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Anajirih N, O'Sullivan SE, Alexander SP. Endocannabinoid hydrolases differentially distribute in platelets and red blood cells and are differentially released by thrombin. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 2023; 164:106692. [PMID: 36372184 DOI: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2022.106692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plasma levels of the major endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoylgycerol (2AG) and anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine, AEA) have been identified to vary independently with particular pathological conditions. The levels of these endocannabinoids are tightly regulated by two hydrolytic enzymes, monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), respectively. OBJECTIVES In this study, we have quantified these enzyme activities in the major blood fractions. PATIENTS/METHODS In blood fractions from human volunteers, radiometric assays were used to quantify monoacylglycerol lipase and fatty acid amide hydrolase. Tagging with fluorophosphonate-rhodamine allowed quantification of platelet serine hydrolase activities. RESULTS Fatty acid amide hydrolase activity was highest in platelets, while MAGL activity was most abundant in erythrocytes. Sampling the blood of donors on two further occasions 15 days apart showed no significant change in platelet FAAH or erythrocyte MAGL activities. Activities were not different when comparing female donors with males. Storage of these blood fractions at - 80 °C was associated with a rapid loss in enzyme activities, which could largely by avoided by storage in liquid nitrogen. Incubation of platelets and erythrocytes in the presence of thrombin lead to release of measurable FAAH, but not MAGL, activity. Tagging of serine hydrolase activities with fluorophosphonate-rhodamine allowed confirmation of MAGL activity in platelet preparations, as well as multiple other enzymes. CONCLUSIONS These investigations suggest a potential role for FAAH in regulation of coagulation, while the role of MAGL in blood requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuha Anajirih
- Division of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK.
| | - Saoirse E O'Sullivan
- Division of Medical Sciences and Graduate Entry Medicine, School of Medicine, Royal Derby Hospital, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.
| | - Stephen Ph Alexander
- Division of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK.
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Alsaafin A, Chenoweth MJ, Sylvestre MP, O'Loughlin J, Tyndale RF. Genetic variation in fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH): Associations with early drinking and smoking behaviors. Addict Behav 2023; 137:107545. [PMID: 36403489 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The endocannabinoid system is implicated in psychiatric disorders and drug dependence. Within this system, fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) metabolizes endocannabinoids. Individuals with A-group genotypes (C/A or A/A) of a common FAAH variant (rs324420; C > A; Pro129Thr) have slower enzymatic activity compared to C-group individuals (C/C genotype). Slow FAAH activity is differentially associated with alcohol and nicotine use. METHODS Among European-ancestry participants in the NDIT study (n = 249-607), genotype associations with past-year binge drinking in young adults were estimated in logistic regression models. In adolescents, hazard ratios (HR) were estimated from Cox proportional hazards models to assess the FAAH genotype group association with time to drinking initiation and attaining drinking frequency outcomes. HR were also used to assess genotype effect on time to smoking initiation and attaining early smoking milestones (e.g., first inhalation, ICD-10 dependence). RESULTS Compared to those in the C-group, those in the A-group had higher odds of binge drinking at ages 20 (Odds ratio (OR) = 2.16, 95 % CI 1.36-3.42) and 30 (OR = 1.61, 95 % CI 1.10-2.36). Time to initiation of drinking and daily drinking was faster in adolescents in the A-group (HR = 1.39, 95 % CI 1.09-1.77 and HR = 2.24, 95 % CI 1.05-4.76, respectively). Time to smoking initiation was faster in the A-group (HR = 1.20, 95 % CI 1.04-1.39); however, time to smoking milestones among adolescent smokers was not consistently different for the A- versus C-groups (HR = 0.43 to 1.13). CONCLUSIONS Slow FAAH activity (A-group) was associated with greater risks for binge drinking, drinking initiation and escalation, and cigarette smoking initiation, but had little impact on the escalation in cigarette smoking behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaa Alsaafin
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Meghan J Chenoweth
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Marie-Pierre Sylvestre
- Centre de recherche du centre hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montréal, Québec, Canada; Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Jennifer O'Loughlin
- Centre de recherche du centre hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montréal, Québec, Canada; Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Rachel F Tyndale
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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Scheyer A, Yasmin F, Naskar S, Patel S. Endocannabinoids at the synapse and beyond: implications for neuropsychiatric disease pathophysiology and treatment. Neuropsychopharmacology 2023; 48:37-53. [PMID: 36100658 PMCID: PMC9700791 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-022-01438-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Endocannabinoids (eCBs) are lipid neuromodulators that suppress neurotransmitter release, reduce postsynaptic excitability, activate astrocyte signaling, and control cellular respiration. Here, we describe canonical and emerging eCB signaling modes and aim to link adaptations in these signaling systems to pathological states. Adaptations in eCB signaling systems have been identified in a variety of biobehavioral and physiological process relevant to neuropsychiatric disease states including stress-related disorders, epilepsy, developmental disorders, obesity, and substance use disorders. These insights have enhanced our understanding of the pathophysiology of neurological and psychiatric disorders and are contributing to the ongoing development of eCB-targeting therapeutics. We suggest future studies aimed at illuminating how adaptations in canonical as well as emerging cellular and synaptic modes of eCB signaling contribute to disease pathophysiology or resilience could further advance these novel treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Farhana Yasmin
- Northwestern Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Saptarnab Naskar
- Northwestern Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Sachin Patel
- Northwestern Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Chicago, IL, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
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Molecular Alterations of the Endocannabinoid System in Psychiatric Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23094764. [PMID: 35563156 PMCID: PMC9104141 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23094764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The therapeutic benefits of the current medications for patients with psychiatric disorders contrast with a great variety of adverse effects. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) components have gained high interest as potential new targets for treating psychiatry diseases because of their neuromodulator role, which is essential to understanding the regulation of many brain functions. This article reviewed the molecular alterations in ECS occurring in different psychiatric conditions. The methods used to identify alterations in the ECS were also described. We used a translational approach. The animal models reproducing some behavioral and/or neurochemical aspects of psychiatric disorders and the molecular alterations in clinical studies in post-mortem brain tissue or peripheral tissues were analyzed. This article reviewed the most relevant ECS changes in prevalent psychiatric diseases such as mood disorders, schizophrenia, autism, attentional deficit, eating disorders (ED), and addiction. The review concludes that clinical research studies are urgently needed for two different purposes: (1) To identify alterations of the ECS components potentially useful as new biomarkers relating to a specific disease or condition, and (2) to design new therapeutic targets based on the specific alterations found to improve the pharmacological treatment in psychiatry.
