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Li J, Wang Y, Liu A, Liu S. Sensitive detection of synthetic cannabinoids in human blood using magnetic polydopamine molecularly imprinted polymer nanocomposites. Analyst 2023; 148:4850-4856. [PMID: 37622412 DOI: 10.1039/d3an01135f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are a series of artificial chemical substances with pharmacological properties similar to those of natural cannabinoids and their abuse poses a great risk to social security and human health. However, the highly sensitive detection of low concentrations of SCs in human serum remains a great challenge. In this work, we developed a highly sensitive, rapid and highly selective method for the detection of SCs in human serum. Magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) nanocomposites were prepared through self-polymerization of dopamine and template molecules on the surfaces of magnetic beads. 9H-Carbazole-9-hexanol (9CH) was used as a template molecule because of its long chain structure shared with six synthetic cannabinoids and its ability to provide specific recognition sites. With these magnetic MIP nanoparticles, six SCs could be rapidly and effectively extracted from human blood. The concentrations of six SCs could be accurately determined by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) analysis. The limits of detection were in the range of 0.1-0.3 ng mL-1. The proposed method is characterized by high sensitivity and selectivity, and has great potential for application in the analysis of practical samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajia Li
- Jiangsu Engineering Laboratory of Smart Carbon-Rich Materials and Device (CMD), Jiangsu Province Hi-Tech Key Laboratory for Bio-medical Research, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, P. R. China.
| | - Yong Wang
- Institute of Forensic Science and Technology of Nanjing Public Security Bureau, Nanjing, 210012, P. R. China
| | - Anran Liu
- Jiangsu Engineering Laboratory of Smart Carbon-Rich Materials and Device (CMD), Jiangsu Province Hi-Tech Key Laboratory for Bio-medical Research, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, P. R. China.
| | - Songqin Liu
- Jiangsu Engineering Laboratory of Smart Carbon-Rich Materials and Device (CMD), Jiangsu Province Hi-Tech Key Laboratory for Bio-medical Research, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, P. R. China.
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2
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Rhodes T, Lancaster K. Early warnings and slow deaths: A sociology of outbreak and overdose. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2023; 117:104065. [PMID: 37229960 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we offer a sociological analysis of early warning and outbreak in the field of drug policy, focusing on opioid overdose. We trace how 'outbreak' is enacted as a rupturing event which enables rapid reflex responses of precautionary control, based largely on short-term and proximal early warning indicators. We make the case for an alternative view of early warning and outbreak. We argue that practices of detection and projection that help to materialise drug-related outbreaks are too focused on the proximal and short-term. Engaging with epidemiological and sociological work investigating epidemics of opioid overdose, we show how the short-termism and rapid reflex response of outbreak fails to appreciate the slow violent pasts of epidemics indicative of an ongoing need and care for structural and societal change. Accordingly, we gather together ideas of 'slow emergency' (Ben Anderson), 'slow death' (Lauren Berlant) and 'slow violence' (Rob Nixon), to re-assemble outbreaks in 'long view'. This locates opioid overdose in long-term attritional processes of deindustrialisation, pharmaceuticalisation, and other forms of structural violence, including the criminalisation and problematisation of people who use drugs. Outbreaks evolve in relation to their slow violent pasts. To ignore this can perpetuate harm. Attending to the social conditions that create the possibilities for outbreak invites early warning that goes 'beyond outbreak' and 'beyond epidemic' as generally configured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Rhodes
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK; University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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3
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Jiang X, Wu F, Huang X, He S, Han Q, Zhang Z, Liu W. Fabrication of a Molecularly-Imprinted-Polymer-Based Graphene Oxide Nanocomposite for Electrochemical Sensing of New Psychoactive Substances. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:751. [PMID: 36839120 PMCID: PMC9958802 DOI: 10.3390/nano13040751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
