohol consumption was associated with greater odds of consuming most alcoholic beverage types; this association was not unique to AmED. CONCLUSIONS Results support the overlooked hypothesis that AmED use is an artifact of heavy drinking. Thus, AmED consumption may be a consequence or marker of heavier drinking. Much of the existing research on alcoholic beverage types is limited in its ability to implicate any specific type of drink, including AmED, as a cause of increased alcohol consumption and related harm. More rigorous study designs are needed to examine causal relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew E Rossheim
- Department of Global and Community Health, George Mason University, VA, United States.
| | - Dennis L Thombs
- Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | - Robert M Weiler
- Department of Global and Community Health, George Mason University, VA, United States
| | - Adam E Barry
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Sumihiro Suzuki
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | - Scott T Walters
- Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | - Tracey E Barnett
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Raheem J Paxton
- Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | - Lisa N Pealer
- Department of Behavioral and Community Health, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | - Brad Cannell
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, United States
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24
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Factors influencing young people's use of alcohol mixed with energy drinks. Appetite 2016; 96:408-415. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.09.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Motives for mixing alcohol with energy drinks and other non-alcoholic beverages and its effects on overall alcohol consumption among UK students. Appetite 2015; 96:588-597. [PMID: 26463015 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A UK student survey examined the motivations for consuming energy drinks alone and mixed with alcohol, and aimed to determine whether the type of motive had a differential effect on overall alcohol consumption. METHODS The online survey (N = 1873) assessed alcohol consumption and motivations for consumption when mixed with energy drinks (AMED) and mixed with other non-alcoholic beverages (AMOB) using a within-subject design. RESULTS The most frequent neutral motives reported for AMED consumption included "I like the taste" (66.5%), and "to celebrate a special occasion" (35.2%). 52.6% of AMED consumers reported consuming AMED for at least one of five negative motives, primarily "to get drunk" (45.6%). Despite these negative motives those students reported consuming significantly less alcohol and fewer negative alcohol-related consequences on AMED occasions compared to alcohol-only (AO) occasions. Although the motives for consuming AMED and AMOB were comparable, more participants reported consuming AMED "to celebrate a special occasion", "to get drunk", because they "received the drink from someone else" or "because others drink it as well". However, significantly more students reported consuming AMOB than AMED because "It feels like I can drink more alcohol". Alcohol consumption was significantly less on AMED occasions compared to AMOB occasions, and both occasions significantly less than AO occasions. CONCLUSION The majority of reasons for consuming AMED relate to neutral motives. Although 52.6% of students reported one or more negative motives for AMED consumption (predominantly "to get drunk") this had no differential effect on total alcohol consumption. The differences in motives suggest AMED is consumed more to enjoy special occasions and as a group-bonding experience, however alcohol consumption is significantly lower on such occasions in comparison to when AMOB or AO are consumed.
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Peacock A, Sindicich N, Dunn M, Whittaker E, Sutherland R, Entwistle G, Burns L, Bruno R. Co-ingestion of energy drinks with alcohol and other substances among a sample of people who regularly use ecstasy. Drug Alcohol Rev 2015; 35:352-8. [PMID: 26424666 DOI: 10.1111/dar.12343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AND AIMS Despite the potential harms of mixing unregulated drugs with energy drinks (ED), research to date has primarily been focused on EDs co-ingested with alcohol. Consequently, the aim of the present study was to explore the rate of use, harms and correlates of EDs co-ingested with alcohol and other drugs among a sample of people who regularly use illicit stimulant drugs. DESIGN AND METHODS In 2010, 693 Australians who regularly used ecstasy completed a 1-h interview about their past six-month ED and drug use. RESULTS Three-quarters of the sample (77%) had recently consumed EDs with other substances, primarily alcohol (70%) and ecstasy (57%). People who consumed ED with alcohol versus those who had consumed ED with ecstasy and with alcohol (only 8% reported only consuming ED with ecstasy) had similar profiles in regards to demographics, drug use, mental health and drug-related problems. Primary motives for consuming ED with alcohol included increased alertness (59%), the taste (25%), to party for longer (23%) and to combat fatigue (16%). One-half (52%) and one-quarter (27%) of participants who consumed EDs with alcohol and with ecstasy respectively had recently experienced adverse outcomes post-consumption, primarily headaches (24% and 11%) and heart palpitations (21% and 14%). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Co-ingestion of EDs with licit and illicit drugs is common among people who regularly use ecstasy and related drugs. Adverse outcomes of co-ingestion suggest that targeted education regarding negative interactive drug effects is crucial for harm reduction. [Peacock A, Sindicich N, Dunn M, Whittaker E, Sutherland R, Entwistle G, Burns L, Bruno R. Co-Ingestion of Energy Drinks with Alcohol and Other Substances among a Sample of People Who Regularly Use Ecstasy. Drug Alcohol Rev 2016;35:352-358].
