The effect of motivational interviewing and/or cognitive behaviour therapy techniques on gestational weight gain - a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Women with gestational weight gain (GWG) that is below or above recommendations are at risk of adverse perinatal outcomes. Motivational interviewing and/or cognitive behaviour therapy have demonstrated efficacy in initiating and sustaining behaviour change, including weight control. The objective of this review was to investigate the effect of antenatal interventions that include components of motivational interviewing and/or cognitive behaviour therapy on gestational weight gain.

METHODS

This review was designed and reported in accordance with guidelines outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. Five electronic databases were systematically searched to March 2022. Randomised controlled trials evaluating interventions with identified components of motivational interviewing and/or cognitive behaviour therapies were included. Pooled proportions of appropriate GWG and GWG above or below guidelines, and standardised mean difference for total gestational weight gain, were calculated. Risk of bias in included studies was evaluated using the Risk of Bias 2 tool, and the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach was used to evaluate the quality of evidence.

RESULTS

Twenty-one studies (8030 participants) were included. Overall, MI and/or CBT interventions had a small effect on the total gestational weight gain (SMD: -0.18, 95% confidence interval: -0.27 to -0.09, p < 0.001) and improved the proportion of women achieving recommended gestational weight gain (29% versus 23% in the comparison, p < 0.001). The GRADE assessment indicated that overall quality of evidence is very uncertain, however sensitivity analyses to account for high risk of bias produced similar results to original meta-analyses. The magnitude of effect was greater in women with overweight or obesity when compared to women with BMI < 25 kg/m².

CONCLUSION

Motivational interviewing and/or cognitive behaviour therapy techniques may be effective for promoting healthy gestational weight gain. Nevertheless, a high proportion of women do not achieve recommended gestational weight gain. Future interventions should consider factors, including clinician and consumer perspectives, in the design and delivery of psychosocial interventions that aim to support healthy gestational weight gain.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The protocol for this review was registered with the PROSPERO International register of systematic reviews (registration number CRD42020156401).

A scoping review of non-pharmacological perinatal interventions impacting maternal sleep and maternal mental health

Background

A woman’s vulnerability to sleep disruption and mood disturbance is heightened during the perinatal period and there is a strong bidirectional relationship between them. Both sleep disruption and mood disturbance can result in significant adverse outcomes for women and their infant. Thus, supporting and improving sleep in the perinatal period is not only an important outcome in and of itself, but also a pathway through which future mental health outcomes may be altered.

Methods

Using scoping review methodology, we investigated the nature, extent and characteristics of intervention studies conducted during the perinatal period (pregnancy to one-year post-birth) that reported on both maternal sleep and maternal mental health. Numerical and descriptive results are presented on the types of studies, settings, sample characteristics, intervention design (including timeframes, facilitation and delivery), sleep and mood measures and findings.

Results

Thirty-seven perinatal interventions were identified and further described according to their primary focus (psychological (n = 9), educational (n = 15), lifestyle (n = 10), chronotherapeutic (n = 3)). Most studies were conducted in developed Western countries and published in the last 9 years. The majority of study samples were women with existing sleep or mental health problems, and participants were predominantly well-educated, not socio-economically disadvantaged, in stable relationships, primiparous and of White race/ethnicity. Interventions were generally delivered across a relatively short period of time, in either the second trimester of pregnancy or the early postnatal period and used the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) to measure sleep and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) to measure mood. Retention rates were high (mean 89%) and where reported, interventions were well accepted by women. Cognitive Behavioural Therapies (CBT) and educational interventions were largely delivered by trained personnel in person, whereas other interventions were often self-delivered after initial explanation.

Conclusions

Future perinatal interventions should consider spanning the perinatal period and using a stepped-care model. Women may be better supported by providing access to a range of information, services and treatment specific to their needs and maternal stage. The development of these interventions must involve and consider the needs of women experiencing disadvantage who are predominantly affected by poor sleep health and poor mental health.