As new psychoactive substances (commonly known as "the third generation drugs") have characteristics such as short-term emergence, rapid updating, and great social harmfulness, there is a large gap in the development of their detection methods. Herein, graphite oxide (GO) was first prepared and immobilized with a reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) agent, then a new psychoactive substance (4-MEC) was chosen as a template, and then the surface RAFT polymerization of methacrylamide (MAAM) was carried out by using azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as an initiator and divinylbenzene (DVB) as a cross-linker. After the removal of the embedded template, graphene oxide modified by molecularly imprinted polymers (GO-MIPs) was finally obtained. Owing to the specific imprinted cavities for 4-MEC, the satisfactory selectivity and stability of the GO-MIP nanocomposite have been demonstrated. The GO-MIP nanocomposite was then used to fabricate the electrochemical sensor, which displayed a high selectivity in detecting 4-MEC over a linear concentration range between 5 and 60 μg mL-1 with a detection limit of 0.438 μg mL-1. As a result, the GO-MIPs sensor developed an accurate, efficient, convenient, and sensitive method for public security departments to detect illicit drugs and new psychoactive substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Jiang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology, Zhongshan North No. 1 Road, Shanghai 200083, China
| | - Fangsheng Wu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology, Zhongshan North No. 1 Road, Shanghai 200083, China
| | - Xiaoyu Huang
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Self-Assembly Chemistry for Organic Functional Molecules, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Shan He
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology, Zhongshan North No. 1 Road, Shanghai 200083, China
| | - Qiaoying Han
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology, Zhongshan North No. 1 Road, Shanghai 200083, China
| | - Zihua Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology, Zhongshan North No. 1 Road, Shanghai 200083, China
| | - Wenbin Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Crime Scene Evidence, Shanghai Research Institute of Criminal Science and Technology, Zhongshan North No. 1 Road, Shanghai 200083, China
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Kühnl R, Aydin D, Horn S, Olderbak S, Verthein U, Kraus L. Taking the cat-and-mouse game to the next level: different perspectives on the introduction of the German New Psychoactive Substances Act. Harm Reduct J 2022; 19:122. [PMID: 36329471 PMCID: PMC9632031 DOI: 10.1186/s12954-022-00704-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To counteract the spread of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and to prevent the emergence of novel substances, specifically designed as a response to the legal control of individual substances, a new law was introduced in Germany in 2016: the New Psychoactive Substances Act (NpSG). The NpSG combines a generic approach with the waiver of criminal liability for the acquisition and possession of NPS for personal use, which is a novelty in German narcotics law. The present study aimed at exploring the impact of the introduction of the NpSG from three different perspectives-NPS users, staff of addiction care facilities, and members of law enforcement authorities-to better understand the dynamics surrounding such a change in legislation and to contribute to the body of international experience in dealing with NPS. METHODS Semi-structured narrative interviews were conducted with a total of 193 representatives of the three different groups affected by the law. These interviews included questions on perceived changes associated with the introduction of the NpSG as well as questions on opinions regarding legal and criminal policy issues. The analysis was carried out using qualitative content analysis according to Mayring. RESULTS Most interviewees welcomed the non-criminalisation approach of the NpSG but also noticed that, in practice, not much has changed for users. Nevertheless, the changes in legislation have had an impact on the market. For example, novel substances have emerged circumventing the new legislation. According to users, this has led some to reduce NPS use and others to adopt more hazardous consumption patterns. Overall, most respondents did not expect the introduction of the NpSG to bring any significant changes. CONCLUSIONS Although the idea of non-criminalisation inherent to the NpSG is appreciated and the generic approach has been well implemented in the law, thus covering a wide range of substances, the introduction of the law-perhaps for that very reason-has also had unintended and negative consequences, taking the cat-and-mouse game to the next level. To end the game, or at least to defuse the game situation, a combination of different strategies will be necessary, with legislation always playing a key role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Kühnl
- IFT Institut für Therapieforschung, Leopoldstraße 175, 80804, Munich, Germany.,Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 47, 89069, Ulm, Germany
| | - Darya Aydin
- IFT Institut für Therapieforschung, Leopoldstraße 175, 80804, Munich, Germany
| | - Sabine Horn
- Unit III.5 Criminal Law, Criminal Procedural Law and Criminal Politics, German Police University, Zum Roten Berge 18-24, 48165, Muenster, Germany
| | - Sally Olderbak
- IFT Institut für Therapieforschung, Leopoldstraße 175, 80804, Munich, Germany.,Psychology Department, University of Arizona, 1503 E University Blvd., Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Uwe Verthein
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Centre of Interdisciplinary Addiction Research, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistraße 52, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ludwig Kraus
- IFT Institut für Therapieforschung, Leopoldstraße 175, 80804, Munich, Germany. .,Department of Public Health Sciences, Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs, Stockholm University, 106 91, Stockholm, Sweden. .,Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Egyetem tér 1-3, 1053, Budapest, Hungary.