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Peacock
- School of Medicine (Psychology), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - Natasha Sindicich
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Matthew Dunn
- School of Health and Social Development, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Elizabeth Whittaker
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Rachel Sutherland
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Gavin Entwistle
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Lucinda Burns
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- School of Medicine (Psychology), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
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27
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Pennay A, Cheetham A, Droste N, Miller P, Lloyd B, Pennay D, Dowling N, Jackson A, Lubman DI. An Examination of the Prevalence, Consumer Profiles, and Patterns of Energy Drink Use, With and Without Alcohol, in Australia. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2015; 39:1485-92. [PMID: 26061635 DOI: 10.1111/acer.12764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There has been a significant growth in the energy drink (ED) market in Australia and around the world; however, most research investigating the popularity of ED and alcohol and energy drink (AED) use has focused on specific subpopulations such as university students. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence, consumption patterns, and sociodemographic correlates of ED and combined AED use among a representative Australian population sample. METHODS A computer-assisted telephone interview survey (n = 2,000) was undertaken in March-April 2013 of persons aged 18 years and over. Half of the interviews were obtained through randomly generated landline telephone numbers and half through mobile phones. Approximately half of the sample was female (55.5%; n = 1,110) and the mean age of participants was 45.9 (range 18 to 95, SD 20.0). RESULTS Less than 1 in 6 Australians reported ED use (13.4%, n = 268) and 4.6% (n = 91) reported AED use in the past 3 months. Majority of ED and AED users consumed these beverages monthly or less. ED and AED users are more likely to be aged 18 to 24 years, live in a metropolitan area, and be moderate risk or problem gamblers. AED consumers are more likely to report moderate levels of psychological distress. CONCLUSIONS Our findings in relation to problem gambling and psychological distress are novel and require further targeted investigation. Health promotion strategies directed toward reducing ED and AED use should focus on young people living in metropolitan areas and potentially be disseminated through locations where gambling takes place.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Pennay
- Centre for Health Equity , University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Alcohol Policy Research , Turning Point, Eastern Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alison Cheetham
- Eastern Health Clinical School , Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Turning Point, Eastern Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Nic Droste
- Turning Point, Eastern Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- School of Psychology , Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Peter Miller
- Turning Point, Eastern Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- School of Psychology , Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Belinda Lloyd
- Eastern Health Clinical School , Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Turning Point, Eastern Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Darren Pennay
- Social Research Centre , Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- Australian National University , Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Nicki Dowling
- Turning Point, Eastern Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Social Research Centre , Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- Problem Gambling Research and Treatment Centre , University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alun Jackson
- Social Research Centre , Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- Problem Gambling Research and Treatment Centre , University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dan I Lubman
- Eastern Health Clinical School , Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Turning Point, Eastern Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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A comprehensive review of the effects of mixing caffeinated energy drinks with alcohol. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 151:15-30. [PMID: 25861944 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.01.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Revised: 01/23/2015] [Accepted: 01/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In response to concern about whether mixing caffeinated energy drinks with alcohol (AED) increases alcohol consumption and related harm, and the role of industry in this debate, we conducted a comprehensive review of the research evidence on the effects of AED and documented industry involvement in this research. METHOD A systematic review of 6 databases. Studies must have examined the effect of consuming alcohol with energy drinks (ED) or caffeine on alcohol-related outcomes. RESULTS 62 studies were identified; 29 were experiments, 9 had industry ties (8 with Red Bull GmbH). Young adults who consumed AED drank more alcohol and experienced more alcohol-related harm than other drinkers. There was insufficient evidence to conclude that AED led to increased alcohol consumption or altered the nature of alcohol-related harm. However, AED consumers reported that AED increased stimulation and alertness, offset fatigue from drinking, and facilitated drinking. Experimental research also found that combining ED or caffeine with alcohol increased stimulation and alertness, offset alcohol-related fatigue and increased the desire to keep drinking. It did not change BAC, perceived intoxication, perceived impairment and it did not reverse alcohol-induced impairment on simple psychomotor tasks. Combining ED/caffeine with alcohol reduced alcohol-induced impairment on some but not all aspects of complex tasks. Although few in number, studies with industry ties presented contrary evidence. CONCLUSION A growing body of evidence suggests that AED may facilitate drinking and related harms via its effects on intoxication but a causal link needs to be confirmed. The influence of industry involvement in this area of research needs to be monitored.
