Peripheral blood eosinophils and other non-invasive biomarkers can monitor treatment response in eosinophilic oesophagitis

Biomarkers for a less invasive strategy to predict children with eosinophilic esophagitis

BACKGROUND

Noninvasive biomarkers for diagnosing and monitoring eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) are currently lacking. This study evaluates 20 biomarkers in serum and saliva, aiming to assess their diagnostic potential in pediatric EoE patients and healthy individuals.

METHODS

Blood and saliva from children undergoing upper endoscopy were analyzed for biomarkers, including absolute eosinophil count (AEC), eosinophil-derived neurotoxin (EDN), total and specific IgG4-antibodies (sIgG4), specific IgE-antibodies (sIgE) and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (15(S)-HETE). Some patients participated twice, forming a longitudinal cohort. The ability to use the biomarkers to predict the EoE diagnosis was evaluated.

RESULTS

Analysis from 105 children divided into active EoE, remission, and healthy, revealed elevated levels of serum biomarkers (AEC, EDN, 15(S)-HETE, sIgG4, and sIgE) in active EoE compared to healthy individuals. A combination of biomarkers (AEC, EDN, sIgE to egg white and wheat) and symptoms showed an AUC of 0.92 in distinguishing between the three groups. We further showed that optimal cutoff values for these biomarkers could discriminate between active EoE and healthy with a sensitivity of 88% and a specificity of 100% in distinguishing EoE (active and in remission) from healthy. Longitudinally, levels of EDN, sIgG4 to Bos d 4, Bos d 5, Bos d 8, gliadin, and birch, and sIgE to milk decreased in patients progressing from active EoE to remission (p <.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified novel biomarkers associated with EoE and proposes a panel, together with symptoms, for effective discrimination between active EoE, EoE in remission, and healthy individuals. The findings may contribute to a less invasive diagnostic method and may be a potential surveillance tool for pediatric EoE patients.

Investigating immune profile by CyTOF in patients with eosinophilic esophagitis after treatment with orodispersible budesonide

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic Th2-mediated inflammatory disease of the esophagus driven by dietary or inhalant allergens which if left untreated, leads to fibrosis and poor esophageal function. Although the inflammation in the esophagus is dominated by eosinophils, there are also elevated levels of T and B cells. Blood samples from ten patients with EoE before and after treatment with orodispersible budesonide and 10 healthy controls were compared using cytometry by time-of-flight. An antibody panel was designed that covers the major immunological cell populations with a particular focus on eosinophils. The data was analyzed with multivariate methods and cluster analysis. Correlation analysis was done between immune markers and endoscopic, histological, and symptomatologic assessments. Our analysis revealed that patients with EoE had lower levels of effector memory T cells after treatment with orodispersible budesonide to the same level as healthy subjects. In addition, more suppressive eosinophils were present in the circulation of EoE patients before treatment and more immature eosinophils were present after treatment. Furthermore, levels of galectin-10+ eosinophils correlated with histological findings in esophageal tissue from EoE patients. In all patients, the peak eosinophils were decreased after treatment with orodispersible budesonide. Intriguingly, 90% of the patients had remission in the histological assessment and 50% improved in the endoscopic assessment. This study reports a detailed immune profile in patients with EoE before and after treatment with orodispersible budesonide and it is a step toward finding blood-based immune parameters that could be useful to monitor response to treatment.

Noninvasive Disease Assessment in Eosinophilic Esophagitis With Fractionated Exhaled Nitric Oxide, Blood, and Fecal Biomarkers

BACKGROUND

Eosinophilic Esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic inflammatory condition of the esophagus triggered by food and aeroallergens. There is a need for noninvasive biomarkers that reliably detect EoE in patients with cardinal symptoms and predict treatment response to reduce endoscopic evaluations.

STUDY

Nonasthmatic patients 18 years or above with suspected or diagnosed EoE, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and control individuals with indication for endoscopy were enrolled prospectively between November 2020 and May 2022. Participants underwent body plethysmography with fractionated exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) level measurement. Besides, serum and fecal biomarkers were measured by ELISA. A follow-up examination was scheduled after treatment initiation in patients with active EoE.

RESULTS

The median FeNO level in active EoE (20 ppb) was higher compared with GERD (15 ppb, P=0.038) and control individuals (14 ppb, P=0.046). Median FeNO did not significantly differ in EoE patients who underwent follow-up assessment after treatment response (20 ppb vs. 18 ppb, P=0.771). Serum EDN, ECP, and the absolute eosinophil blood count (AEC) were elevated in active EoE compared with control individuals but not compared with GERD except for AEC. Serum EDN, ECP and AEC decreased in EoE in remission at follow-up assessment. None of the fecal biomarkers was elevated in active EoE or during treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Assessment of FeNO may have diagnostic value in differentiating patients with active EoE from non-EoE patients but is not a suitable marker for monitoring disease activity. Serum EDN, ECP, TARC, and AEC levels are emerging as potential candidates for monitoring disease activity in EoE.

Characterization of a Romanian Pediatric Population with Eosinophilic Esophagitis

Background/objectives: An increase in the incidence of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) in children has been reported worldwide in the last decade. We conducted a study in a tertiary pediatric gastroenterology unit aimed at analyzing the clinical manifestations, biochemical markers, and endoscopic features of children with EoE in comparison to patients with non-eosinophilic esophagitis. Methods: This is a prospective analysis involving children with symptoms related to esophageal dysfunction, who had esophagogastroduodenoscopies with esophageal biopsies between January 2021 and April 2024 at "Dr. Victor Gomoiu" Clinical Children's Hospital, in Bucharest, Romania. For the analysis, patients were considered in either Group 1, classified as EoE, or in Group 2, classified as reflux esophagitis. Results: Among the total of 72 patients diagnosed with esophagitis, 17 patients (Group 1-study group) were classified as EoE and 55 were classified as reflux esophagitis (Group 2-control group). The sex ratio analysis showed a male predominance in the study group (71% vs. 32%, p = 0.002). The main symptoms were regurgitation, eructation, and nausea. Dysphagia was present in two (11.76%) patients from Group 1. Eosinophilia was more prevalent in the EoE group than in the individuals with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) (10 (58.85%) vs. 10 (18.18%, p = 0.001)), as well as the total IgE (11 (64.70%) vs. 6 (10.9%, p = 0.001)). Conclusions: Pediatric gastroenterologists need to be aware of EoE atypical presentation and perform adequate biopsies, mainly in children with refractory GERD-like symptoms, dysphagia, and food bolus impaction. Further analyses in terms of prognosis and treatment response should be addressed in longitudinal studies.

Diagnosis and management of eosinophilic esophagitis in children: An update from the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN)

INTRODUCTION

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the esophagus characterized by symptoms of esophageal dysfunction and histologically by predominantly eosinophilic infiltration of the squamous epithelium. European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) published a guideline in 2014; however, the rapid evolution of knowledge about pathophysiology, diagnostic criteria, and therapeutic options have made an update necessary.

METHODS

A consensus group of pediatric gastroenterologists from the ESPGHAN Working Group on Eosinophilic Gastrointestinal Diseases (ESPGHAN EGID WG) reviewed the recent literature and proposed statements and recommendations on 28 relevant questions about EoE. A comprehensive electronic literature search was performed in MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane databases from 2014 to 2022. The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation system was used to assess the quality of evidence and formulate recommendations.

RESULTS

A total of 52 statements based on the available evidence and 44 consensus-based recommendations are available. A revision of the diagnostic protocol, options for initial drug treatment, and the new concept of simplified empiric elimination diets are now available. Biologics are becoming a part of the potential armamentarium for refractory EoE, and systemic steroids may be considered as the initial treatment for esophageal strictures before esophageal dilation. The importance and assessment of quality of life and a planned transition to adult medical care are new areas addressed in this guideline.

CONCLUSION

Research in recent years has led to a better understanding of childhood EoE. This guideline incorporates the new findings and provides a practical guide for clinicians treating children diagnosed with EoE.