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Acute stress and alcohol exposure during adolescence result in an anxious phenotype in adulthood: Role of altered glutamate/endocannabinoid transmission mechanisms. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2022; 113:110460. [PMID: 34695542 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stressful episodes and high alcohol consumption during adolescence are considered major risk factors for the development of psychiatric disorders in adulthood. Identification of mechanisms underlying these early events, which enhanced vulnerability to mental illness, is essential for both their prevention and treatment. METHODS Male Wistar rats were used to investigate the long-term effects of early restraint stress and intermittent alcohol exposure (intragastric administration of 3 g/kg ethanol; 4 days/week for 4 weeks during adolescence) on anxiety-like behavior and the expression of signaling systems associated with emotional behaviors [e.g., corticosterone, fatty acid-derived molecules and endocannabinoid enzymes, glutamate receptor subunits, corticotropin releasing hormone receptors (CRHR1 and CRHR2) and neuropeptide Y receptors (NPY1R and NPYR2)] in the blood and amygdala. RESULTS Overall, both stress and alcohol exposure during adolescence induced anxiogenic-like behaviors, increased plasma levels of corticosterone and increases in the amygdalar expression of the cannabinoid CB2 receptor and certain subunits of glutamate receptors (i.e., mGluR1, mGluR5 and NMDAR1) in young adult rats. In addition, there were specific main effects of alcohol exposure on the expression of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor, monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) and NPY2R in the amygdala, and significant increases were observed in rats exposed to alcohol. Interestingly, there were significant interaction effects between restraint stress and alcohol exposure on the expression of plasma 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), and both CRHR1,2 and NPY1R in the amygdala. Thus, the restraint stress was associated with increased 2-AG levels, which was not observed in rats exposed to alcohol. The alcohol exposure was associated with an increased expression of CRHR1,2 but the restraint stress prevented these increases (stress alcohol rats). In contrast, NPY1R was only increased in rats exposed to stress and alcohol. Finally, we did not observe any potentiation of the behavioral and molecular effects by the combination of stress and alcohol, which is concordant with an overall ceiling effect on some of the variables. CONCLUSION Separate and combined early stress and alcohol induced a common anxious phenotype with increased corticosterone in adulthood. However, there were differences in the amygdalar expression of signaling systems involved in maladaptive changes in emotional behavior. Therefore, our results suggest the existence of partially different mechanisms for stress and alcohol exposures.
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Surakka A, Vengeliene V, Skorodumov I, Meinhardt M, Hansson AC, Spanagel R. Adverse social experiences in adolescent rats result in persistent sex-dependent effects on alcohol-seeking behavior. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2021; 45:1468-1478. [PMID: 34273113 DOI: 10.1111/acer.14640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accumulating clinical evidence suggests that women with prior exposure to adverse childhood experiences are more susceptible to heavy drinking and other health-related behaviors. Yet, preclinical studies investigating sex-dependent effects of adolescent adverse social experiences (ASEs) on later alcohol-seeking behavior are lacking. This is mainly due to the unavailability of valid animal models and a shortage of studies that compare effects in males and females. Therefore, we sought to investigate the sex-dependent effects of ASE on adult alcohol-seeking behavior, locomotion, and reward sensitivity in male and female rats. METHODS We recently developed a rat model for childhood/adolescent peer rejection that allows us to study the long-term consequences of ASEs. Adolescent Wistar rats were reared from postnatal day (pd) 21 to pd 50 either within a group of Fischer 344 rats (ASE) or within a group of Wistar rats (control). Wistar rats housed with Fischer 344 rats do not reciprocate social play in adolescence. This reduced play across adolescence mimics peer rejection and results in chronic dysregulation of social and pain-related behaviors. We tested adult male and female rats in the reinstatement paradigm for cue-induced alcohol-seeking behavior, circadian locomotor activity, and sucrose consumption long after the termination of the peer rejection condition. RESULTS Peer rejection induced persistent sex-dependent changes in alcohol cue-induced reinstatement. Females showed an increased reinstatement effect while peer-rejected males demonstrated a decrease. Sex differences were observed in locomotor activity or reward sensitivity to sucrose. CONCLUSIONS Peer rejection has long-lasting sex-dependent consequences on alcohol-seeking behavior without affecting locomotion or sweet reward sensitivity. Our results suggest that peer-rejected female rats represent a vulnerable population in which to study relapse-like behaviors that are similar to clinical findings, while males seem to buffer the peer rejection effect and demonstrate resilience to later life alcohol-seeking behaviors, as measured by the reinstatement effect. Finally, we provide a novel approach to investigate the molecular and neurobiological underpinnings of ASEs on alcohol and other drug-seeking behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akseli Surakka
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Valentina Vengeliene
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Ivan Skorodumov
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Marcus Meinhardt
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Anita C Hansson
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Rainer Spanagel
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