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5
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Oh HA, Lee JH, Woo DH. Acute effects of 4-EA-NBOMe, 3, 4-DCMP, LY-2183240 and AB-CHFUPYCA on the excitability of rat cortical primary cultured neurons. Mol Cell Toxicol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s13273-022-00224-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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6
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Rodrigues TB, Souza MP, de Melo Barbosa L, de Carvalho Ponce J, Júnior LFN, Yonamine M, Costa JL. Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists profile in infused papers seized in Brazilian prisons. Forensic Toxicol 2021; 40:119-124. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-021-00586-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Pharmacology and adverse effects of new psychoactive substances: synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists. Arch Pharm Res 2021; 44:402-413. [PMID: 33811300 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-021-01326-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decade, new psychoactive substances (NPS) have continuously been the focus of the international society since their emergence on the illicit drug market. NPS can be classified into six groups including; synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs), stimulants, opioids, dissociatives, sedatives/hypnotics, and classic hallucinogens with psychoactive effects. These are sold as "herbal incense," "bath salts," "legal highs," and "research chemicals". They can be synthesized easily with slight changes in the chemical moieties of known psychoactive substances. NPS are sold worldwide via on- and off-line markets without proper scientific evaluation regarding their safety or harmfulness. Abuse of NPS poses a serious public health issue, and systematic studies on their adverse effects are lacking. Therefore, it would be meaningful to collect currently available data in order to understand NPS and to establish viable solutions to cope with the various health issues related to them. In this article, we reviewed the general pharmacological characteristics, recent findings, and adverse effects of representative NPS; SCRAs. SCRAs are known as the most commonly abused NPS. Most SCRAs, cannabinoid receptor 1 and cannabinoid receptor 2 agonists, are often associated with severe toxicities, including cardiotoxicity, immunotoxicity, and even death, unlike natural cannabinoid Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol.
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Psychoactive Substances of Natural Origin: Toxicological Aspects, Therapeutic Properties and Analysis in Biological Samples. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26051397. [PMID: 33807728 PMCID: PMC7961374 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26051397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The consumption of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) has been increasing, and this problem affects several countries worldwide. There is a class of NPSs of natural origin, consisting of plants and fungi, which have a wide range of alkaloids, responsible for causing relaxing, stimulating or hallucinogenic effects. The consumption of some of these substances is prompted by religious beliefs and cultural reasons, making the legislation very variable or even ambiguous. However, the abusive consumption of these substances can present an enormous risk to the health of the individuals, since their metabolism and effects are not yet fully known. Additionally, NPSs are widely spread over the internet, and their appearance is very fast, which requires the development of sophisticated analytical methodologies, capable of detecting these compounds. Thus, the objective of this work is to review the toxicological aspects, traditional use/therapeutic potential and the analytical methods developed in biological matrices in twelve plant specimens (Areca catechu, Argyreia nervosa, Ayahuasca, Catha edulis, Datura stramonium, Lophophora williamsii, Mandragora officinarum, Mitragyna speciosa, Piper methysticum Forst, Psilocybe, Salvia divinorum and Tabernanthe iboga).