Baseline Peripheral Eosinophil Count Independently Predicts Proton Pump Inhibitor Response in Eosinophilic Esophagitis

GOALS

To assess the predictive value of baseline peripheral absolute eosinophil counts (AECs) for proton pump inhibitor (PPI) response in eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE).

BACKGROUND

PPI leads to histologic remission in ~50% of EoE patients, although there are few distinguishing clinical features between PPI-responsive (PPI-r-EoE) and nonresponsive (PPI-nr-EoE) diseases. Peripheral eosinophilia is present in ~50% of EoE cases and is associated with eosinophil density on esophageal biopsy and worse clinical outcomes. The association between peripheral eosinophilia and PPI-responsiveness in EoE remains unclear.

STUDY

This is a retrospective cohort study of adult EoE patients at a tertiary center between 2012 and 2016. All patients underwent twice daily PPI trials for ≥8 weeks followed by repeat esophageal biopsies and were classified as PPI-r-EoE or PPI-nr-EoE based on histologic response (<15 eosinophils/high power field). Baseline peripheral AEC was obtained within 1 month before index endoscopy. Analyses were performed using Fisher exact/Student t test (univariate) and logistic regression (multivariable).

RESULTS

One hundred eighty-three patients (91 PPI-nr-EoE and 92 PPI-r-EoE) were included. Mean peripheral AEC was higher among PPI-nr-EoE patients (0.41 vs 0.24 K/µL, P = 0.013). Baseline peripheral eosinophilia (>0.5 K/µL) was more prevalent among patients with PPI-nr-EoE (70.4% vs 45.5%, P = 0.023) and a history of food impaction (51.9% vs 23.7%, P = 0.0082). On multivariable analyses, peripheral eosinophilia remained an independent predictor for PPI response (adjacent odds ratio = 2.86, CI: 1.07-7.62, P = 0.036) and food impaction (adjacent odds ratio = 2.80, CI: 1.07-7.35, P = 0.037).

CONCLUSIONS

Baseline peripheral eosinophilia independently predicts PPI nonresponse and food impaction in EoE patients. Peripheral AEC may help therapy selection in EoE and prevent delays in achieving histologic remission.

Non-Invasive and Minimally Invasive Biomarkers for the Management of Eosinophilic Esophagitis beyond Peak Eosinophil Counts: Filling the Gap in Clinical Practice

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic esophageal disease that needs lifelong management and follow-up. The diagnosis requires an upper endoscopy with at least one esophageal biopsy demonstrating >15 eosinophils/high-power field, and often occurs with a diagnostic delay of up to ten years, partly due to the absence of valid non-invasive screening tools. In addition, serial upper endoscopies with esophageal biopsies are mandatory to assess the efficacy of any ongoing treatment in patients with EoE. These procedures are invasive, costly, and, when performed without sedation, are often poorly tolerated by patients. Therefore, there is the clinical need to identify reliable non-invasive or minimally invasive biomarkers that could be used to assess disease activity in clinical practice as a surrogate of peak eosinophil counts on esophageal biopsies. This review summarizes evidence on investigational non-invasive or minimally invasive biomarkers for the diagnosis and follow-up of EoE to report on the state of the art in the field and support future research. We discussed eosinophil-derived mediators including eosinophil cationic protein (ECP), eosinophil-derived neurotoxin (EDN, also known as eosinophil protein X), eosinophil peroxidase (EPO), and major basic protein (MBP) as well as other promising non-eosinophil-derived biomarkers. Although several studies have shown the utility of most biomarkers collected from the serum, esophageal luminal secretions, and feces of EoE patients, numerous limitations currently hamper the integration of such biomarkers in clinical practice. Future studies should aim at validating the utility of non-invasive and minimally invasive biomarkers using rigorous protocols and updated consensus criteria for EoE.

Outcomes reported in randomized controlled trials for mixed and non-IgE-mediated food allergy: Systematic review

BACKGROUND

Mixed and non-IgE-mediated food allergy is a subset of immune-mediated adverse food reactions that can impose a major burden on the quality of life of affected patients and their families. Clinical trials to study these diseases are reliant upon consistent and valid outcome measures that are relevant to both patients and clinicians, but the degree to which such stringent outcome reporting takes place is poorly studied.

OBJECTIVE

As part of the Core Outcome Measures for Food Allergy (COMFA) project, we identified outcomes reported in randomized clinical trials (RCT) of treatments for mixed or non-IgE-mediated food allergy.

DESIGN

In this systematic review, we searched the Ovid, MEDLINE and Embase databases for RCTs in children or adults investigating treatments for food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome, food protein-induced allergic proctocolitis, food protein-induced enteropathy and eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders including eosinophilic esophagitis [EoE], eosinophilic gastritis and eosinophilic colitis published until 14 October 2022.

RESULTS

Twenty-six eligible studies were identified, with 23 focused on EoE (88%). Most interventions were corticosteroids or monoclonal antibodies. All EoE studies assessed patient-reported dysphagia, usually using a non-validated questionnaire. Twenty-two of 23 EoE studies used peak tissue eosinophil count as the primary outcome, usually using a non-validated assessment method, and other immunological markers were only exploratory. Thirteen (57%) EoE studies reported endoscopic outcomes of which six used a validated scoring tool recently recommended as a core outcome for EoE trials. Funding source was not obviously associated with likelihood of an RCT reporting mechanistic versus patient-reported outcomes. Only 3 (12%) RCTs concerned forms of food allergy other than EoE, and they reported on fecal immunological markers and patient-reported outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Outcomes measured in clinical trials of EoE and non-IgE-mediated food allergy are heterogeneous and largely non-validated. Core outcomes for EoE have been developed and need to be used in future trials. For other forms of mixed or non-IgE-mediated food allergies, core outcome development is needed to support the development of effective treatments.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

OSF public registry DOI:10.17605/OSF.IO/AZX8S.

Salivary microRNAs in pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis

Background: Diagnosis and management of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) occur via esophagogastroduodenoscopy with tissue biopsy. Objective: We sought to determine if salivary microribonucleic acid (miRNA) levels could differentiate children with EoE, serving as a noninvasive biomarker. Methods: Saliva was collected from children undergoing esophagogastroduodenoscopy (N = 291). miRNA analysis was conducted on 150 samples: EoE (n = 50), no pathologic alteration (n = 100). RNA was quantified with high throughput sequencing and aligned to build hg38 of the human genome using sequencing and alignment software. Quantile normalized levels of robustly expressed miRNAs (raw counts > 10 in 10% of samples) were compared across EoE and non-EoE groups with Wilcoxon rank sum testing. miRNA biomarker candidates were selected based on variable importance projection (VIP) scoring with partial least squared discriminant analysis (VIP > 1.5). Ability of these miRNAs to differentiate EoE status was assessed via logistic regression. Putative biologic targets for the miRNA candidates were determined in miRNA pathway analysis software. Results: Of the 56 salivary miRNAs reliably detected, miR-205-5p displayed the largest difference between EoE and non-EoE groups (V = 1623, adjusted p = 0.029). Six miRNAs (miR-26b-5p, miR-27b-3p, Let-7i-5p, miR-142-5p, miR-30a-5p, miR-205-5p) displayed elevated VIP scores (>1.5) and were able to differentiate EoE samples on logistic regression analysis with 70% sensitivity and 68% specificity. These six miRNAs demonstrated significant enrichment for gene targets involved in valine, leucine, and isoleucine biosynthesis (p = 0.0012), 2-oxycarboxylic acid metabolism (p = 0.043), and steroid hormone biosynthesis (p = 0.048). Conclusions: Salivary miRNAs represent a noninvasive, biologically relevant measure that may aid disease monitoring of EoE.