Coping with Stress in Complicated Pregnancy and Gestational Weight Gain

Maternal obesity is one of the leading health problems in the world. Excessive gestational weight gain (GWG) can lead to many complications during pregnancy, especially when it is accompanied by diabetes. Moreover, the risk of excessive GWG in pregnant women is significant, irrespective of prenatal counseling. Studies on this subject concerning coping with stress are lacking in the literature. The present work is aimed at evaluating the styles of coping with stress and their relation to GWG in pregnant women with gestational diabetes (GDM) for whom sudden adaptation to dietary management during this period can be challenging. It was indicated that women with GDM reported high stress related to potential maternal-fetal complications and worries about compliance with dietary management. The overall weight gain of participants in pregnancy was determined in connection to their prepregnancy body mass index (BMI) and classified based on the Institute of Medicine guidelines. A standardized psychological scale was used to assess coping styles. The results showed that almost half of the participants did not meet the Institute of Medicine recommendations for weight gain during pregnancy. There were significant correlations between the styles of coping with stress and the GWG. Additionally, low correlations were indicated between emotional, avoidant, task-oriented coping styles and the age of pregnant women with GDM. Regression analysis showed that the stress-coping style that focused on emotions was the most predictive of overall weight gain. There is a need for a better understanding of psychological barriers in achieving the recommended GWG and potential limitations in providers' interventions, particularly for GDM.

Facilitators and barriers to behaviour change within a lifestyle program for women with obesity to prevent excess gestational weight gain: a mixed methods evaluation

Background

Maternal obesity is associated with health risks for women and their babies and is exacerbated by excess gestational weight gain. The aim of this study was to describe women’s experiences and perspectives in attending a Healthy Pregnancy Service designed to optimise healthy lifestyle and support recommended gestational weight gain for women with obesity.

Methods

An explanatory sequential mixed methods study design utilised two questionnaires (completed in early and late pregnancy) to quantify feelings, motivation and satisfaction with the service, followed by semi-structured interviews that explored barriers and enablers of behaviour change. Data were analysed separately and then interpreted together.

Results

Overall, 49 women attending the service completed either questionnaire 1, 2 or both and were included in the analysis. Fourteen women were interviewed. Prior to pregnancy, many women had gained weight and attempted to lose weight independently, and reported they were highly motivated to achieve a healthy lifestyle. During pregnancy, diet changes were reported as easier to make and sustain than exercise changes. Satisfaction with the service was high. Key factors identified in qualitative analysis were: service support enabled change; motivation to change behaviour, social support, barriers to making change (intrinsic, extrinsic and clinic-related), post-partum lifestyle and needs. On integration of data, qualitative and quantitative findings aligned.

Conclusions

The Healthy Pregnancy service was valued by women. Barriers and enablers to the delivery of an integrated model of maternity care that supported healthy lifestyle and recommended gestational weight gain were identified. These findings have informed and improved implementation and further scale up of this successful service model, integrating healthy lifestyle into routine antenatal care of women with obesity.

Trial registration

This trial is registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (no.12620000985987). Registration date 30/09/2020, retrospectively registered. http://www.anzctr.org.au/

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12884-021-04034-7.

Perspectives of pregnant and postpartum women and obstetric providers to promote healthy lifestyle in pregnancy and after delivery: a qualitative in-depth interview study

BACKGROUND

Pregnancy provides an opportunity to promote healthy lifestyle behaviors. This study's aim was to explore the perspectives of pregnant and postpartum women and obstetric providers around behavioral lifestyle changes in pregnancy and postpartum.

METHODS

We conducted a qualitative study with pregnant and postpartum patients recruited from 2 prenatal care clinics at an urban, academic hospital in the United States. In-depth interviews with 23 pregnant or postpartum women and 11 obstetric providers were completed between October 2015-April 2016. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. We coded transcripts for thematic content and applied the PRECEDE-PROCEED framework for results to directly inform program development.

RESULTS

Six themes highlighted the predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors that enable and sustain health behavior changes in pregnancy and postpartum: 1) "Motivation to have a healthy baby" during pregnancy and to "have my body back" after delivery, 2) Pre-pregnancy knowledge and experiences about pregnancy and the postpartum period, 3) Prioritizing wellness during pregnancy and postpartum, 4) The power of social support, 5) Accountability, 6) Integration with technology to reinforce behavior change.

CONCLUSIONS

In this qualitative study, pregnant and postpartum women and obstetric providers described themes that are aimed at encouraging lifestyle changes to promote healthy weight gain in pregnancy and can directly inform the development of a behavioral weight management intervention for pregnant and postpartum women that is patient-centered and tailored to their needs.