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Liu N, Lu Z, Xie Y. Tracking Study on the Relapse and Aftercare Effect of Drug Patients Released From a Compulsory Isolated Detoxification Center. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:699074. [PMID: 35111083 PMCID: PMC8801433 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.699074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS There are no accurate statistical data on the relapse rate of drug abstainers after compulsory detoxification in China. This study aimed to collect relapse data for drug abstainers through follow-up visits, verify the effectiveness of professional social worker services and explore significant factors affecting relapse. DESIGN AND SETTING The drug abstainers released from Guangzhou T Compulsory Isolated Detoxification Center were randomly divided into two groups. The difference between the experimental group and the control group is that assistance services were provided by social workers to the former. PARTICIPANTS The study included 510 drug abstainers released from T Center, including 153 in the experimental group and 357 in the control group. MEASUREMENTS Demographic information, history of drug abuse, and motivation for drug rehabilitation (SOCRATES) were collected 1 month prior to drug abstainer release from compulsory detoxification. Then, the relapse situation after their release was tracked according to fixed time points. FINDINGS The overall relapse rate of 510 drug abstainers after their release from compulsory detoxification was 47.6%. The average survival time to relapse based on survival analysis was 220 days (N = 486), as calculated with Bayesian estimation by the MCMC method. The average survival times to relapse of the experimental group and control group were 393 and 175 days, respectively. By taking the specific survival time as the dependent variable and the group as the control variable (OR = 25.362), logistic regression analysis showed that marital status (OR = 2.666), previous compulsory detoxification experience (OR = 2.329) and location of household registration (OR = 1.557) had a significant impact on the survival time to relapse. CONCLUSIONS The occurrence of relapse among drug patients released from compulsory detoxification can be delayed effectively through the intervention of professional social worker services. Regardless of whether patients receive aftercare after compulsory detoxification, drug-using patients who are single, have multiple detoxification experiences and whose households are registered in other provinces deserve special attention. Relevant suggestions to avoid relapse are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nian Liu
- Department of Sociology, School of Public Administration, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zekai Lu
- Department of Sociology, School of Public Administration, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ying Xie
- Department of Sociology, School of Public Administration, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China
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10
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Kurcevič E, Lines R. New psychoactive substances in Eurasia: a qualitative study of people who use drugs and harm reduction services in six countries. Harm Reduct J 2020; 17:94. [PMID: 33256747 PMCID: PMC7703505 DOI: 10.1186/s12954-020-00448-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background This study examines the use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and the harm reduction response in six Eurasian countries: Belarus, Moldova, Serbia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Georgia. The aim is to identify current patterns of NPS use and related harms in each country through recording the perspectives and lived experience of people who use drugs and people who provide harm reduction services in order to inform the harm reduction response. Methodology The study involved desk-based research and semi-structured interviews/focus groups with 124 people who use drugs and 55 health and harm reduction service providers across the six countries. Results People who use drugs in all countries were aware of NPS, primarily synthetic cathinones and synthetic cannabinoids. NPS users generally reflected two groups: those with no prior history of illicit drug use (typically younger people) and those who used NPS on an occasional or regular basis due to the lack of availability of their preferred drug (primarily opiates). In many cases, these respondents reported they would not use NPS if traditional opiates were available. Common factors for choosing NPS included cost and accessibility. Respondents in most countries described NPS markets that use the DarkNet and social media for communication, secretive methods of payment and hidden collection points. A recurring theme was the role of punitive drug policies in driving NPS use and related harms. Respondents in all countries agreed that current harm reduction services were important but needed to be enhanced and expanded in the context of NPS. Conclusions The study identified patterns and drivers of NPS use, risk behaviours and drug-related harms. It identified gaps in the current harm reduction response, particularly the needs of non-injectors and overdose response, as well as the harmful effects of punitive drug policies. These findings may inform and improve current harm reduction services to meet the needs of people who use NPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliza Kurcevič
- Eurasian Harm Reduction Association, Verkių g. 34B, office 701, 08221, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Rick Lines
- School of Law, Swansea University, Richard Price Building, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK.
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11
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Recent bionalytical methods for the determination of new psychoactive substances in biological specimens. Bioanalysis 2020; 12:1557-1595. [PMID: 33078960 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2020-0148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the problems associated with the consumption of new psychoactive substances is that in most scenarios of acute toxicity the possibility of quick clinical action may be impaired because many screening methods are not responsive to them, and laboratories are not able to keep pace with the appearance of new substances. For these reasons, developing and validating new analytical methods is mandatory in order to efficiently face those problems, allowing laboratories to be one step ahead. The goal of this work is to perform a critical review regarding bionalytical methods that can be used for the determination of new psychoactive substances (phenylethylamines, cathinones, synthetic cannabinoids, opioids, benzodiazepines, etc), particularly concerning sample preparation techniques and associated analytical methods.
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12
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Social Capital and Social Networks of Hidden Drug Abuse in Hong Kong. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17176231. [PMID: 32867216 PMCID: PMC7503402 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17176231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Owing to the increasing prevalence of hidden drug abuse in Hong Kong, yet scarce relevant current local research, this study seeks to carry out an in-depth investigation into the experience of hidden drug abusers, paying particular attention to their relevance to social capital and social networks. Seventy-three abusers attending drug treatment programs were interviewed, and a thematic analysis was performed. The results indicate hidden drug abuse is popular in Hong Kong. Apart from the decline of public, large-scale discos and the change of the types of drugs abused to date, one important contributing factor is the drug supply and transaction networks, which are extensive and multilocused, but secretive, with high closure levels. This kind of network is supported by bonding, bridging, and linking social capital as well as by providing convenient supply modes and offering drug abusers psychological comfort and safety. These factors encourage the hidden drug abuse to prevail and allow drug abusers to remain unidentifiable.