Blood-Based Biomarkers for Eosinophilic Esophagitis and Concomitant Atopic Diseases: A Look into the Potential of Extracellular Vesicles

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic, Th2-inflammatory disease of the esophagus that can severely affect food intake. Currently, diagnosis and assessing response to treatment of EoE is highly invasive and requires endoscopy with esophageal biopsies. Finding non-invasive and accurate biomarkers is important for improving patient well-being. Unfortunately, EoE is usually accompanied by other atopies, which make it difficult to identify specific biomarkers. Providing an update of circulating EoE biomarkers and concomitant atopies is therefore timely. This review summarizes the current knowledge in EoE blood biomarkers and two of its most common comorbidities, bronchial asthma (BA) and atopic dermatitis (AD), focusing on dysregulated proteins, metabolites, and RNAs. It also revises the current knowledge on extracellular vesicles (EVs) as non-invasive biomarkers for BA and AD, and concludes with the potential use of EVs as biomarkers in EoE.

A meta-analysis on randomized controlled trials of treating eosinophilic esophagitis with budesonide

OBJECTIVE

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic, local immune-mediated inflammatory oesophageal disease. Although Budesonide is recommended as one of the first-line drugs for EoE treatment, its efficacy is still controversial in multiple studies. Due to the continuous emergence of new and reliable research evidence in recent years, we updated the meta-analysis using RCT trial results to evaluate the efficacy and safety of budesonide.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Retrieve the data of the randomised controlled trial literature from 2000 to June 20, 2021, on using Budesonide in the treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis from the three major databases. Based on the results achieved with the Cochrane risk assessment tool, evaluate the quality of the included literature to extract the data, and perform the Meta-analysis with RevMan5.4 and Stata15.0.

RESULTS

A total of 958 articles were retrieved, with 10 articles finally included, thus forming a sample size of 712 cases. The main outcome indicators of the meta-analysis are as follows: (1) Histological remission: the Budesonide group performs better than the placebo control group when it comes to histological remission of injuries [RR = 23.82, 95%CI = (13.46, 42.21), p < .001]; (2) Eosinophil count: the Budesonide group is superior to the control group in terms of reduced eosinophil count [SMD = -1.34, 95%CI = (-1.52, -1.15), p < .001].

CONCLUSION

More and more high-quality randomised controlled trials show that oral budesonide in the treatment of eosinophils esophagitis was better than the placebo group. Mounting high-quality RCTs have confirmed the efficacy of oral budesonide in the treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis and that the effects of this drug may not be so dose-dependent. It is safe to take budesonide for a long time, and this drug is a relatively ideal option for drug treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis at present, so it is worthy of clinical application.Key MessagesWe used high-quality randomised controlled trials to meta-update the previous results to further confirm the clinical efficacy and safety of budesonide.Oral budesonide in the treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis is significantly better than the placebo control group. We have confirmed the value of its clinical application and promotion by including more high-quality randomised controlled trials.We also found that the efficacy of budesonide in patients is not dose-dependent, and more research is needed to confirm this.

Eosinophilic esophagitis auxiliary diagnosis based on a peptide ligand to eosinophil cationic protein in esophageal mucus of pediatric patients

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic inflammatory condition of the esophagus characterized by increased number of eosinophils. Currently, EoE diagnosis is based on endoscopic procedures for histopathological examination, eosinophils' counting and, often, in clinical practice, the challenge is the differentiation between EoE and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Our aim was to develop novel peptide ligand to Eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) present in EoE biopsies of patients with potential to be used for detection. We performed a comparative proteomic analysis using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) of esophageal biopsies from pediatric patients with eosinophilic esophagitis, gastroesophageal reflux disease and control individuals. Then, phage display technology was used to select peptides against specific up-regulated protein from EoE patients. Twelve phage clones were selected after three biopanning rounds, and the best phage clone reactivity was evaluated by phage-ELISA assay using esophageal mucus samples from 94 pediatric patients. Mass spectrometry showed that eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) was one of the most up-regulated proteins in EoE patients, which is an eosinophil granule protein usually deposited on tissues to mediate remodeling, but in excess may cause fibrosis and hypertrophy, especially in allergic responses. A highly reactive ECP-ligand peptide (E5) was able to distinguish reactive mucus of EoE patients from GERD and the control individuals by Phage-ELISA, achieving a sensitivity of 84.62%, and a specificity of 82.72%. This is the first study that successfully demonstrated an antibody-like peptide targeting ECP at the esophagus mucus as a useful auxilliary tool for EoE diagnosis with a significant association with atopic disorders and dysphagia.ClinicalTrials.gov no.: NCT03069573.

Models and Tools for Investigating Eosinophilic Esophagitis at the Bench

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is an increasingly common food allergy disease of the esophagus that received its medical designation code in 2008. Despite this recency, great strides have been made in the understanding of EoE pathophysiology and type 2 immunity through basic and translational scientific investigations conducted at the bench. These advances have been critical to our understanding of disease mechanisms and generating new hypotheses, however, there currently is only one very recently approved FDA-approved therapy for EoE, leaving a great deal to be uncovered for patients with this disease. Here we review some of the innovative methods, models and tools that have contributed to the advances in EoE discovery and suggest future directions of investigation to expand upon this foundation.

De Novo Food Allergy in Pediatric Recipients of Liver Transplant

ABSTRACT

Allergic and atopic conditions, including food allergy, asthma, eczema and eosinophilic disease of the gastrointestinal tract after liver transplant in previously non-allergic children have been increasingly described. After a liver transplant, children can present mild to severe reactions to food allergens (ie, from urticaria-angioedema to life-threatening anaphylactic reactions). De novo post-transplant food allergy may become clinically evident in children who undergo liver transplant between a few months and a few years of transplant. The present narrative review aims to describe the spectrum of de novo post-transplant food allergy development, the current theories of pathogenesis, risk factors and to suggest possible clinical management strategies.

Noninvasive biomarkers identify eosinophilic esophagitis: A prospective longitudinal study in children

BACKGROUND

Esophageal histology is critical for diagnosis and surveillance of disease activity in eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). A validated noninvasive biomarker has not been identified. We aimed to determine the utility of blood and urine eosinophil-associated proteins to diagnose EoE and predict esophageal eosinophilia.

METHODS

Blood and urine were collected from children undergoing endoscopy with biopsy. Absolute eosinophil count (AEC), plasma eosinophil-derived neurotoxin (EDN), eosinophil cationic protein (ECP), major basic protein-1 (MBP-1), galectin-10 (CLC/GAL-10), Eotaxin-2 and Eotaxin-3, and urine osteopontin (OPN) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) were determined. Differences were assessed between EoE and control, and with treatment response. The capacity to predict EoE diagnosis and esophageal eosinophil counts was assessed.

RESULTS

Of 183 specimens were collected from 56 EoE patients and 15 non-EoE controls with symptoms of esophageal dysfunction; 33 EoE patients had paired pre- and post-treatment specimens. Plasma (CLC/GAL-10, ECP, EDN, Eotaxin-3, MBP-1) and urine (OPN) biomarkers were increased in EoE compared to control. A panel comprising CLC/GAL-10, Eotaxin-3, ECP, EDN, MBP-1, and AEC was superior to AEC alone in distinguishing EoE from control. AEC, CLC/GAL-10, ECP, and MBP-1 were significantly decreased in patients with esophageal eosinophil counts <15/hpf in response to treatment. AEC, CLC/GAL-10, ECP, EDN, OPN, and MBP-1 each predicted esophageal eosinophil counts utilizing mixed models controlled for age, gender, treatment, and atopy; AEC combined with MBP-1 best predicted the counts.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified novel panels of eosinophil-associated proteins that along with AEC are superior to AEC alone in distinguishing EoE from controls and predicting esophageal eosinophil counts.

Noninvasive tests for eosinophilic esophagitis: Ready for use?

OBJECTIVE

To summarize the existing literature for several promising minimally invasive tests to measure disease activity in eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE).

DATA SOURCES

Literature searches were performed using PubMed. Keyword combinations included eosinophilic esophagitis and minimally invasive techniques, including the esophageal string test, Cytosponge, transnasal endoscopy, technetium-labeled heparin, and noninvasive biomarkers.

STUDY SELECTIONS

Retrospective and prospective observational studies, peer-reviewed reviews, and systematic reviews were selected. Data were reviewed and summarized.

RESULTS

Various techniques have been developed in recent years to measure disease activity in EoE without the need for conventional endoscopy. Our review summarizes the data on these techniques, the benefits and limitations, and future directions for implementation in both research and clinical care.