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Fu R, Tang Y, Li W, Ren Z, Li D, Zheng J, Zuo W, Chen X, Zuo QK, Tam KL, Zou Y, Bachmann T, Bekker A, Ye JH. Endocannabinoid signaling in the lateral habenula regulates pain and alcohol consumption. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:220. [PMID: 33854035 PMCID: PMC8046806 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01337-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Hyperalgesia, which often occurs in people suffering from alcohol use disorder, may drive excessive drinking and relapse. Emerging evidence suggests that the lateral habenula (LHb) may play a significant role in this condition. Previous research suggests that endocannabinoid signaling (eCBs) is involved in drug addiction and pain, and that the LHb contains core components of the eCBs machinery. We report here our findings in rats subjected to chronic ethanol vapor exposure. We detected a substantial increase in endocannabinoid-related genes, including Mgll and Daglb mRNA levels, as well as monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) protein levels, as well as a decrease in Cnr1 mRNA and type-1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1R) protein levels, in the LHb of ethanol-exposed rats. Also, rats withdrawing from ethanol exposure displayed hypersensitivity to mechanical and thermal nociceptive stimuli. Conversely, intra-LHb injection of the MAGL inhibitor JZL184, the fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor URB597, or the CB1R agonist WIN55,212-2 produced an analgesic effect, regardless of ethanol or air exposure history, implying that alcohol exposure does not change eCB pain responses. Intra-LHb infusion of the CB1R inverse agonist rimonabant eliminated the analgesic effect of these chemicals. Rimonabant alone elicited hyperalgesia in the air-, but not ethanol-exposed animals. Moreover, intra-LHb JZL184, URB597, or WIN55,212-2 reduced ethanol consumption in both homecages and operant chambers in rats exposed to ethanol vapor but not air. These findings suggest that LHb eCBs play a pivotal role in nociception and facilitating LHb eCBs may attenuate pain in drinkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rao Fu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510080, China
| | - Ying Tang
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Wenfu Li
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510080, China
| | - Zhiheng Ren
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510080, China
| | - Ding Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Jiayi Zheng
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Wanhong Zuo
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Xuejun Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Qi Kang Zuo
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Kelsey L Tam
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Yucong Zou
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Thomas Bachmann
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Alex Bekker
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Jiang-Hong Ye
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, Physiology & Neuroscience, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA.
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Niemela G, Terry GE. Contribution of Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase to Alcohol Use Disorder: A Systematic Review. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2021; 6:105-118. [PMID: 33989054 DOI: 10.1089/can.2020.0158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Recent research has suggested that chronic alcohol exposure induces changes in the endocannabinoid system within the central nervous system and therefore could be an attractive target for better understanding and treating alcohol use disorder (AUD). Much of this research has centered around the CB1 receptor and its endogenous partial agonist, the endocannabinoid anandamide, as the CB1 receptor is densely expressed in brain regions involved in development and maintenance of addictive behaviors. In addition, recent evidence has suggested that chronic alcohol exposure induces changes in the modulation of endocannabinoid concentration and suggests that these changes may contribute to the motivation to abuse alcohol. Therefore, we performed a systematic literature review to evaluate how fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), an enzyme that degrades anandamide, relates to the characteristics and biology of AUD, as well as how modulating FAAH through pharmacologic inhibition or genetic manipulation affects outcomes related to alcohol use and consumption. Method: A search strategy was developed using the terms "endocannabinoids" or "drug delivery systems" and "alcohol dependence" or "alcohol use disorder" or "alcoholism" and "Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase" and "FAAH" as text words and Medical Subject Headings (i.e., MeSH and EMTREE). We then used this search strategy on the electronic databases PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. Results: We found 224 records; after removing repeated records (37%), articles that did not fit the topic question (47%), or were not primary research (4%), we included 26 for qualitative synthesis (12%). Discussion: The literature clearly suggests that FAAH has a role in the biology and characteristics of AUD. FAAH inhibition seems especially promising as a target for alcohol withdrawal as it may lead to a reduction in symptoms, including anxiety and a reduction of alcohol intake reinstatement. However, decreased FAAH may also lead to reduced sensitivity to alcohol along with increased preference and intake. Conclusions: Modulation of FAAH is promising for therapeutic intervention of AUD, but requires more research. Pre-clinical studies have indicated that FAAH inhibition may reduce withdrawal characteristics, but may also exacerbate other characteristics of AUD outside of that period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greta Niemela
- University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Garth E Terry
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, and Radiology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington, USA.,Department of Veterans Affairs, Puget Sound Health Care System, Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Seattle, Washington, USA
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Inhibitory neurotransmission drives endocannabinoid degradation to promote memory consolidation. Nat Commun 2020; 11:6407. [PMID: 33335094 PMCID: PMC7747732 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20121-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Endocannabinoids retrogradely regulate synaptic transmission and their abundance is controlled by the fine balance between endocannabinoid synthesis and degradation. While the common assumption is that “on-demand” release determines endocannabinoid signaling, their rapid degradation is expected to control the temporal profile of endocannabinoid action and may impact neuronal signaling. Here we show that memory formation through fear conditioning selectively accelerates the degradation of endocannabinoids in the cerebellum. Learning induced a lasting increase in GABA release and this was responsible for driving the change in endocannabinoid degradation. Conversely, Gq-DREADD activation of cerebellar Purkinje cells enhanced endocannabinoid signaling and impaired memory consolidation. Our findings identify a previously unappreciated reciprocal interaction between GABA and the endocannabinoid system in which GABA signaling accelerates endocannabinoid degradation, and triggers a form of learning-induced metaplasticity. Endocannabinoid levels are controlled by the fine balance between their synthesis and degradation. Here, the authors show that memory formation through fear conditioning selectively accelerates the degradation of endocannabinoids in the cerebellum via a lasting increase in GABA release.