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13
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Bade R, Abbate V, Abdelaziz A, Nguyen L, Trobbiani S, Stockham P, Elliott S, White JM, Gerber C. The complexities associated with new psychoactive substances in influent wastewater: The case of 4-ethylmethcathinone. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:1494-1500. [PMID: 32621345 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Consumption of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is an international problem for health, policing, forensic, and analytical laboratories. The transience of these substances in the community, combined with continual slight structural changes to evade legislation makes the elucidation of NPS an analytical challenge. This is amplified in a matrix as complex as wastewater. For that reason, suspect and non-target methodologies, employing high resolution mass spectrometry are the most appropriate current tool to facilitate the identification of new and existing compounds. In the current work, a qualitative screening method of influent wastewater using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry showed a strong signal at m/z 192.1382 - identical to that of two NPS standards that were in our method (pentedrone and 4-methylethcathinone), and with identical fragment ions, but the retention times did not match. This work shows the methodology followed to identify this compound, highlighting the challenges of the identifying "new" compounds in influent wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Bade
- UniSA: Clinical and Health Sciences, Health and Biomedical Innovation, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Vincenzo Abbate
- King's Forensics, Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Ahmed Abdelaziz
- UniSA: Clinical and Health Sciences, Health and Biomedical Innovation, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Lynn Nguyen
- UniSA: Clinical and Health Sciences, Health and Biomedical Innovation, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | | | - Peter Stockham
- Forensic Science SA, GPO Box 2790, Adelaide, Australia.,College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia
| | - Simon Elliott
- King's Forensics, Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King's College London, London, UK.,Elliott Forensic Consulting, Birmingham, UK
| | - Jason M White
- UniSA: Clinical and Health Sciences, Health and Biomedical Innovation, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Cobus Gerber
- UniSA: Clinical and Health Sciences, Health and Biomedical Innovation, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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14
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Elliott SP, Holdbrook T, Brandt SD. Prodrugs of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): A New Challenge. J Forensic Sci 2020; 65:913-920. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2019] [Revised: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon P. Elliott
- Elliott Forensic Consulting Birmingham U.K
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences King’s College London London U.K
| | - Tanith Holdbrook
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences King’s College London London U.K
| | - Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool U.K
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15
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Peacock A, Bruno R, Gisev N, Degenhardt L, Hall W, Sedefov R, White J, Thomas KV, Farrell M, Griffiths P. New psychoactive substances: challenges for drug surveillance, control, and public health responses. Lancet 2019; 394:1668-1684. [PMID: 31668410 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(19)32231-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The rapid emergence since the mid-2000s of a large and diverse range of substances originally designed as legal alternatives to more established illicit drugs (pragmatically clustered and termed new psychoactive substances; [NPS]) has challenged traditional approaches to drug monitoring, surveillance, control, and public health responses. In this section of the Series, we describe the emergence of NPS and consider opportunities for strengthening the detection, identification, and responses to future substances of concern. First, we explore the definitional complexity of the term NPS. Second, we describe the origins and drivers surrounding NPS, including motivations for use. Third, we summarise evidence on NPS availability, use, and associated harms. Finally, we use NPS as a case example to explore challenges and opportunities for future drug monitoring, surveillance, control, and public health responses. We posit that the current means of responding to emerging substances might no longer be fit for purpose in a world in which different substances can be rapidly introduced, and where people who use drugs can change preferences on the basis of market availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Peacock
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia.