CONCLUSION

Tremendous progress has been made toward developing minimally invasive techniques to measure disease activity in EoE. Each of the techniques mentioned in this review has advantages and disadvantages, and some are closer to widespread use than others.

Topically applied mometasone furoate improves dysphagia in adult eosinophilic esophagitis - results from a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial

OBJECTIVES

Topical corticosteroids are considered a cornerstone in the treatment of patients with eosinophilic esophagitis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the benefit of using mometasone furoate spray versus placebo on dysphagia and health-related quality of life in these patients.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Consecutive, newly diagnosed adult patients with eosinophilic esophagitis were randomized and treated with either 200 micrograms of orally administered topical mometasone furoate or placebo 4 times daily for 8 weeks. Symptoms and quality of life were evaluated using questionnaires including the Watson Dysphagia Scale, the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life-Oesophageal Module 18 and the Short Form-36 before and after treatment.

RESULTS

In the intention-to-treat analysis (n = 36) the Watson Dysphagia Scale score after mometasone treatment was reduced by 6.5 (median, p < .01) compared with 0 (median, ns) in the placebo group. The benefit of mometasone over placebo was significant (p < .05). In the per-protocol analysis (n = 33) the Watson Dysphagia Scale score was reduced by 5 (median, p = .01) after mometasone treatment compared with 0 (median, ns) in the placebo group. The advantage of mometasone over the placebo was significant (p < .05). The benefit of using mometasoneas evaluated by the two quality of life questionnaires was, however, insignificant.

CONCLUSIONS

Our finding suggests that in adult patients with eosinophilic esophagitis, topical mometasone furoate exerts a beneficial effect compared with placebo regarding the main symptom, i.e., dysphagia. A corresponding benefit could not be verified regarding the various quality of life measurements.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

Mometasone-furoate for Treatment of Eosinophilic Esophagitis - a Randomized Placebo Controlled Study ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier (NCT02113267).

Blood mRNA levels of T cells and IgE receptors are novel non-invasive biomarkers for eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE)

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is often misdiagnosed as GERD; therefore, the goal of the current study is to establish a non-invasive diagnostic and monitoring biomarker that differentiated GERD from EoE. Reports indicates that IL-15 responsive iNKT cells and tissue specific IgE have a critical in EoE pathogenesis, not in GERD. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that the panel of IL-15-responsive T cell and IgE receptors may be novel non-invasive biomarkers for EoE. Accordingly, the receptors of IL-15 responsive T cells (Vα24, Jα18, γδT, αβT) and IgE (FcεRI & FcεRII) were examined. The data indicates that blood mRNA levels of Vα24, Jα18, γδ T, αβ T and FcεRI are significantly reduced in EoE compared to the GERD patients and normal individuals. The ROC curve analysis indicated FcεRII, Jα18 and δ TCR are the positive predictors that discriminate EoE from GERD. Thus, these molecules will be a novel non-invasive diagnostic biomarker for EoE.

Patient-Reported Outcomes and Blood-Based Parameters Identify Response to Treatment in Eosinophilic Esophagitis

BACKGROUND

Noninvasive methods to assess treatment response in eosinophilic esophagitis are needed.

AIMS

Our aim was to determine whether a blood-based biomarker panel centered on immune parameters could identify histologic response to treatment in eosinophilic esophagitis patients.

METHODS

A pilot study involving adult patients with active eosinophilic esophagitis recruited at two Ear, Nose, Throat clinics in Sweden was designed. The patients (n = 20) donated blood and esophageal biopsies and filled in three questionnaires before and after a 2-month course of topical corticosteroids. Blood samples were analyzed for absolute levels of granulocytes and T cells and the fractions of eosinophils expressing 10 different surface markers by flow cytometry. All data were analyzed by multivariate methods of pattern recognition.

RESULTS

Multivariate modeling revealed that a combination of 13 immune parameters and 10 patient-reported outcome scores were required to create a model capable of separating responders (n = 15) from non-responders (n = 5). Questions regarding symptoms of esophageal dysfunction and capacity to eat certain foods from two of the questionnaires were discriminatory in the multivariate model, as were absolute counts of T cells, eosinophils, and eosinophil expression of activation markers and cell adhesion molecules.

CONCLUSIONS

A combination of blood-based immune parameters and directed questions may prove helpful to monitor response to treatment, perhaps reducing the need for repeat endoscopies in eosinophilic esophagitis patients in the future.

Eosinophilic Esophagitis in Children in North-Eastern Poland

Background: An increase in the incidence of eosinophilic esophagitis worldwide is being observed in children. The aim of the study was to analyze the incidence, clinical manifestations, biochemical markers and endoscopic features of children with eosinophilic esophagitis in comparison to patients with non-eosinophilic esophagitis. Methods: This single-center retrospective study included newly diagnosed children with eosinophilic (EoE) and non-eosinophilic (non-EoE) esophagitis based on endoscopic and histopathological results between January 2013 and December 2018. Result: Among 433 of enrolled children with esophagitis, 36 (8.31%) were diagnosed with EoE (median age of 10 years). Male predominance and an increased percentage of allergy cases in the EoE group were noticed. Dysphagia was the only symptom that significantly differentiated both groups (p = 0.006). Endoscopic findings with relevant relationships with EoE included linear fissuring, decreased vascular pattern, trachealization and whitish exudates. No significant difference in the prevalence of other reported diseases between groups was observed. Conclusion: The results of EoE analysis in children from North-Eastern Poland did not differ from reports from other countries. The reported symptoms were not specific for EoE, and only dysphagia and some endoscopic lesions were helpful to differentiate children with EoE from non-EoE.

Treatment of eosinophlic esophagitis with swallowed topical corticosteroids

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is an emerging chronic local immune-mediated disease of the esophagus. Beside proton pump inhibitors and food-restriction-diets swallowed topical corticosteroids (STC) can be offered as a first line therapy according to current guidelines. This review describes the background and practical management of STCs in EoE. So far, mainly asthma inhalers containing either budesonide or fluticasone have been administered to the esophagus by swallowing these medications “off label”. Recently esophagus-targeted formulations of topical steroids have been developed showing clinicopathological response rates up to 85% - an orodispersible tablet of budesonide has been approved as the first “in label” medication for EoE in Europe in June 2018. Whereas it was shown that disease remission induction of EoE by STCs is highly effective, there is still a lack of data regarding long-term and maintenance therapy. However, current studies on STC maintenance therapy add some movement into the game.

Orodispersible budesonide tablets for the treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis: a review of the latest evidence

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the esophagus characterized by symptoms of esophageal dysfunction and eosinophil-predominant inflammation. The incidence of EoE has increased substantially over the past two decades in Europe and North America. The natural course of EoE appears to be progressive with a high risk of stricture formation. The current European guideline recommend swallowed topical corticosteroids, proton-pump inhibitors or dietary intervention for initial and long-term treatment of EoE. Swallowed topical corticosteroids can be considered to be the best studied drug class in EoE, with more than 1000 patients enrolled in randomized clinical trials worldwide. In most of them, fluticasone or budesonide formulations have been used that were originally designed for asthma therapy, thus presumably suboptimal for EoE treatment. The new orodispersible budesonide tablet with effervescent properties is the first approved esophageal-targeted formulation specifically developed for the treatment of EoE, which has become available in many European countries. This article gives an overview of the evolution of topical corticosteroids in EoE and provides an update on recent data from large-scale multicenter trials exploring the efficacy and safety of the orodispersible budesonide tablet with effervescent properties in adult EoE patients.

Do Histological Features of Eosinophilic Esophagitis in Children Correlate With Peripheral Eosinophils?

AIM

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic, relapsing inflammatory disease of the esophagus. We investigate whether peripheral eosinophils can be a good indicator of esophageal eosinophilia and whether they correlate with histological findings, such as basilar hyperplasia, spongiosis, microabscesses, number of lymphocytes, and number of neutrophils.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review was conducted with EoE patients ages <18 years after obtaining IRB approval. Biopsies obtained from 57 EoE patients were analyzed. Patient demographics, symptoms; complete blood count with differentials obtained at the time of endoscopies or within a month of the procedure, were documented.