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Xu W, Li H, Wang L, Zhang J, Liu C, Wan X, Liu X, Hu Y, Fang Q, Xiao Y, Bu Q, Wang H, Tian J, Zhao Y, Cen X. Endocannabinoid signaling regulates the reinforcing and psychostimulant effects of ketamine in mice. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5962. [PMID: 33235205 PMCID: PMC7686380 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19780-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The abuse potential of ketamine limits its clinical application, but the precise mechanism remains largely unclear. Here we discovered that ketamine significantly remodels the endocannabinoid-related lipidome and activates 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) signaling in the dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen, CPu) of mice. Elevated 2-AG in the CPu is essential for the psychostimulant and reinforcing effects of ketamine, whereas blockade of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor, a predominant 2-AG receptor, attenuates ketamine-induced remodeling of neuronal dendrite structure and neurobehaviors. Ketamine represses the transcription of the monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) gene by promoting the expression of PRDM5, a negative transcription factor of the MAGL gene, leading to increased 2-AG production. Genetic overexpression of MAGL or silencing of PRDM5 expression in the CPu robustly reduces 2-AG production and ketamine effects. Collectively, endocannabinoid signaling plays a critical role in mediating the psychostimulant and reinforcing properties of ketamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xu
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongchun Li
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Wang
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiamei Zhang
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Chunqi Liu
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuemei Wan
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaochong Liu
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiming Hu
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiyao Fang
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanyuan Xiao
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Bu
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongbo Wang
- Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, 264005, Yantai, People's Republic of China
| | - Jingwei Tian
- Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, 264005, Yantai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yinglan Zhao
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaobo Cen
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, People's Republic of China.
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11
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Lower brain fatty acid amide hydrolase in treatment-seeking patients with alcohol use disorder: a positron emission tomography study with [C-11]CURB. Neuropsychopharmacology 2020; 45:1289-1296. [PMID: 31910433 PMCID: PMC7298050 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-020-0606-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid enzyme, fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), has been proposed as a therapeutic target for alcohol use disorder (AUD) and co-morbid psychiatric illnesses. Investigating this target in the living human brain and its relationship to clinical outcome is a critical step of informed drug development. Our objective was to establish whether brain FAAH levels are low in individuals with AUD and related to drinking behavior. In this pilot study, treatment-seeking patients with AUD completed two PET scans with the FAAH radiotracer [C-11]CURB after 3-7 days (n = 14) and 2-4 weeks (n = 9) of monitored abstinence. Healthy controls (n = 25) completed one scan. FAAH genetic polymorphism (rs324420) and blood concentrations of anandamide and other N-acylethanolamines metabolized by FAAH were determined and AUD symptoms assessed. In AUD, brain FAAH levels were globally lower than controls during early abstinence (F(1,36) = 5.447; p = 0.025)) and FAAH substrates (anandamide, oleoylethanolamide, and N-docosahexaenoylethanolamide) were significantly elevated (30-67%). No significant differences in FAAH or FAAH substrates were noted after 2-4 weeks abstinence. FAAH levels negatively correlated with drinks per week (r = -0.57, p = 0.032) and plasma concentrations of the three FAAH substrates (r > 0.57; p < 0.04)). Our findings suggest that early abstinence from alcohol in AUD is associated with transiently low brain FAAH levels, which are inversely related to heavier alcohol use and elevated plasma levels of FAAH substrates. Whether low FAAH is an adaptive beneficial response to chronic alcohol is unknown. Therapeutic strategies focusing on FAAH inhibition should consider the possibility that low FAAH during early abstinence may be related to drinking.
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12
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Macías-Triana L, Romero-Cordero K, Tatum-Kuri A, Vera-Barrón A, Millán-Aldaco D, Arankowsky-Sandoval G, Piomelli D, Murillo-Rodríguez E. Exposure to the cannabinoid agonist WIN 55, 212–2 in adolescent rats causes sleep alterations that persist until adulthood. Eur J Pharmacol 2020; 874:172911. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2020.172911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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13
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Sanchez-Marin L, Gavito AL, Decara J, Pastor A, Castilla-Ortega E, Suarez J, de la Torre R, Pavon FJ, Rodriguez de Fonseca F, Serrano A. Impact of intermittent voluntary ethanol consumption during adolescence on the expression of endocannabinoid system and neuroinflammatory mediators. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2020; 33:126-138. [PMID: 32057593 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The adolescent brain displays high vulnerability to the deleterious effects of ethanol, including greater risk of developing alcohol use disorder later in life. Here, we characterized the gene expression of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) and relevant signaling systems associated with neuroinflammation and emotional behaviors in the brain of young adult control and ethanol-exposed (EtOH) rats. We measured mRNA levels of candidate genes using quantitative real time PCR in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), amygdala and hippocampus. EtOH rats were generated by maintenance on an intermittent and voluntary ethanol consumption during adolescence using the two-bottle choice paradigm (4 days/week for 4 weeks) followed by 2 week-withdrawal, a time-point of withdrawal with no physical symptoms. Mean differences and effect sizes were calculated using t-test and Cohen's d values. In the mPFC and hippocampus, EtOH rats had significantly higher mRNA expression of endocannabinoid-signaling (mPFC: Ppara, Dagla, Daglb and Napepld; and hippocampus: Cnr2, Dagla and Mgll) and neuroinflammation-associated genes (mPFC: Gfap; and hippocampus: Aif1) than in controls. Moreover, EtOH rats had significantly higher mRNA expression of neuropeptide Y receptor genes (Npy1r, Npy2r and Npy5r) in the hippocampus. Finally, EtOH rats also displayed higher plasma endocannabinoid levels than controls. In conclusion, these results suggest that adolescent ethanol exposure can lead to long-term alterations in the gene expression of the ECS and other signaling systems involved in neuroinflammation and regulation of emotional behaviors in key brain areas for the development of addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Sanchez-Marin
- Unidad Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Universidad de Málaga, Avda. Carlos Haya 82, Sótano, Málaga 29010, Spain
| | - A L Gavito
- Unidad Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Universidad de Málaga, Avda. Carlos Haya 82, Sótano, Málaga 29010, Spain
| | - J Decara
- Unidad Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Universidad de Málaga, Avda. Carlos Haya 82, Sótano, Málaga 29010, Spain
| | - A Pastor
- Programa de Neurociencias, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - E Castilla-Ortega
- Unidad Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Universidad de Málaga, Avda. Carlos Haya 82, Sótano, Málaga 29010, Spain
| | - J Suarez
- Unidad Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Universidad de Málaga, Avda. Carlos Haya 82, Sótano, Málaga 29010, Spain
| | - R de la Torre
- Programa de Neurociencias, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - F J Pavon
- Unidad Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Universidad de Málaga, Avda. Carlos Haya 82, Sótano, Málaga 29010, Spain; Unidad Gestión Clínica del Corazón, IBIMA, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
| | - F Rodriguez de Fonseca
- Unidad Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Universidad de Málaga, Avda. Carlos Haya 82, Sótano, Málaga 29010, Spain.