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Natasa Gisev
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Louisa Degenhardt
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Wayne Hall
- Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Addictions Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Roumen Sedefov
- European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Jason White
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Kevin V Thomas
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Michael Farrell
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Paul Griffiths
- European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon, Portugal
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Cytotoxicity of the synthetic cannabinoids 5C-AKB48, 5F-MDMB-PINACA, ADB-CHMINACA, MDMB-CHMICA and NM-2201 in A549 and TR146 cell lines. Forensic Toxicol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-019-00474-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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17
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O'Donnell A, Addison M, Spencer L, Zurhold H, Rosenkranz M, McGovern R, Gilvarry E, Martens M, Verthein U, Kaner E. Which individual, social and environmental influences shape key phases in the amphetamine type stimulant use trajectory? A systematic narrative review and thematic synthesis of the qualitative literature. Addiction 2019; 114:24-47. [PMID: 30176077 PMCID: PMC6519251 DOI: 10.1111/add.14434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS There is limited evidence on what shapes amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) use trajectories. This systematic narrative review and qualitative synthesis aimed to identify individual, social and environmental influences shaping key phases in the ATS use trajectory: initiation, continuation, increase/relapse and decrease/abstinence. METHODS MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE, and PROQUEST (social science premium collection) were searched from 2000 to 2018. Studies of any qualitative design were eligible for inclusion. Extracted data were analysed according to four key phases within drug pathways, and then cross-analysed for individual, social and environmental influences. RESULTS Forty-four papers based on 39 unique studies were included, reporting the views of 1879 ATS users. Participants were aged 14-58 years, from varied socio-economic and demographic groups, and located in North America, Europe, Australasia and South East Asia. Reasons for initiation included: to boost performance at work and in sexual relationships, promote a sense of social 'belonging' and help manage stress. Similar reasons motivated continued use, combined with the challenge of managing withdrawal effects in long-term users. Increased tolerance and/or experiencing a critical life event contributed to an increase in use. Reasons for decrease focused on: increased awareness of the negative health impacts of long-term use, disconnecting from social networks or relationships and financial instability. CONCLUSIONS Amphetamine-type stimulant users are a highly diverse population, and their drug use careers are shaped by a complex dynamic of individual, social and environmental factors. Tailored, joined-up interventions are needed to address users' overlapping economic, health and social care needs in order to support long-term abstinence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy O'Donnell
- Institute of Health and SocietyNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
| | - Michelle Addison
- Institute of Health and SocietyNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
| | - Liam Spencer
- Institute of Health and SocietyNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
| | - Heike Zurhold
- Centre of Interdisciplinary Addiction Research of Hamburg University, Department of PsychiatryUniversity Medical Centre Hamburg‐EppendorfHamburgGermany
| | - Moritz Rosenkranz
- Centre of Interdisciplinary Addiction Research of Hamburg University, Department of PsychiatryUniversity Medical Centre Hamburg‐EppendorfHamburgGermany
| | - Ruth McGovern
- Institute of Health and SocietyNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
| | - Eilish Gilvarry
- Institute of Health and SocietyNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
| | - Marcus‐Sebastian Martens
- Centre of Interdisciplinary Addiction Research of Hamburg University, Department of PsychiatryUniversity Medical Centre Hamburg‐EppendorfHamburgGermany
| | - Uwe Verthein
- Centre of Interdisciplinary Addiction Research of Hamburg University, Department of PsychiatryUniversity Medical Centre Hamburg‐EppendorfHamburgGermany
| | - Eileen Kaner
- Institute of Health and SocietyNewcastle UniversityNewcastle upon TyneUK
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18
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Kimergård A, Dunne J, Bøgen A, Hindersson P, Breindahl T. Characteristics of opioid-maintained clients smoking fentanyl patches: The importance of confirmatory drug analysis illustrated by a case series and mini-review. Drug Test Anal 2018; 10:917-926. [PMID: 29675893 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The increase in opioid prescribing in many European countries over the last decade has raised concerns about associated diversion, overdose, and mortality. Fentanyl is one of these synthetic opioids that is typically prescribed as a transdermal patch for pain that requires continuous pain relief and has been the focus of investigation due to reports of overdose and death. We report a case series of 14 drug addiction treatment entrants, who entered treatment in a service located in the region of Southern Denmark from August 2015 to December 2015 for smoking fentanyl patches. Clients presented with difficulties breathing and pains in the lungs. The clients had a history of past opioid use, including heroin. Relapses resulted in treatment disengagement. Immunoassays for fentanyl were used in the service. In some cases, false negative results occurred. Clients' urine samples were subsequently analysed in a collaborating laboratory. Seven clients tested positive for fentanyl. One client was positive for both fentanyl and heroin. Analyses were also positive for other opioids and metabolites in 6 clients, predominantly codeine and oxycodone. Results from confirmatory analysis contributed to clearer insights into clients' drug histories, which facilitated personalised care plans consisting of opioid agonist therapy informed by confirmed drug use. In Denmark, prescription levels of fentanyl are high, which has been accompanied by observations of diversion and smoking in a smaller population. In addition to revision of inappropriate prescribing to reduce diversion, we recommend increased reliance upon confirmatory drug analysis in the addiction treatment sector in Denmark.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Kimergård