Women in the Workplace: Promoting Healthy Lifestyles and Mitigating Weight Gain during the Preconception, Pregnancy, and Postpartum Periods

Overweight and obesity before, during, and after pregnancy are associated with adverse outcomes for mothers and their offspring. Workplaces have been identified as important settings for improving health and wellbeing. However, the value of workplace interventions for women across the reproductive life stages has yet to be realized. This paper aims to explore the potential of workplaces to facilitate healthy lifestyle behaviors, prevent further weight gain, and devise tailored interventions for working women, specifically during the preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum periods. Workplaces can be used to engage women, including preconception women, who are detached from clinical settings. Potential benefits of workplace health promotion for women and employers include improved employee wellbeing, productivity, and corporate competitiveness. However, workplaces also need to overcome implementation barriers such as activity scheduling and availability. A systems approach may address these barriers. Consequently, designing and implementing workplace health promotion interventions to meet the specific needs of working women of reproductive age will necessitate collaboration with a range of key stakeholders across all stages of intervention design. Given that these women make up a considerable proportion of the workforce, workplaces can help optimize the health status of employees and prevent excess weight gain during the preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum periods.

Supporting women of childbearing age in the prevention and treatment of overweight and obesity: a scoping review of randomized control trials of behavioral interventions

BACKGROUND

Women of childbearing age are vulnerable to weight gain. This scoping review examines the extent and range of research undertaken to evaluate behavioral interventions to support women of childbearing age to prevent and treat overweight and obesity.

METHODS

Eight electronic databases were searched for randomized controlled trials (RCT) or systematic reviews of RCTs until 31st January 2018. Eligible studies included women of childbearing age (aged 15-44 years), evaluated interventions promoting behavior change related to diet or physical activity to achieve weight gain prevention, weight loss or maintenance and reported weight-related outcomes.

RESULTS

Ninety studies met the inclusion criteria (87 RCTs, 3 systematic reviews). Included studies were published from 1998 to 2018. The studies primarily focused on preventing excessive gestational weight gain (n = 46 RCTs, n = 2 systematic reviews), preventing postpartum weight retention (n = 18 RCTs) or a combination of the two (n = 14 RCTs, n = 1 systematic review). The RCTs predominantly evaluated interventions that aimed to change both diet and physical activity behaviors (n = 84) and were delivered in-person (n = 85).

CONCLUSIONS

This scoping review identified an increasing volume of research over time undertaken to support women of childbearing age to prevent and treat overweight and obesity. It highlights, however, that little research is being undertaken to support the young adult female population unrelated to pregnancy or preconception.

Enhanced vs Standard Parents as Teacher Curriculum on Factors Related to Infant Feeding among African American Women

OBJECTIVES

To determine the comparative impact of the standard Parents as Teachers (PAT) to the nutrition and physical activity enhanced version (PATE) of the perinatal educational curriculum on compliance with infant feeding recommendations and changes in maternal infant feeding knowledge and beliefs.

METHODS

Women at least 18 years of age, <19 weeks pregnant, and residing in three Mississippi counties were randomized to the standard PAT or the PATE version of the perinatal educational curriculum. Infant diets were assessed via 24-hour diet recall at postnatal months 1 to 12. Maternal knowledge and beliefs about infant feeding were assessed via survey at baseline and postnatal month 12. Compliance with infant feeding recommendations and differences in compliance between treatment arms were assessed using Kaplan-Meier survival curves. Longitudinal changes in maternal knowledge and beliefs were assessed with McNemar tests of symmetry.

RESULTS

Postnatal retention for the PAT and PATE arms were 83% (25/30) and 88% (21/24). Compliance with feeding recommendations for PAT and PATE participants, respectively, was 40% and 63% for no solid food before 6 months; 23% and 21% for no sugar-sweetened beverages before 12 months; 100% (both) for no fruit juice before 6 months; and 43% and 46% for no snack chips, French fries, and other fried food and candy before 12 months. Median times to feeding sugar-sweetened beverages were 10.1 and 9.6 months in PAT and PATE arms. Significant differences in compliance between arms were not found (P > 0.05). Participants' knowledge and beliefs about infant feeding were generally in agreement with expert recommendations at baseline, with few changes over time or between arms.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest the need for further intervention focused on translating knowledge into action to improve diets of weaning infants in this region of the United States.