RESULTS

A significant correlation was observed between peripheral absolute eosinophil count (AEC) and peak esophageal eosinophil count (P value: 0.0009). Subjects with biopsies suggestive of ongoing disease activity or active status had a higher mean of AEC at 577.41 ± 202.60 compared with subjects with inactivity with mean of 305.26 ± 526.67. However, when the subjects were broadly divided with 500 AEC as a cut off (<500 and >500 AEC), it was found that, out of 27 EoE inactive patients, 24 had AEC count less than or equal to 500 and out of 66 EoE active patients, 32 had AEC more than 500.

CONCLUSION

Active EoE status meant a higher mean of AEC compared with inactive status; but AEC was not found to be a sensitive tool for detecting active EoE.

Eosinophilic Esophagitis in Adults: A Concise Overview of an Evolving Disease

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic inflammatory disease that encompasses esophageal symptoms along with eosinophilic infiltration of the esophageal epithelium. EoE is an evolving disease that has been a subject of interest to many researchers since the first studies recognized this condition as a new and distinct clinicopathological entity 25 years ago. Clinical presentation in adult patients may include dysphagia, food impaction, vomiting, and reflux symptoms. The diagnosis of EoE is based on the combination of clinical history suggestive of esophageal dysfunction, endoscopic features indicative of the disease, and histology revealing eosinophilic infiltration of the esophageal epithelium that persists after a trial of proton pump inhibitor therapy along with the exclusion of other disorders that may be associated with esophageal tissue eosinophilia. The interplay between EoE and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is complex, and differentiating these two conditions continues to be difficult and challenging in clinical practice. The mainstay treatment includes dietary modification, topical steroids, and/or endoscopic dilation. The primary care physician (PCP) plays an important role in improving patient care and quality of life by ensuring early referral and participating in management and follow-up. This article provides an overview of the current knowledge base regarding the disease including epidemiology, genetics, pathogenesis, common clinical presentations, the interplay between EoE and GERD, diagnostic approaches, and therapeutic options available to the PCP.

IgG4 is Elevated in Eosinophilic Esophagitis but Not in Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Patients

BACKGROUND

For eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) recently an association with immunoglobulin (Ig)G4 rather than IgE has been reported. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is the most important differential diagnosis of EoE. We compared esophageal IgG4 plasma cell infiltration and serum IgG4 levels of EoE patients (before and after budesonide therapy) with GERD patients.

METHODS

Prospectively collected serum samples of 17 EoE patients before and after 8 weeks of therapy with budesonide (1 mg BID) were analyzed for total and antigen-specific IgG4 and IgE levels. Also, immunohistochemical analysis of total and IgG4-positive plasma cells was performed on esophageal biopsies of these patients. In total, 14 GERD patients without histologic proof of eosinophilic infiltration were taken as a control group.

RESULTS

Total IgG4 serum levels in EoE patients were significantly higher than in GERD patients (121.0 vs. 71.2 mg/dL; P=0.038) and decreased under budesonide therapy (121.0 vs. 104.2 mg/dL; P=0.019). IgE levels did not differ significantly between all groups. In EoE patients also a high number of esophageal IgG4-positive plasma cells was detected and significantly reduced under therapy (29.1 vs. 0.1 IgG4-positive cells; P<0.001). In GERD patients no relevant esophageal plasma cell infiltration could be seen.

CONCLUSIONS

In EoE patients elevated systemic IgG4 serum levels compared with GERD patients can be seen and decrease under topical steroid therapy. Also, local IgG4 plasma cells expression is high in EoE, but not in GERD patients and normalize under therapy. These findings are further proof for a possible association of EoE with IgG4.

Eosinophilic esophagitis: pitfalls and controversies in diagnosis and management

Formerly considered a rare disorder, eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) has emerged as a leading cause of feeding problems in children and an increasingly recognized cause of dysphagia and food impaction in adults. Our understanding of EoE and its complex interplay with gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) has evolved over the past decade and culminated in the introduction of proton pump inhibitor (PPI) responsive EoE as a distinct entity which has added to this complexity. It is now clear that this entity is on the same spectrum as the original EoE, and that PPIs should be considered as part of treatment protocol and should not be recommended as a diagnostic tool. As such, removing the PPI trial from the diagnostic algorithm has been encouraged recently. Recent guidelines and reviews thoroughly address various aspects in EoE pathogenesis and diagnostic workup as well as management endpoints, treatment options and novel therapies. However, despite the recent extensive study and the advances in our knowledge of this disease, unmet needs and pitfalls in diagnostic workup and management of these patients are still to be clarified and will be under focus in this review.

Eosinophilic esophagitis in children: doubts and future perspectives

Background

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic immune-mediated inflammatory disorder and represents the leading cause of food impaction. The pathogenesis of EoE is the result of an interplay between genetic, environmental and host immune system factors. New therapeutic approaches for EoE have been proposed. In this manuscript we review the current evidence regarding EoE management in pediatric age, with a particular focus on new findings related to the efficacy and safety of monoclonal antibodies.

Main body

Conventional therapies have failed in treating some patients with EoE, which then requires aggressive procedures such as esophageal dilatation. The most effective available medical therapy for EoE is swallowed topic corticosteroids (fluticasone propionate and budesonide), which have two main drawbacks: they are related to well-known adverse effects (especially in the paediatric population), and there are not enough long-term data to confirm that they are able to reverse the remodelling process of the esophageal mucosa, which is the major cause of EoE symptoms (including dysphagia, abdominal pain, nausea, obstruction, perforation and vomiting). The monoclonal antibodies appear to be an interesting therapeutic approach. However, the studies conducted until now have shown substantial histological improvement not coupled with significant clinical improvements and no significant relationship between a decreasing number of eosinophils and clinical symptoms, highlighting the importance in the pathogenesis of EoE of cells such as T-helper cells, mast cells, B cells, epithelial cells and natural killer cells.

Conclusions

Monoclonal antibodies targeting a signal involved in the pathogenesis of EoE may not break the complex self-propagating inflammatory activation responsible for perpetuation of the inflammatory response and the development of symptoms and complications. We speculate that combined biological therapies targeting more than one molecule or cell may provide better results, with conventional therapies potentially enhancing the effects of antibodies. However, further studies should aim to find the best therapeutic approach to target the cells involved in the remodelling process and to reverse the histological changes in this complex clinical condition.

Serum eosinophilic cationic protein is correlated with food impaction and endoscopic severity in eosinophilic esophagitis

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The aim of the present study was to analyze the diagnostic accuracy of serum eosinophilic cationic protein (ECP) for eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) and the correlation of ECP with clinical, histopathological, laboratory, and endoscopic features of EoE.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifteen patients with EoE and 14 healthy controls were included in the study. Demographic parameters were recorded. EoE Endoscopic Reference Score (EREFS) was calculated according to endoscopic features, and esophageal biopsies were obtained by a single experienced endoscopist in a patient group. Serum ECP levels (μg/mL), absolute eosinophil count (U/mm3), and maximum peak of eosinophils/high-power field in esophageal biopsies were analyzed.

RESULTS

The median age of all participants was 33.0 (min-max: 18-46) years. There were 27 (93.1%) male patients. Serum ECP level was significantly higher in patients with EoE than in healthy volunteers (20.4 vs. 8.8, p<0.0001). According to the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, ECP had 80% sensitivity and 92.8% specificity to diagnose EoE with a cut-off value of 13.9 µg/mL (area under the ROC curve 0.895; p<0.0001; 95% CI: 0.725-0.978). EREFS (p<0.0001) and the presence of food impaction (p=0.04) were significantly correlated with ECP.

CONCLUSION

Serum ECP is an accurate non-invasive biomarker for EoE with high specificity and sensitivity. In addition, ECP is strongly correlated with EREFS and the symptom of food impaction.