- National Addiction Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| | - Jacklyn Dunne
- National Addiction Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| | | | - Peter Hindersson
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, North Denmark Regional Hospital (Aalborg University), Hjørring, Denmark
| | - Torben Breindahl
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, North Denmark Regional Hospital (Aalborg University), Hjørring, Denmark
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19
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Evans-Brown M, Sedefov R. Responding to New Psychoactive Substances in the European Union: Early Warning, Risk Assessment, and Control Measures. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2018; 252:3-49. [PMID: 30194542 DOI: 10.1007/164_2018_160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) are drugs that are not controlled by the United Nations international drug control conventions of 1961 and 1971 but that may pose similar threats to public health. Many of them are traded as "legal" replacements to controlled drugs such as cannabis, heroin, benzodiazepines, cocaine, amphetamines, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Driven by globalization, there has been a large increase in the availability and, subsequently, harms caused by these substances over the last decade in Europe. The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) is monitoring more than 670 NPS that have appeared on Europe's drug market in the last 20 years, of which almost 90% have appeared in the last decade. While some recent policy responses have been successful in reducing availability and sales of these substances in some settings - such as "legal highs" and "research chemicals" sold openly in the high street and online - and there are signs that growth in the market is slowing, new challenges have emerged. This includes monitoring a growing number of highly potent substances - including 179 synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and 28 fentanils - that can pose a high risk of life-threatening poisoning to users and can cause explosive outbreaks. This chapter briefly traces the origins of NPS, provides an overview of the situation in Europe, and discusses the work of the EMCDDA as part of a legal framework of early warning, risk assessment, and control measures that allows the European Union to rapidly detect, assess, and respond to public health and social threats caused by these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Roumen Sedefov
- European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon, Portugal
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20
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Addison M, Stockdale K, McGovern R, McGovern W, McKinnon I, Crowe L, Hogan L, Kaner E. Exploring the intersections between novel psychoactive substances (NPS) and other substance use in a police custody suite setting in the north east of England. DRUGS-EDUCATION PREVENTION AND POLICY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/09687637.2017.1378620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Addison
- Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Kelly Stockdale
- School of Psychological and Social Sciences, York St John University, North Yorkshire, York, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Ruth McGovern
- Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - William McGovern
- School of Social Work and Communities, Northumbria University, Allendale House, Coach Lane Campus (West), Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Iain McKinnon
- Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
- Northumberland Tyne and Wear NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Lisa Crowe
- Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Lisa Hogan
- Northumbria Police, Newcastle City Centre Police Station, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Eileen Kaner
- Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
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21
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Brandt SD, Kavanagh PV, Westphal F, Elliott SP, Wallach J, Stratford A, Nichols DE, Halberstadt AL. Return of the lysergamides. Part III: Analytical characterization of N 6 -ethyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (ETH-LAD) and 1-propionyl ETH-LAD (1P-ETH-LAD). Drug Test Anal 2017; 9:1641-1649. [PMID: 28342178 PMCID: PMC6230477 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2017] [Revised: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The psychoactive properties of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) have fascinated scientists across disciplines and the exploration of other analogues and derivatives has been motivated by deepening the understanding of ligand-receptor interactions at the molecular level as well as by the search for new therapeutics. Several LSD congeners have appeared on the new psychoactive substances (NPS) market in the form of blotters or powders. Examples include 1-propionyl-LSD (1P-LSD), AL-LAD, and LSZ. The absence of analytical data for novel compounds is a frequent challenge encountered in clinical and toxicological investigations. Two newly emerging lysergamides, namely N6 -ethyl-6-norlysergic acid diethylamide (ETH-LAD) and 1P-ETH-LAD, were characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), low and high mass accuracy electrospray MS(/MS), GC solid-state infrared analysis, high performance liquid chromatography diode array detection as well as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Limited analytical data for ETH-LAD were previously available, whereas information about 1P-ETH-LAD has not previously been encountered in the scientific literature. This study extends the characterization of lysergamides distributed on the NPS market, which will help to make analytical data available to clinicians, toxicologists, and other stakeholders who are likely to encounter these substances. The analysis of a test incubation of 1P-ETH-LAD with human serum at 37°C by LC single quadrupole MS at various time points (0-6 h, once per hour and one measurement after 24 h) revealed the formation of ETH-LAD, suggesting that 1P-ETH-LAD might serve as a pro-drug. 1P-ETH-LAD was still detectable in serum after 24 h. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK
| | - Pierce V. Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St James’s Hospital, Dublin 8 D08W9RT, Ireland
| | - Folker Westphal
- State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein, Section Narcotics/Toxicology, Mühlenweg 166, D-24116 Kiel, Germany
| | - Simon P. Elliott
- Alere Forensics (Forensics Ltd), Malvern Hills Science Park, Geraldine Road, WR14 3SZ, UK
| | - Jason Wallach
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences, 600 South 43rd Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | | | - David E. Nichols
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Genetic Medicine Building, 120 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Adam L. Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA
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22
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Elliott S, Sedefov R, Evans-Brown M. Assessing the toxicological significance of new psychoactive substances in fatalities. Drug Test Anal 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon Elliott
- Alere Forensics; Malvern Hills Science Park; Worcestershire UK
| | - Roumen Sedefov
- European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA); Lisbon Portugal
| | - Michael Evans-Brown
- European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA); Lisbon Portugal
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23
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Texter KB, Waymach R, Kavanagh PV, O'Brien JE, Talbot B, Brandt SD, Gardner EA. Identification of pyrolysis products of the new psychoactive substance 2‐amino‐1‐(4‐bromo‐2,5‐dimethoxyphenyl)ethanone hydrochloride (
bk
‐2C‐B) and its iodo analogue
bk
‐2C‐I. Drug Test Anal 2017; 10:229-236. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly B. Texter
- Department of Justice Sciences University of Alabama at Birmingham 1201 University Boulevard Birmingham AL 35294 USA
| | - Rachel Waymach
- Department of Justice Sciences University of Alabama at Birmingham 1201 University Boulevard Birmingham AL 35294 USA
| | - Pierce V. Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences St James's Hospital Dublin 8 Ireland
| | - John E. O'Brien
- School of Chemistry Trinity College Dublin University of Dublin College Green Dublin 2 D02 EV57 Ireland
| | - Brian Talbot
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences Trinity College Dublin The University of Dublin, College Green Dublin 2 D02 EV57
| | - Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences Liverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - Elizabeth A. Gardner
- Department of Justice Sciences University of Alabama at Birmingham 1201 University Boulevard Birmingham AL 35294 USA
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24
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Power JD, Kavanagh P, McLaughlin G, Barry M, Dowling G, Brandt SD. ‘APAAN in the neck’ - A reflection on some novel impurities found in seized materials containing amphetamine in Ireland during routine forensic analysis. Drug Test Anal 2017; 9:966-976. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2017] [Revised: 03/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John D. Power
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences; St. James's Hospital; James's Street Dublin 8 D08W9RT Ireland
- Forensic Science Ireland; Garda HQ, Phoenix Park Dublin 8 D08HN3X Ireland
| | - Pierce Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences; St. James's Hospital; James's Street Dublin 8 D08W9RT Ireland
| | - Gavin McLaughlin
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences; St. James's Hospital; James's Street Dublin 8 D08W9RT Ireland
| | - Michael Barry
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences; St. James's Hospital; James's Street Dublin 8 D08W9RT Ireland
| | - Geraldine Dowling
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences; St. James's Hospital; James's Street Dublin 8 D08W9RT Ireland
- School of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Sciences and Health; Dublin Institute of Technology; Kevin Street Dublin 8 D08NF82 Ireland
| | - Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences; Liverpool John Moores University; Byrom Street L3 3AF Liverpool UK
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25
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Acryloylfentanyl, a recently emerged new psychoactive substance: a comprehensive review. Forensic Toxicol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-017-0367-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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26
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Pardo B, Reuter P. A chorus of pessimism surrounding the new psychoactive substances problem. Addiction 2017; 112:38-39. [PMID: 27753224 DOI: 10.1111/add.13596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 09/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bryce Pardo
- School of Public Policy, University of Maryland, MD, USA
| | - Peter Reuter
- School of Public Policy and Department of Criminology, University of Maryland, MD, USA
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