| | - A Serrano
- Unidad Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, Universidad de Málaga, Avda. Carlos Haya 82, Sótano, Málaga 29010, Spain.
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14
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Alarcon TA, Areal LB, Herlinger AL, Paiva KK, Cicilini MA, Martins-Silva C, Pires RGW. The cannabinoid agonist WIN-2 affects acquisition but not consolidation of a spatial information in training and retraining processes: Relation with transcriptional regulation of the endocannabinoid system? Behav Brain Res 2020; 377:112231. [PMID: 31526770 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system is capable of modulating multiple physiological brain functions including learning and memory. Moreover, there is evidence that the processes of acquisition and consolidation have distinct biological basis. We used the cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2 (WIN-2) to investigate whether chronic CB1 activation affects acquisition and consolidation differently by evaluating gene expression in the hippocampus (HIP) and prefrontal cortex (PFC). Swiss mice were treated with WIN-2 (2 mg/kg) and submitted to the Morris water maze to evaluate different aspects of memory. We observed short-term memory impairment in acquisition of the spatial task while consolidation remained unchanged. In the PFC, animals that received WIN-2 prior to the task exhibited increased expression of the 2-AG synthesis enzyme diacylglycerol lipase and decreased levels of the degradation enzyme monoacylglycerol lipase, while mice that were treated after the task for the evaluation of consolidation exhibited the opposite profile. With respect to genes related to AEA metabolism, no correlation between the molecular and behavioral data could be established. In this sense, the cognitive impairment in the acquisition promoted by WIN-2 treatment may be related to a possible increase in the concentration of 2-AG in the PFC. Overall, this study confirms the relevance of the endocannabinoid system in the modulation of cognitive processes. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying endocannabinoids roles in cognition could provide guidance for the development of treatments to reduce the cognitive deficits caused by drug abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Alarcon
- Laboratory of Molecular and Behavioral Neurobiology, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil
| | - L B Areal
- Laboratory of Molecular and Behavioral Neurobiology, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte-MG, Brazil
| | - A L Herlinger
- Laboratory of Molecular and Behavioral Neurobiology, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil; Department of Genetics, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil
| | - K K Paiva
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil
| | - M A Cicilini
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil
| | - C Martins-Silva
- Laboratory of Molecular and Behavioral Neurobiology, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil; Department of Physiological Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil
| | - R G W Pires
- Laboratory of Molecular and Behavioral Neurobiology, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte-MG, Brazil; Department of Physiological Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitoria-ES, Brazil.
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15
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Muguruza C, Morentin B, Meana JJ, Alexander SP, Callado LF. Endocannabinoid system imbalance in the postmortem prefrontal cortex of subjects with schizophrenia. J Psychopharmacol 2019; 33:1132-1140. [PMID: 31237179 DOI: 10.1177/0269881119857205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The endocannabinoid system - comprising cannabinoid receptors, endocannabinoid ligands and their synthesis and inactivation enzymes - has been widely implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. However, little is known regarding the status of the different elements of the endocannabinoid system in the brain of schizophrenic patients. We have previously reported altered endocannabinoid levels in the postmortem brain of subjects with schizophrenia compared with matched controls. AIMS Our aim was to further examine the status of the main elements of the endocannabinoid system in the postmortem prefrontal cortex of the same cohort of subjects. METHODS Gene expression and function of the cannabinoid receptor type-1 (CB1) and the endocannabinoid degrading enzymes fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) have been assessed. RESULTS A significant decrease in CB1 mRNA levels in schizophrenia was found, without alteration of FAAH or MAGL mRNA expression. Moreover, positive correlations among mRNA expressions of the three genes studied were found in the prefrontal cortex of controls but not in schizophrenic subjects. No alteration was found in CB1 receptor mediated functional coupling to G-proteins, but a significant increase of FAAH activity was found in schizophrenic subjects compared with controls. 2-arachidonoylglycerol levels and MAGL activity were found to positively correlate in controls but not in schizophrenic subjects. CONCLUSIONS The present findings reveal an imbalance in the expression and function of different elements of the endocannabinoid system in schizophrenia. This outcome highlights the relevance of the endocannabinoid system in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and emphasises its elements as potential targets in the search for new therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Muguruza
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain
| | - Benito Morentin
- Section of Forensic Pathology, Basque Institute of Legal Medicine, Bilbao, Spain
| | - J Javier Meana
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain.,Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
| | - Stephen Ph Alexander
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham, UK
| | - Luis F Callado
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain.,Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
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16
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Rice J, Gu C. Function and Mechanism of Myelin Regulation in Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Bioessays 2019; 41:e1800255. [PMID: 31094014 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201800255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Revised: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Excessive alcohol use has adverse effects on the central nervous system (CNS) and can lead to alcohol use disorders (AUDs). Recent studies have suggested that myelin reductions may directly contribute to CNS dysfunctions associated with AUDs. Myelin consists of compact lipid membranes wrapped around axons to provide electrical insulation and trophic support. Regulation of myelin is considered as a new form of neural plasticity due to its profound impacts on the computation of neural networks. In this review, the authors first discuss experimental evidence showing how alcohol exposure causes demyelination in different brain regions, often accompanied by deficits in cognition and emotion. Next, they discuss postulated molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying alcohol's impact on myelin. It is clear that more extensive investigations are needed in this important but underexplored research field in order to gain a better understanding of the myelin-behavior relationship and to develop new treatment strategies for AUDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Rice
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology, The Ohio State University, 1060 Carmack Road, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Chen Gu
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology, The Ohio State University, 1060 Carmack Road, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