Japanese Cedar Pollen-Specific IgA in Nasal Secretions and Nasal Allergy Symptoms

OBJECTIVE:

IgA-dependent degranulation of eosinophils and positive correlation between IgA and eosinophil cytotoxic protein levels in nasal secretions have been reported. However, the association between IgA and allergic reactions remains unclear. Therefore, we evaluated the changes in Japanese cedar-specific IgA levels and allergy symptoms after Japanese cedar pollen scattering in symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals sensitized to Japanese cedar pollen.

METHODS:

Nasal secretion and serum samples were collected from 31 participants (21 symptomatic and 10 asymptomatic participants) in January (preseason) and March (peak season). Japanese cedar-specific IgA or IgE levels were measured using ELISA with diamond-like carbon-coated chips.

RESULTS:

The ratio of Japanese cedar pollen-specific IgA to total IgA (rIgA) in the nasal secretions of symptomatic participants increased significantly in March compared with that in January ( P < .01); however, the ratio of specific IgE to total IgE (rIgE) in nasal secretions did not. rIgA in nasal secretions among asymptomatic participants also did not increase during pollen season. rIgA in nasal secretions was significantly correlated with nasal allergic symptoms (r = 0.82; P < .0001) with no significant correlation between rIgE and symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS:

To our knowledge, this is the first study to show an association between nasal symptoms and rIgA in nasal secretions, suggesting that rIgA is useful as an antigen-specific biomarker for allergic rhinitis or pollinosis. Furthermore, rIgA values in nasal secretions do not increase in asymptomatic participants sensitized to Japanese cedar during the pollen season.

Pathophysiology of Eosinophilic Esophagitis

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the esophagus associated with an atopic predisposition which appears to be increasing in prevalence over the last few decades. Symptoms stem from fibrosis, swelling, and smooth muscle dysfunction. In the past two decades, the etiology of EoE has been and is continuing to be revealed. This review provides an overview of the effects of genetics, environment, and immune function including discussions that touch on microbiome, the role of diet, food allergy, and aeroallergy. The review further concentrates on the pathophysiology of the disease with particular focus on the important concepts of the molecular etiology of EoE including barrier dysfunction and allergic hypersensitivity.

Eosinophilic Esophagitis: Review and Update

Background: Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) was first described in the 1990s, showing an increasing incidence and prevalence since then, being the leading cause of food impaction and the major cause of dysphagia. Probably, in a few years, EoE may no longer be considered a rare disease. Methods: This article discusses new aspects of the pathogenesis, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of EoE according to the last published guidelines. Results: The epidemiological studies indicate a multifactorial origin for EoE, where environmental and genetic factors take part. EoE affects both children and adults and it is frequently associated with atopic disease and IgE-mediated food allergies. In patients undergoing oral immunotherapy for desensitization from IgE-mediated food allergy the risk of developing EoE is 2.72%. Barrier dysfunction and T-helper 2 inflammation is considered to be pathogenetically important factors. There are different patterns of clinical presentation varying with age and can be masked by adaptation habits. Besides, symptoms do not usually correlate with histologic disease activity. The diagnostic criteria for EoE has evolved but mainly requires symptoms of esophageal dysfunction with histologic evidence of a peak value of at least 15 eosinophils per high-power field. Endoscopies have to be repeated in order to diagnose, monitor, and treat EoE. Treatment of EoE can be started either by drugs (PPIs and topical corticosteroids) or elimination diets. The multistage step-up elimination diet management approach of EoE is promising. Endoscopic dilation is used for patients with severe dysphagia/food impaction with inadequate response to anti-inflammatory treatment. Conclusions: Research in recent years has contributed to a better understanding of EoE's pathogenesis, genetic background, natural history, allergy workup, standardization in assessment of disease activity, evaluation of minimally invasive diagnostic tools, and new therapeutic approaches. However, several unmet needs are to be solved urgently, as finding a non-invasive disease-monitoring methods and biomarkers for routine practice, the development or new therapies, novel food allergy testing to detect triggering foods, drug, and doses required for initial therapy and safety issues with long-term maintenance therapy, amongst others. Besides, multidisciplinary management units of EoE, involving gastroenterologists, pediatricians, allergists, pathologists, dietitians, and ENT specialists are needed.

Long-term Treatment With Proton Pump Inhibitors Is Effective in Children With Eosinophilic Esophagitis

OBJECTIVES

Proton pump inhibitor (PPI)-responsive eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is frequently observed in children, but data on long-term treatment are scarce. The objective of this study is to evaluate the long-term efficacy and safety of PPIs in children with EoE.

METHODS

This prospective study enrolled children with EoE and histological remission to an 8-week esomeprazole trial (1 mg/kg/dose, twice daily). Esomeprazole was maintained at 1 mg/kg/day for 1 year. Symptom recurrence and adverse events were monitored and a follow-up endoscopy was performed at 12 months. Complete histological remission was defined as ≤5 eosinophils/high-power field (eos/hpf), and partial histological remission as >5 and <15 eos/hpf. Patients had no concomitant dietary restrictions or topical steroid.

RESULTS

Fifty-seven children were included. Histological remission on maintenance PPI therapy was present in 40 children (70.1%; 95% CI 56.5-81.5). Long-term remission rate was higher in children with initial complete histological remission than in those with partial remission (81% vs 50%, P = 0.014). Forty-nine children (86%) remained asymptomatic. Pretreatment clinical and histological findings and median PPI dose/kg/day were similar between relapsers and nonrelapsers. Eleven out of 12 children (91.6%) receiving esomeprazole 0.5 mg · kg ·  day for 12 additional months remained in remission. Mild and transient side effects without requiring PPI avoidance were observed in 5 children.

CONCLUSIONS

Up to 70% of children with PPI-responsive EoE remain in histological and clinical remission on a low-dose maintenance treatment at 1-year follow-up, with adequate safety profile. Complete histological remission to an 8-week PPI trial was associated with higher probability of histological remission on maintenance therapy.

Minimally invasive biomarker studies in eosinophilic esophagitis: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the esophagus that currently requires repeated endoscopic biopsies for diagnosis and monitoring because no reliable noninvasive markers have been identified.

OBJECTIVE

To identify promising minimally invasive EoE biomarkers and remaining gaps in biomarker validation.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review of EMBASE, Ovid MEDLINE, PubMed, and Web of Science from inception to June 6, 2017. Studies were included if patients met the 2007 consensus criteria for EoE diagnosis, a minimally invasive biomarker was assessed, and the study included at least 1 control for comparison.

RESULTS

The search identified 2094 studies, with 234 reviewed at full-text level, and 49 included in the analysis (20 adult, 19 pediatric, 7 pediatric and adult, and 3 not stated). Most (26 of 49) were published after 2014. Thirty-five studies included healthy controls, 9 analyzed atopic controls, and 29 compared samples from patients with active and inactive EoE. Minimally invasive biomarkers were obtained from peripheral blood (n = 41 studies), sponge or string samples (n = 3), oral or throat swab secretions (n = 2), breath condensate (n = 2), stool (n = 2), and urine (n = 2). The most commonly reported biomarkers were peripheral blood eosinophils (n = 16), blood and string eosinophil granule proteins (n = 14), and eosinophil surface or intracellular markers (n = 12). EoE biomarkers distinguished active EoE from healthy controls in 23 studies, atopic controls in 2 studies, and inactive EoE controls in 20 studies.

CONCLUSION

Several promising minimally invasive biomarkers for EoE have emerged; however, few are able to differentiate EoE from other atopic diseases.