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Peacock A, Droste N, Pennay A, Miller P, Lubman DI, Bruno R. Typology of alcohol mixed with energy drink consumers: motivations for use. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2015; 39:1083-92. [PMID: 25988585 DOI: 10.1111/acer.12729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous research on alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmED) has shown that use is typically driven by hedonistic, social, functional, and intoxication-related motives, with differential associations with alcohol-related harm across these constructs. There has been no research looking at whether there are subgroups of consumers based on patterns of motivations. Consequently, the aims were to determine the typology of motivations for AmED use among a community sample and to identify correlates of subgroup membership. In addition, we aimed to determine whether this structure of motivations applied to a university student sample. METHODS Data were used from an Australian community sample (n = 731) and an Australian university student sample (n = 594) who were identified as AmED consumers when completing an online survey about their alcohol and ED use. Participants reported their level of agreement with 14 motivations for AmED use; latent classes of AmED consumers were identified based on patterns of motivation endorsement using latent class analysis. RESULTS A 4-class model was selected using data from the community sample: (i) taste consumers (31%): endorsed pleasurable taste; (ii) energy-seeking consumers (24%): endorsed functional and taste motives; (iii) hedonistic consumers (33%): endorse pleasure and sensation-seeking motives, as well as functional and taste motives; and (iv) intoxication-related consumers (12%): endorsed motives related to feeling in control of intoxication, as well as hedonistic, functional, and taste motives. The consumer subgroups typically did not differ on demographics, other drug use, alcohol and ED use, and AmED risk taking. The patterns of motivations for the 4-class model were similar for the university student sample. CONCLUSIONS This study indicated the existence of 4 subgroups of AmED consumers based on their patterns of motivations for AmED use consistently structured across the community and university student sample. These findings lend support to the growing conceptualization of AmED consumers as a heterogeneous group in regard to motivations for use, with a hierarchical and cumulative class order in regard to the number of types of motivation for AmED use. Prospective research may endeavor to link session-specific motives and outcomes, as it is apparent that primary consumption motives may be fluid between sessions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Peacock
- School of Medicine (Psychology), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Nicolas Droste
- School of Psychology, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Amy Pennay
- Turning Point, Eastern Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,School of Population and Global Health (Centre for Health Equity), University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Peter Miller
- School of Psychology, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dan I Lubman
- Turning Point, Eastern Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Eastern Health Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- School of Medicine (Psychology), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
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Marczinski CA. Combined alcohol and energy drink use: hedonistic motives, adenosine, and alcohol dependence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2015; 38:1822-5. [PMID: 25040590 DOI: 10.1111/acer.12493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Consumption of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmED) has been associated with both short- and long-term risks beyond those observed with alcohol alone. AmED use has been associated with heavy episodic (binge) drinking, risky behaviors, and risk of alcohol dependence. Laboratory research has demonstrated that AmED beverages lead to greater motivation to drink versus the same amount of alcohol consumed alone. However, the reason consumers find AmED beverages particularly appealing has been unclear. A recent report by Droste and colleagues (Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2014; 38:2087-2095) is the first study to investigate motivations related to AmED consumption and to determine which motives predict AmED consumption patterns, experience of drinking-related harms, and risk of alcohol dependence. The findings of this study significantly enhance our understanding of why AmED consumption is related to the risk of alcohol dependence and change our understanding of why consumers choose AmED beverages. The authors report that hedonistic motives strongly predicted AmED use and the harms associated with use. While intoxication-reduction motives predicted self-reported accidents and injuries, these motives did not predict AmED consumption patterns and risk of dependence. The risk of alcohol dependence may arise from repeated experiences when drinking alcohol is more pleasurable when energy drinks are consumed with the alcohol. This commentary will focus on why energy drinks might increase the rewarding properties of alcohol in social drinkers. In addition, discussion is provided explaining why more research on the neurotransmitter, adenosine, may actually inform us about the mechanisms contributing to the development of alcohol dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecile A Marczinski
- Department of Psychological Science (CAM), Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, Kentucky