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17
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Erdozain AM, Brocos-Mosquera I, Gabilondo AM, Meana JJ, Callado LF. Differential α 2A- and α 2C-adrenoceptor protein expression in presynaptic and postsynaptic density fractions of postmortem human prefrontal cortex. J Psychopharmacol 2019; 33:244-249. [PMID: 30255728 DOI: 10.1177/0269881118798612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Three different α2-adrenoceptor (α2-AR) subtypes have been described. The α2A-AR and α2C-AR subtypes are highly expressed in the human prefrontal cortex, where they modulate neurotransmission. However, due to the lack of subtype-selective ligands, the physiological relevance of both subtypes has not been fully resolved. AIMS In this context, the aim of the present study was to characterize the protein expression of both α2-AR subtypes, in different synaptic fractions of postmortem human prefrontal cortex. METHODS A subcellular fractionation of the samples was performed and the protein expression of α2A- and α2C-ARs was measured in presynaptic membranes and postsynaptic density fractions by Western blot. RESULTS The results revealed that the α2A-AR subtype is mainly located postsynaptically (95±3%) whereas the remaining 5±3% is in the presynapse. Conversely, the α2C-AR subtype showed a similar distribution between pre- and postsynaptic membranes, with a slightly higher percentage present in the presynapse (60±2% vs. 40±2%). CONCLUSIONS These findings could explain some contradictory effects reported for α2-AR agonists and antagonists in the human prefrontal cortex. Furthermore, the present data could contribute to elucidating the therapeutic potential of selectively targeting α2A- or α2C-AR subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amaia M Erdozain
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain.,2 Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain
| | - Iria Brocos-Mosquera
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain
| | - Ane M Gabilondo
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain.,2 Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain.,3 Biocruces Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
| | - J Javier Meana
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain.,2 Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain.,3 Biocruces Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
| | - Luis F Callado
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain.,2 Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Spain.,3 Biocruces Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
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18
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Stampanoni Bassi M, Gilio L, Maffei P, Dolcetti E, Bruno A, Buttari F, Centonze D, Iezzi E. Exploiting the Multifaceted Effects of Cannabinoids on Mood to Boost Their Therapeutic Use Against Anxiety and Depression. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:424. [PMID: 30515077 PMCID: PMC6256035 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has been recently recognized as a prominent promoter of the emotional homeostasis, mediating the effects of different environmental signals including rewarding and stressing stimuli. The ECS modulates the rewarding effects of environmental stimuli, influencing synaptic transmission in the dopaminergic projections to the limbic system, and mediates the neurophysiological and behavioral consequences of stress. Notably, the individual psychosocial context is another key element modulating the activity of the ECS. Finally, inflammation represents an additional factor that could alter the cannabinoid signaling in the CNS inducing a "sickness behavior," characterized by anxiety, anhedonia, and depressive symptoms. The complex influences of the ECS on both the environmental and internal stimuli processing, make the cannabinoid-based drugs an appealing option to treat different psychiatric conditions. Although ample experimental evidence shows beneficial effects of ECS modulation on mood, scarce clinical indication limits the use of cannabis-based treatments. To better define the possible clinical indications of cannabinoid-based drugs in psychiatry, a number of issues should be better addressed, including genetic variability and psychosocial factors possibly affecting the individual response. In particular, better knowledge of the multifaceted effects of cannabinoids could help to understand how to boost their therapeutic use in anxiety and depression treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luana Gilio
- Unit of Neurology and Neurorehabilitation, IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy.,Laboratory of Synaptic Immunopathology, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy
| | - Pierpaolo Maffei
- Unit of Neurology and Neurorehabilitation, IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Ettore Dolcetti
- Laboratory of Synaptic Immunopathology, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonio Bruno
- Laboratory of Synaptic Immunopathology, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabio Buttari
- Unit of Neurology and Neurorehabilitation, IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Diego Centonze
- Unit of Neurology and Neurorehabilitation, IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy.,Laboratory of Synaptic Immunopathology, Department of Systems Medicine, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy
| | - Ennio Iezzi
- Unit of Neurology and Neurorehabilitation, IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
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19
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Labisso WL, Raulin AC, Nwidu LL, Kocon A, Wayne D, Erdozain AM, Morentin B, Schwendener D, Allen G, Enticott J, Gerdes HK, Johnson L, Grzeskowiak J, Drizou F, Tarbox R, Osna NA, Kharbanda KK, Callado LF, Carter WG. The Loss of α- and β-Tubulin Proteins Are a Pathological Hallmark of Chronic Alcohol Consumption and Natural Brain Ageing. Brain Sci 2018; 8:brainsci8090175. [PMID: 30208635 PMCID: PMC6162390 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8090175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Revised: 08/19/2018] [Accepted: 09/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Repetitive excessive alcohol intoxication leads to neuronal damage and brain shrinkage. We examined cytoskeletal protein expression in human post-mortem tissue from Brodmann's area 9 of the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Brain samples from 44 individuals were divided into equal groups of 11 control, 11 alcoholic, 11 non-alcoholic suicides, and 11 suicide alcoholics matched for age, sex, and post-mortem delay. Tissue from alcoholic cohorts displayed significantly reduced expression of α- and β-tubulins, and increased levels of acetylated α-tubulin. Protein levels of histone deacetylase-6 (HDAC6), and the microtubule-associated proteins MAP-2 and MAP-tau were reduced in alcoholic cohorts, although for MAPs this was not significant. Tubulin gene expressions increased in alcoholic cohorts but not significantly. Brains from rats administered alcohol for 4 weeks also displayed significantly reduced tubulin protein levels and increased α-tubulin acetylation. PFC tissue from control subjects had reduced tubulin protein expression that was most notable from the sixth to the eighth decade of life. Collectively, loss of neuronal tubulin proteins are a hallmark of both chronic alcohol consumption and natural brain ageing. The reduction of cytosolic tubulin proteins could contribute to the brain volumetric losses reported for alcoholic patients and the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wajana L Labisso
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
- School of Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa 1000, Ethiopia.