Systematic review of histological remission criteria in eosinophilic esophagitis

Elemental diets, dietary elimination, and steroid therapies are the most common therapies in the clinical trials for eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). Histological findings (usually reported as eosinophils per microscopic high‐powered field [hpf]) remain the most common end‐point used to define response. Yet, the threshold for defining “response” and “remission” are ill‐defined among consensus guidelines and may vary from study to study. We conducted a systematic literature review of articles on eosinophilic esophagitis, published between January 2007 and November 2017, considering histological remission as the primary outcome. We abstracted treatment information and definitions of histological remission or response. A comparison of definitions of histological remission across and within institutions was performed. A total of 61 articles were included in this review, with approximately 60% of the studies published from centers in the United States. Histological definitions of remission of EoE ranged from 0 to ≤20 eosinophils/hpf. The most stringent criteria, ranging from 0 to ≤5 eosinophils/hpf, were commonly used in interventional trial studies that examined the effects of new treatments. We found remarkable variability in definitions between studies, treatment types, and regions. Age or epidemiological distribution of study subjects did not influence the criteria for histological remission. Clinical and histological improvements are important measures of the effects of treatment. Histological findings, the most objective measure of treatment, should provide an optimal method for comparing the effectiveness of various treatments. Yet, our findings suggest a lack of consistent remission criteria in published studies. Considering these inconsistencies, it is difficult to compare the effectiveness of various treatments.

Medical and dietary management of eosinophilic esophagitis

OBJECTIVE

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a disease of chronic, allergen-driven, T-helper 2 (Th2) immune-mediated inflammation that progresses to fibrostenosis of the esophagus if left untreated. There are currently no Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs for the treatment of EoE. This review focuses on the medical and dietary management of EoE.

DATA SOURCES

Manuscripts on EoE treatments were identified on PubMed.

STUDY SELECTIONS

Original research, randomized control trials, retrospective studies, meta-analyses, case series, and on occasions, case reports of high relevance, were selected and reviewed.

RESULTS

Current treatment strategies available to EoE patients center on monotherapy or combination therapy with dietary modification to exclude antigenic stimulation and topical corticosteroids to control Th2-mediated tissue inflammation and pathologic remodeling. Dilation as a rescue therapy for the narrowed, fibrostenotic, symptomatic esophagus can potentially be avoided with optimal medical and elimination diet therapies. The molecular mechanisms underlying EoE pathogenesis are being unraveled, from which targeted therapies can be developed and evaluated in preclinical and clinical studies. Current clinical research efforts focus on optimization of topical corticosteroid delivery, dosing, frequency, and duration of treatment, either alone or in combination with tailored elimination diet. Preliminary clinical trials with biologics targeting interleukin (IL)-5 and IL-13/IL-4 have been completed.

CONCLUSION

Topical corticosteroid, elimination diet, and dilation are the current treatment modalities for confirmed EoE. The use of proton-pump inhibitors (PPI) is being suggested as a potential regimen to treat EoE, based on evolving understanding of PPI-responsive esophageal eosinophilia (PPI-REE). The complexity of EoE treatment regimens and frequent follow-ups require a multimodal, multi-disciplinary management approach to optimize patient care.

Role of eosinophils in the initiation and progression of pancreatitis pathogenesis

Eosinophilic pancreatitis (EP) is reported in humans; however, the etiology and role of eosinophils in EP pathogenesis are poorly understood and not well explored. Therefore, it is interesting to examine the role of eosinophils in the initiation and progression of pancreatitis pathogenesis. Accordingly, we performed anti-major basic protein immunostaining, chloroacetate esterase, and Masson's trichrome analyses to detect eosinophils, mast cells, and collagen in the tissue sections of mouse and human pancreas. Induced eosinophils accumulation and degranulation were observed in the tissue sections of human pancreatitis, compared with no eosinophils in the normal pancreatic tissue sections. Similarly, we observed induced tissue eosinophilia along with mast cells and acinar cells atrophy in cerulein-induced mouse model of chronic pancreatitis. Additionally, qPCR and ELISA analyses detected induced transcript and protein levels of proinflammatory and profibrotic cytokines, chemokines like IL 5, IL-18, eotaxin-1, eotaxin-2, TGF-β1, collagen-1, collagen-3, fibronectin, and α-SMA in experimental pancreatitis. Mechanistically, we show that eosinophil-deficient GATA1 and endogenous IL-5-deficient mice were protected from the induction of proinflammatory and profibrotic cytokines, chemokines, tissue eosinophilia, and mast cells in a cerulein-induced murine model of pancreatitis. These human and experimental data indicate that eosinophil accumulation and degranulation may have a critical role in promoting pancreatitis pathogenesis including fibrosis. Taken together, eosinophil tissue accumulation needs appropriate attention to understand and restrict the progression of pancreatitis pathogenesis in humans. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The present study for the first time shows that eosinophils accumulate in the pancreas and promote disease pathogenesis, including fibrosis in earlier reported cerulein-induced experimental models of pancreatitis. Importantly, we show that GATA-1 and IL-5 deficiency protects mice form the induction of eosinophil active chemokines, and profibrotic cytokines, including accumulation of tissue collagen in an experimental model of pancreatitis. Additionally, we state that cerulein-induced chronic pancreatitis is independent of blood eosinophilia.

Normalized serum eosinophil peroxidase levels are inversely correlated with esophageal eosinophilia in eosinophilic esophagitis

Eosinophil peroxidase is an eosinophil-specific, cytoplasmic protein stored in the secondary granules of eosinophils. While eosinophil peroxidase deposition is increased in the esophagus in eosinophilic esophagitis (EOE), its potential role as a peripheral marker is unknown. This study aims to examine the relationship between serum eosinophil peroxidase and esophageal eosinophilia in eosinophilic esophagitis. Prospectively collected serum from 19 subjects with incident EoE prior to treatment and 20 non-EoE controls were tested for serum eosinophil peroxidase, eosinophilic cationic protein, and eosinophil derived neurotoxin using ELISA. Matching esophageal tissue sections were stained and assessed for eosinophil peroxidase deposition using a histopathologic scoring algorithm. Mean peripheral blood absolute eosinophil counts in eosinophilic esophagitis subjects were significantly elevated compared to controls (363 vs. 195 cells/μL, P = 0.008). Absolute median serum eosinophil peroxidase, eosinophil cationic protein, and eosinophil derived neurotoxin did not differ between groups; however, when normalized for absolute eosinophil counts, eosinophilic esophagitis subjects had significantly lower median eosinophil peroxidase levels (2.56 vs. 6.96 ng/mL per eos/μL, P = 0.002, AUC 0.79 (0.64, 0.94 95% CI)). Multivariate analysis demonstrated this relationship persisted after controlling for atopy. Esophageal biopsies from eosinophilic esophagitis subjects demonstrated marked eosinophil peroxidase deposition (median score 46 vs. 0, P < 0.0001). Normalized eosinophil peroxidase levels inversely correlated with esophageal eosinophil density (r = -0.41, P = 0.009). In contrast to marked tissue eosinophil degranulation, circulating eosinophils appear to retain their granule proteins in EoE. Investigations of normalized serum eosinophil peroxidase levels as a biomarker of EoE are ongoing.

Tissue Remodeling in Chronic Eosinophilic Esophageal Inflammation: Parallels in Asthma and Therapeutic Perspectives

Chronic eosinophilic inflammation is associated with tissue remodeling and fibrosis in a number of chronic T-helper 2 (Th2)-mediated diseases including eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) and asthma. Chronic inflammation results in dysregulated tissue healing, leading to fibrosis and end organ dysfunction, manifesting clinically as irreversible airway obstruction in asthma and as esophageal rigidity, strictures, narrowing, dysmotility, dysphagia, and food impactions in EoE. Current therapies for EoE and asthma center on reducing inflammation-driven tissue remodeling and fibrosis with corticosteroids, coupled with symptomatic control and allergen avoidance. Additional control of Th2 inflammation can be achieved in select asthma patients with biologic therapies such as anti-IL-5 and anti-IL-13 antibodies, which have also been trialed in EoE. Recent molecular analysis suggests an emerging role for structural cell dysfunction, either inherited or acquired, in the pathogenesis and progression of EoE and asthma tissue remodeling. In addition, new data suggest that inflammation-independent end organ rigidity can alter structural cell function. Herein, we review emerging data and concepts for the pathogenesis of tissue remodeling and fibrosis primarily in EoE and relevant pathogenetic parallels in asthma, focusing additionally on emerging disease-specific therapies and the ability of these therapies to reduce tissue remodeling in subsets of patients.