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Peacock A, Droste N, Pennay A, Lubman DI, Miller P, Newcombe D, Bruno R. Self-reported risk-taking behavior during matched-frequency sessions of alcohol versus combined alcohol and energy drinks consumption: does co-ingestion increase risk-taking? Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2015; 39:911-8. [PMID: 25827344 DOI: 10.1111/acer.12700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Emerging evidence indicates that consumers of alcohol mixed with energy drink (AmED) self-report lower odds of risk-taking after consuming AmED versus alcohol alone. However, these studies have been criticized for failing to control for relative frequency of AmED versus alcohol-only consumption sessions. These studies also do not account for quantity of consumption and general alcohol-related risk-taking propensity. The aims of the present study were to (i) compare rates of risk-taking in AmED versus alcohol sessions among consumers with matched frequency of use and (ii) identify consumption and person characteristics associated with risk-taking behavior in AmED sessions. METHODS Data were extracted from 2 Australian community samples and 1 New Zealand community sample of AmED consumers (n = 1,291). One-fifth (21%; n = 273) reported matched frequency of AmED and alcohol use. RESULTS The majority (55%) of matched-frequency participants consumed AmED and alcohol monthly or less. The matched-frequency sample reported significantly lower odds of engaging in 18 of 25 assessed risk behaviors in AmED versus alcohol sessions. Similar rates of engagement were evident across session type for the remaining behaviors, the majority of which were low prevalence (reported by <15%). Regression modeling indicated that risk-taking in AmED sessions was primarily associated with risk-taking in alcohol sessions, with increased average energy drink (ED) intake associated with certain risk behaviors (e.g., being physically hurt, not using contraception, and driving while over the legal alcohol limit). CONCLUSIONS Bivariate analyses from a matched-frequency sample align with past research showing lower odds of risk-taking behavior after AmED versus alcohol consumption for the same individuals. Multivariate analyses showed that risk-taking in alcohol sessions had the strongest association with risk-taking in AmED sessions. However, hypotheses of increased risk-taking post-AmED consumption were partly supported: Greater ED intake was associated with increased likelihood of specific behaviors, including drink-driving, sexual behavior, and aggressive behaviors in the matched-frequency sample after controlling for alcohol intake and risk-taking in alcohol sessions. These findings highlight the need to consider both personal characteristics and beverage effects in harm reduction strategies for AmED consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Peacock
- School of Medicine (Psychology), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas., Australia
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Pennay A, Miller P, Busija L, Jenkinson R, Droste N, Quinn B, Jones SC, Lubman DI. 'Wide-awake drunkenness'? Investigating the association between alcohol intoxication and stimulant use in the night-time economy. Addiction 2015; 110:356-65. [PMID: 25220360 DOI: 10.1111/add.12742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Revised: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS We tested whether patrons of the night-time economy who had co-consumed energy drinks or illicit stimulants with alcohol had higher blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels than patrons who had consumed only alcohol. DESIGN Street intercept surveys (n = 4227) were undertaken between 9 p.m. and 5 a.m. over a period of 7 months. SETTING Interviews were undertaken with patrons walking through entertainment precincts, queuing to enter venues or exiting venues in five Australian cities. PARTICIPANTS The response rate was 92.1%; more than half the study sample was male (60.2%) and the median age was 23 years (range 18-72). MEASUREMENTS Data were collected on demographics, length of drinking session, venue types visited, types and quantity of alcohol consumed and other substance use. A BAC reading was recorded and a subsample of participants was tested for other drug use. FINDINGS Compared with the total sample (0.068%), illicit stimulant consumers (0.080%; P = 0.004) and energy drink consumers (0.074%; P < 0.001) had a significantly higher median BAC reading, and were more likely to engage in pre-drinking (65.6, 82.1 and 77.6%, respectively, P < 0.001) and longer drinking sessions (4, 5 and 4.5 hours, respectively, P < 0.001). However, stimulant use was not associated independently with higher BAC in the final multivariable model (illicit stimulants P = 0.198; energy drinks P = 0.112). Interaction analyses showed that stimulant users had a higher BAC in the initial stages of the drinking session, but not after 4-6 hours. CONCLUSIONS While stimulant use does not predict BAC in and of itself, stimulants users are more likely to engage in prolonged sessions of heavy alcohol consumption and a range of risk-taking behaviours on a night out, which may explain higher levels of BAC among stimulants users, at least in the initial stages of the drinking session.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Pennay
- Centre for Health Equity, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne and Centre for Alcohol Policy Research, Turning Point, Eastern Health, Melbourne, Vic, Australia
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Wells S. Commentary on Pennay et al. (2015): Measuring the effects of alcohol mixed with energy drinks on intoxication with real-world data. Addiction 2015; 110:366-7. [PMID: 25602045 DOI: 10.1111/add.12806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Wells
- Social and Epidemiological Research Department, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health; Clinical Public Health, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Western University
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Abstract
Energy drinks, the fastest growing segment in the beverage market, have become popular mixers with alcohol. The emerging research examining the use of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmEDs) indicates that the combination of caffeine-containing energy drinks with alcohol may be riskier than the use of alcohol alone. The public health concerns arising from AmED use are documented in different research domains. Epidemiologic studies reveal that the consumption of AmEDs is frequent among young and underage drinkers, demographic groups that are more likely to experience the harms and hazards associated with alcohol use. In addition, for all consumers, elevated rates of binge drinking and risk of alcohol dependence have been associated with AmED use when compared to alcohol alone. Results from laboratory studies help explain why AmED use is associated with excessive intake of alcohol. When an energy drink (or caffeine) is combined with alcohol, the desire (or urge) to drink more alcohol is more pronounced in both humans and animals than with the same dose of alcohol alone. The experience of drinking alcohol appears to be more rewarding when combined with energy drinks. Given that caffeine in other foods and beverages increases preference for those products, further research on AmEDs may elucidate the underlying mechanisms that contribute to alcohol dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecile A Marczinski
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY
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