| | - Ana-Caroline Raulin
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
- École nationale supérieure de chimie de Montpellier, 34090 Montpellier, France.
| | - Lucky L Nwidu
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
- Department of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt 500262, Rivers State, Nigeria.
| | - Artur Kocon
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
| | - Declan Wayne
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
| | - Amaia M Erdozain
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa-Erandio 48940, Spain.
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, Madrid 28029, Spain.
| | - Benito Morentin
- Section of Forensic Pathology, Basque Institute of Legal Medicine, Bilbao 48001, Spain.
| | - Daniela Schwendener
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
| | - George Allen
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
| | - Jack Enticott
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
| | - Henry K Gerdes
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
| | - Laura Johnson
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
| | - John Grzeskowiak
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
| | - Fryni Drizou
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
| | - Rebecca Tarbox
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
| | - Natalia A Osna
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, NE 68105, USA.
- Departments of Internal Medicine and Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA.
| | - Kusum K Kharbanda
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System, Omaha, NE 68105, USA.
- Departments of Internal Medicine and Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA.
| | - Luis F Callado
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa-Erandio 48940, Spain.
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, Madrid 28029, Spain.
| | - Wayne G Carter
- School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Derby DE22 3DT, UK.
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20
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García-Gutiérrez MS, Navarrete F, Navarro G, Reyes-Resina I, Franco R, Lanciego JL, Giner S, Manzanares J. Alterations in Gene and Protein Expression of Cannabinoid CB 2 and GPR55 Receptors in the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex of Suicide Victims. Neurotherapeutics 2018; 15:796-806. [PMID: 29435814 PMCID: PMC6095782 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-018-0610-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies point to the cannabinoid CB2 receptors (CB2r) and the non-cannabinoid receptor GPR55 as potential key targets involved in the response to stress, anxiety, and depression. Considering the close relationship between neuropsychiatric disorders and suicide, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential alterations of CB2r and GPR55 in suicide victims. We analyzed gene and protein expression of both receptors by real-time PCR and western blot, respectively, in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) of 18 suicide victims with no clinical psychiatric history or treatment with anxiolytics or antidepressants, and 15 corresponding controls. We used in situ proximity ligation assay to evaluate whether the receptors formed heteromeric complexes and to determine the expression level of these heteromers, also assessing the co-expression of heteromers in neurons, astroglia, or microglia cells. CB2r and GPR55 gene expressions were significantly lower (by 33 and 41%, respectively) in the DLPFC of suicide cases. CB2r protein expression was higher, as were CB2-GPR55 heteroreceptor complexes. The results also revealed the presence of CB2-GPR55 receptor heteromers in both neurons and astrocytes, whereas microglial cells showed no expression. We did not observe any significant alterations of GPR55 protein expression. Additional studies will be necessary to evaluate if these alterations are reproducible in suicide victims diagnosed with different psychiatric disorders. Taken together, the results suggest that CB2r and GPR55 may play a relevant role in the neurobiology of suicide.
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Affiliation(s)
- María S García-Gutiérrez
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernandez-CSIC, Avda. Ramón y Cajal s/n, San Juan de Alicante, 03550, Alicante, Spain
- Red Nacional de Trastornos Adictivos, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad y Fondo de Desarrollo Regional Europeo, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Navarrete
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernandez-CSIC, Avda. Ramón y Cajal s/n, San Juan de Alicante, 03550, Alicante, Spain
- Red Nacional de Trastornos Adictivos, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad y Fondo de Desarrollo Regional Europeo, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gemma Navarro
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biológica en Red para enfermedades neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Irene Reyes-Resina
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biológica en Red para enfermedades neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rafael Franco
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biológica en Red para enfermedades neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose Luis Lanciego
- Centro de Investigación Biológica en Red para enfermedades neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada (CIMA), Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Salvador Giner
- Instituto de Medicina Legal, Avenida Aguilera 53, 03007, Alicante, Spain
| | - Jorge Manzanares
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernandez-CSIC, Avda. Ramón y Cajal s/n, San Juan de Alicante, 03550, Alicante, Spain.