Effect of obesity on sinonasal disease in asthma

OBJECTIVE

Sinonasal disease can contribute to poor asthma control. There are reports that link obesity with an increased prevalence of sinonasal disease, but no studies evaluating the severity of sinonasal disease in obese asthmatics, and how this impacts asthma control. The purpose of the current study was to determine if obesity is associated with increased severity of sinonasal disease, and/or affects response to nasal corticosteroid treatment in asthma.

METHODS

This study included 236 adults participating in a 24-week randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled study of nasal mometasone for the treatment of poorly controlled asthma. Sinonasal disease severity was assessed using validated questionnaires, and compared in participants of differing BMIs. Eosinophilic inflammation was assessed using markers in nasal lavage, serum and exhaled nitric oxide. Response to treatment was compared in different BMI groups.

RESULTS

Obesity had no effect on the severity of sinonasal disease symptoms in asthmatics (Sino-Nasal Outcome Test 22 (SNOT 22) score [mean ± SD] 35.4 ± 18.5, 40.2 ± 22.8, and 39.1 ± 21.7, p = 0.43, in lean, overweight and obese participants), nor on nasal, bronchial or systemic markers of allergic inflammation. Nasal steroids had some limited effects on symptoms, lung function and inflammatory markers in lean participants, but no detectable effect was found in obese patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Obesity does not affect severity of sinonasal disease in patients with asthma; the association of sinonasal disease symptoms with increased asthma severity and markers of Type 2 inflammation are consistent across all BMI groups. The response of obese patients to nasal corticosteroids requires further study.

A visual analogue scale and a Likert scale are simple and responsive tools for assessing dysphagia in eosinophilic oesophagitis

BACKGROUND

While symptom scores have been developed to evaluate dysphagia in eosinophilic oesophagitis (EoE), their complexity may limit clinical use.

AIM

To evaluate a visual analogue scale (VAS) and a 10-point Likert scale (LS) for assessment of dysphagia severity before and after EoE treatment.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective cohort study enrolling consecutive adults undergoing out-patient endoscopy. Incident cases of EoE were diagnosed per consensus guidelines. At diagnosis and after 8 weeks of treatment, symptoms were measured using the VAS, LS and the Mayo Dysphagia Questionnaire (MDQ). The percentage change in scores before and after treatment were compared overall, in treatment responders (<15 eos/hpf) and non-responders, and in patients without baseline dilation.

RESULTS

In 51 EoE cases, the median VAS decreased from 3.6 at baseline to 1.4 post-treatment (71% decrease), the LS decreased from 6 to 2 (67%) and the MDQ decreased from 20 to 10 (49%). The VAS correlated with both the LS (R = 0.77; P < 0.0001) and MDQ (R = 0.46, P = 0.001). After stratification by histological response, the LS decreased 70% in responders vs. 13% in non-responders (P = 0.02). In patients who did not receive baseline dilation, both the VAS and LS decreased significantly more in the histological responders.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the VAS and LS were responsive to successful treatment as measured by histologic improvement. Because the VAS and LS are simple to administer and are responsive to treatment, they can provide an efficient and objective method for assessing dysphagia severity in EoE in clinical practice.

Assessing eosinophilic cationic protein as a biomarker for monitoring patients with eosinophilic esophagitis treated with specific exclusion diets

Background

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a complex pathology. Attempts have been made in order to relate EoE with the intake of certain food. The problem is to establish which foods are really involved in the pathophysiology of this condition and to objectify a reliable inflammation biomarker for the follow-up of patients undergoing pharmacological treatment and/or diets. Our aim is to assess the food sensitization profile of patients with objective diagnosis of EoE and objectify the utility of ECP as an inflammation biomarker for the follow-up of patients with EoE treated with specific diets, based on the hypothesis that we will observe a decrease and clinical improvement after maintenance of these diets.

Methods

A total of 19 subjects were included between 1 January 2012 and 30 June 2015. Diets based on allergy testing were established. Prior to the initiation of the diets, baseline ECP was determined. Appointments were arranged for the patients between 4 and 6 months later to assess the clinical response to the specific diets and to request a second blood sample for blood counts and serum ECP levels to compare with the previous baseline.

Results

19 patients diagnosed with EoE (12 males and 7 females) between January 2012 and June 2015, aged between 17 and 68 (33.52; SD 13.67 years), were included consecutively, 15 of whom showed optimum response to specific diets based on allergy testing. A statistically significant difference ECP decrease was observed in our patients.

Discussion

Until now most of the studies previously published in reference to the use of ECP as a biomarker for monitoring patients on treatment with diets show consistent but insignificant decreases in ECP levels. However, ECP seems to be a good marker of inflammation if the determinations are performed avoiding confounding factors.

Conclusion

The serial determination of ECP is useful when monitoring patients with EoE treated with specific diets.

Longitudinal Evaluation of Noninvasive Biomarkers for Eosinophilic Esophagitis

BACKGROUND

The diagnosis and management of eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) often requires multiple endoscopies. Serum biomarkers can be elevated in EoE patients, but their clinical utility in diagnosis and assessing response to treatment is not well established.

GOALS

To evaluate serum biomarkers in EoE subjects compared with controls and assess longitudinally in response to treatment.

STUDY

We conducted a prospective cohort study of children and adults undergoing esophagogastroduodenoscopy for suspected EoE. After completing an 8-week course of proton-pump inhibitor therapy, esophageal mucosal biopsies were obtained, as well as, serum analysis of absolute eosinophil count (AEC), eotaxin-3, eosinophil-derived neurotoxin (EDN), eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) and interleukin-5. Subjects with normal endoscopic and histologic findings constituted controls. Those meeting criteria for EoE underwent repeat esophagogastroduodenoscopy and biomarker measurements following treatment with topical steroids for 8 weeks.

RESULTS

Median levels of AEC (263.50 vs. 102 cu/mm, P<0.001), ECP (26.98 vs. 5.20 ng/mL, P<0.001) and EDN (31.70 vs. 14.18 ng/mL, P=0.004) were significantly elevated in EoE subjects compared with controls and correlated with esophageal eosinophilia. Levels of AEC (odds ratio, 1.79; 95% confidence interval, 1.28-2.64) and ECP (odds ratio, 1.61; 95% confidence interval, 1.23-2.36) were associated with a diagnosis of EoE. Among the 5 biomarkers evaluated, only AEC significantly predicted esophageal eosinophilia following topical steroid therapy in EoE subjects (P=0.006).

CONCLUSIONS

AEC, ECP, and EDN were higher in EoE subjects compared with controls and correlated with degree of esophageal eosinophilia. Furthermore, AEC predicted post-treatment eosinophilia, suggesting a potential role in monitoring EoE disease activity.

Feeding Disorders in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders Are Associated With Eosinophilic Esophagitis

OBJECTIVES

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) can present as food selectivity or feeding disorders in children. Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) commonly demonstrate behavioral food selectivity in type and texture, which often leads to the diagnosis of feeding disorder. We sought to evaluate the association of ASD with EoE.

METHODS

A retrospective matched case-cohort study was performed using the Military Health System database from October 2008 to September 2013. We performed a 1:5 case-control match by age, sex, and enrollment timeframe. Feeding disorders, EoE, and atopic disorders were defined using diagnostic and procedure codes.

RESULTS

There were 45,286 children with ASD and 226,430 matched controls. EoE was more common in children with ASD (0.4%) compared with controls (0.1%). Feeding disorders were associated with EoE in both children with ASD and controls. Feeding disorders also had a higher odds ratio for EoE compared with other atopic conditions, among both children with ASD (7.17, 95% confidence interval [CI] 4.87-10.5) and controls (11.5, 95% CI 7.57-17.5). Compared with controls with a feeding disorder, children with ASD and a feeding disorder had no difference in the rate of diagnosed EoE (0.85, 0.95% CI 0.39-1.88).

CONCLUSIONS

Children with ASD are more likely to be diagnosed with EoE compared with controls; however, among children with feeding disorders, there is no difference in the odds of EoE. A diagnosis of feeding disorder was strongly associated with EoE. Feeding disorders in children with ASD should not be assumed to be solely behavioral and an esophagogastroduodenoscopy should be performed to evaluate for EoE.