- Red Nacional de Trastornos Adictivos, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad y Fondo de Desarrollo Regional Europeo, Madrid, Spain.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The current serotonin-based biological model of suicidal behavior (SB) may be too simplistic. There is emerging evidence that other biomarkers and biological systems may be involved in SB pathophysiology. The literature on the endocannabinoid (EC) systems and SB is limited. The objective of the present article is to review all available information on the relationship between cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2 receptors), and SB and/or psychological pain. RECENT FINDINGS Our review is limited by the small number and heterogeneity of studies identified: (1) an autopsy study describing elevated levels of CB1 receptor activity in the prefrontal cortex and suicide in both depression and alcoholism and (2) studies supporting the involvement of both CB1 and CB2 receptors in the regulation of neuropathic pain and stress-induced analgesia. We conclude that cannabinoid receptors, particularly CB1 receptors, may become promising targets for the development of novel therapeutic tools for the treatment of SB.
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Characterisation of spinophilin immunoreactivity in postmortem human brain homogenates. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2018; 81:236-242. [PMID: 28941770 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Revised: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Spinophilin is a multifunctional scaffold protein that regulates the formation and function of dendritic spines and plays a role in neuronal migration. The distinct roles of spinophilin depend on its localization and the direct interaction with other proteins, which may target spinophilin to specific locations within the cell. Several studies suggest a role of spinophilin in the pathophysiology of neurological or psychiatric diseases. However, the majority have been performed in animals or cultured cells. Thus, the aim of the present study was to characterise the regional and subcellular expression of spinophilin immunoreactivity by western blot in postmortem human brain. Two specific immunoreactive bands for spinophilin were observed: an intense band migrating at around 120kDa, which seems to correspond to the apparent molecular weight of spinophilin described by other authors, and a less intense band of around 95kDa. This second form seems to be a proteolysis or cleavage product of the ~120kDa spinophilin. Interestingly, the subcellular distribution of both bands was different. In membrane fraction, the ~120kDa spinophilin band was the most abundant, whereas in cytosol it was the ~95kDa form. Furthermore, a different regional distribution for ~120kDa spinophilin band was observed, with the highest expression in prefrontal cortex, followed by hippocampus and cerebellum, and the lowest in caudate nucleus. Altogether, these results constitute a useful reference for future studies of spinophilin in pathological and non-pathological human brain tissues.
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23
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Lipids in psychiatric disorders and preventive medicine. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 76:336-362. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Henderson-Redmond AN, Guindon J, Morgan DJ. Roles for the endocannabinoid system in ethanol-motivated behavior. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2016; 65:330-9. [PMID: 26123153 PMCID: PMC4679600 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Alcohol use disorder represents a significant human health problem that leads to substantial loss of human life and financial cost to society. Currently available treatment options do not adequately address this human health problem, and thus, additional therapies are desperately needed. The endocannabinoid system has been shown, using animal models, to modulate ethanol-motivated behavior, and it has also been demonstrated that chronic ethanol exposure can have potentially long-lasting effects on the endocannabinoid system. For example, chronic exposure to ethanol, in either cell culture or preclinical rodent models, causes an increase in endocannabinoid levels that results in down-regulation of the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and uncoupling of this receptor from downstream G protein signaling pathways. Using positron emission tomography (PET), similar down-regulation of CB1 has been noted in multiple regions of the brain in human alcoholic patients. In rodents, treatment with the CB1 inverse agonist SR141716A (Rimonabant), or genetic deletion of CB1 leads to a reduction in voluntary ethanol drinking, ethanol-stimulated dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, operant self-administration of ethanol, sensitization to the locomotor effects of ethanol, and reinstatement/relapse of ethanol-motivated behavior. Although the clinical utility of Rimonabant or other antagonists/inverse agonists for CB1 is limited due to negative neuropsychiatric side effects, negative allosteric modulators of CB1 and inhibitors of endocannabinoid catabolism represent therapeutic targets worthy of additional examination.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Josée Guindon
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Texas Tech University Health Science Center, Lubbock, TX, 79430
| | - Daniel J Morgan
- Department of Anesthesiology, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, United States; Department of Pharmacology, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, United States.
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Erdozain AM, Rubio M, Meana JJ, Fernández-Ruiz J, Callado LF. Altered CB1 receptor coupling to G-proteins in the post-mortem caudate nucleus and cerebellum of alcoholic subjects. J Psychopharmacol 2015; 29:1137-45. [PMID: 26253623 DOI: 10.1177/0269881115599388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Biochemical, pharmacological and genetic evidence suggests the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in alcohol dependence. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the state of CB1 receptors in post-mortem caudate nucleus, hippocampus and cerebellum of alcoholic subjects.CB1 protein levels were measured by Western blot, CB1 receptor density and affinity by [(3)H]WIN55,212-2 saturation assays and CB1 functionality by [(35)S]GTPγS binding assays. Experiments were performed in samples from 24 subjects classified as non-suicidal alcoholics (n = 6), suicidal alcoholics (n = 6), non-alcoholic suicide victims (n = 6) and control subjects (n = 6).Alcoholic subjects presented hyperfunctional CB1 receptors in the caudate nucleus resulting in a higher maximal effect in both alcoholic groups compared to the non-alcoholic groups (p < 0.001). Conversely, in the cerebellum the non-suicidal alcoholic subjects showed hypofunctional receptors with lower maximal effect and potency (p < 0.001). No changes were found in the CB1 protein expression in either region. In the hippocampus of alcoholic subjects, no changes were observed either in the functionality, density or protein levels.Our data support an association between endocannabinoid system activity and alcoholism. The modifications reported here could be either a consequence of high lifetime ethanol consumption or a vulnerability factor to develop alcohol addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amaia M Erdozain
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Bizkaia, Spain Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain Current address: Neuroscience Paris Seine, CNRS UMR 8246, INSERM U1130, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
| | - Marina Rubio
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - J Javier Meana
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Bizkaia, Spain Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain Biocruces Health Research Institute, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - Javier Fernández-Ruiz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigaciones Sanitarias (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis F Callado
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Bizkaia, Spain Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain Biocruces Health Research Institute, Bizkaia, Spain
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