The impact of obesity on pregnancy outcomes among women with psychiatric disorders: Results from a prospective pregnancy registry

OBJECTIVE

Obesity is associated with an increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. As individuals with psychiatric disorders are at a higher risk of obesity than the general population, we aimed to examine the effect of obesity on neonatal and maternal outcomes in this population.

METHODS

Pregnant women with psychiatric disorders were enrolled in the Massachusetts General Hospital National Pregnancy Registry for Psychiatric Medications (NCT01246765) and followed prospectively until 6 months postpartum. Pre-pregnancy body mass index was used to categorize participants as normal-weight, overweight, and obese to assess comparative risk of adverse outcomes.

RESULTS

Within our sample of 584 participants (N = 252 normal-weight; N = 170 overweight; N = 162 obese), obesity was not significantly associated with higher risk for birth defects (OR: 3.19; 95% CI:0.79,12.95; p = 0.10; unadjusted due to the rarity of this outcome in the sample). After adjustment, women with obesity were at higher risk for gestational diabetes (p = 0.011; OR:3.23; 95% CI:1.30,7.98), as were women in the overweight BMI category (p = 0.003; OR:3.77; 95% CI:1.58,9.00). Among women with obesity, there was a tendency for a higher C-section rate (p = 0.07) compared to women in the normal-weight BMI category. Other outcomes were not significantly different among groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Peripartum complications associated with obesity are common among women with psychiatric illness; thus, it is important to develop antenatal weight management interventions for this population.

The Behavioral Wellness in Pregnancy study: a randomized controlled trial of a multi-component intervention to promote appropriate weight gain

BACKGROUND

Adequate weight gain during pregnancy is important to both maternal and fetal outcomes. To date, randomized controlled trials have not been effective at increasing the proportion of women meeting gestational weight-gain guidelines.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to determine whether a multi-component behavioral intervention with a Registered Dietitian Nutritionist significantly improves the proportion of women who adhere to the 2009 Institute of Medicine weight-gain guidelines.

METHODS

Participants were randomly assigned to usual care (UC; n = 24) or intervention (n = 23) between 8 and 14 weeks of gestation. The intervention included a minimum of 6 one-on-one counseling sessions over ∼30 wk focusing on healthy diet and physical activity (PA) goals. In addition to the face-to-face visits, weekly communication via email supported healthy eating, PA, and appropriate weight gain. Gestational weight gain, PA, and diet were assessed at 8-14, 26-28, and 34-36 weeks of gestation; weight retention was measured 2 mo postpartum.

RESULTS

The proportion of women meeting the guidelines was significantly greater in those receiving the intervention than UC (60.8% compared with 25.0%, OR: 4.7; 95% CI: 1.3, 16.2; P = 0.019). Furthermore, 36.4% of the intervention women were at or below their prepregnancy weight at 2 mo postpartum compared with 12.5% in the UC group (P = 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

A multi-component behavioral intervention improved adherence to the 2009 Institute of Medicine weight-gain guidelines. This trial was registered with clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02168647.

Mobile Health Technology in Prenatal Care: Understanding OBGYN Providers' Beliefs about Using Technology to Manage Gestational Weight Gain

OBJECTIVES

High gestational weight gain (GWG) is linked to adverse maternal/infant outcomes. Scant research has examined OB/GYN providers': 1) beliefs and barriers to using mobile health (mHealth) technology and 2) their perceptions of patient beliefs/barriers for using mHealth technology for managing GWG.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews and focus groups with OB/GYN providers (N = 25) were conducted in person and via telephone. Principles of thematic analysis were used to content analyze the interviews; sample size was determined via data saturation.

RESULTS

Most providers didn't use technology when providing prenatal care (94%), recommended public websites for patients to obtain health information (72%), and reported a smartphone/tablet as the ideal tool for clinical care (83%). Providers also believed mHealth tools would be beneficial for high risk patients (e.g., overweight/obese; 67%). For the use of mHealth tools in clinical care, the most salient provider barriers were lack of time (78%), costs (61%), facility/technology issues (56%), and lack of provider willingness to adapt to change (44%). The most important provider-perceived patient barriers were access (72%) and lack of interest (67%).

CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE

These findings suggest some OB/GYN providers may be open to using mHealth technology in prenatal clinics to help their patients manage GWG if the technology is time efficient and both providers and patients can overcome barriers. The success of incorporating mHealth technology for diet/exercise counseling in prenatal clinics will lie in making it time efficient and interesting for the patient. Novel strategies to overcome provider and patient barriers are essential.

Attenuation of maternal weight gain impacts infant birthweight: systematic review and meta-analysis

Despite many interventions aiming to reduce excessive gestational weight gain (GWG), it is currently unclear the impact on infant anthropometric outcomes. The aim of this review was to evaluate offspring anthropometric outcomes in studies designed to reduce GWG. A systematic search of seven international databases, one clinical trial registry and three Chinese databases was conducted without date limits. Studies were categorised by intervention type: diet, physical activity (PA), lifestyle (diet + PA), other, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) (diet, PA, lifestyle, metformin and other). Meta-analyses were reported as weighted mean difference (WMD) for birthweight and birth length, and risk ratio (RR) for small for gestational age (SGA), large for gestational age (LGA), macrosomia and low birth weight (LBW). Collectively, interventions reduced birthweight, risk of macrosomia and LGA by 71 g (WMD: -70.67, 95% CI -101.90 to -39.43, P&lt;0.001), 16% (RR: 0.84, 95% CI 0.73-0.98, P=0.026) and 19% (RR: 0.81, 95% CI 0.69-0.96, P=0.015), respectively. Diet interventions decreased birthweight and LGA by 99 g (WMD -98.80, 95% CI -178.85 to -18.76, P=0.016) and 65% (RR: 0.35, 95% CI 0.17-0.72, P=0.004). PA interventions reduced the risk of macrosomia by 51% (RR: 0.49, 95% CI 0.26-0.92, P=0.036). In women with GDM, diet and lifestyle interventions reduced birthweight by 211 and 296 g, respectively (WMD: -210.93, 95% CI -374.77 to -46.71, P=0.012 and WMD:-295.93, 95% CI -501.76 to -90.10, P=0.005, respectively). Interventions designed to reduce excessive GWG lead to a small reduction in infant birthweight and risk of macrosomia and LGA, without influencing the risk of adverse outcomes including LBW and SGA.

Supporting healthful lifestyles during pregnancy: a health coach intervention pilot study

BACKGROUND

Excessive gestational weight gain (GWG) is associated with adverse health outcomes in both the mother and child. Many previous lifestyle interventions in women with excess weight during pregnancy encouraging appropriate GWG have been unsuccessful, and there remains no consensus about the content, format, or theoretical framework of GWG interventions. We assessed the feasibility and acceptability of a remote health coach intervention to promote healthful lifestyle behaviors and appropriate GWG among overweight pregnant women.

METHODS

At one northeastern US clinic, we enrolled 30 overweight (pre-pregnancy BMI ≥ 25 kg/m²) pregnant women at a median gestation of 12.5 weeks (IQR: 11-15) into a one-arm trial. We connected participants with a health coach to provide behavioral support to help participants adopt healthful lifestyles during pregnancy. Health coaches contacted participants by phone every 2-3 weeks to monitor goals, and sent emails and text messages between calls. Participants completed baseline (N = 30) and follow-up (N = 26) surveys at the end of the intervention (36 weeks gestation), as well as follow-up phone interviews (N = 18).

RESULTS

Among 30 participants, median age was 32 years (IQR: 28-33), median self-reported pre-pregnancy BMI was 27.3 kg/m² (IQR: 25.7-31.1), and 17/30 were white, 9/30 African-American, and 3/30 Asian. Three-quarters (22/29) of participants completed at least a college degree. Although 25/30 participants reported in baseline surveys that they worried about being able to lose the weight postpartum that they expected to gain during pregnancy, just 12/26 participants reported the same at follow-up (P < 0.001). In follow-up surveys, 21/26 participants reported that health coaches were helpful in keeping them motivated, and 22/26 thought the phone conversations helped them face problems and find solutions. Based on qualitative assessment, several themes emerged in follow-up interviews about the quality of the intervention including accountability and support from health coaches. Participants also expressed desire for more visual resources and integration with standard clinical care to improve the intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated feasibility and high participant satisfaction with our remote health coach intervention during pregnancy. We identified areas in which we could refine the intervention for inclusion in a full-scale RCT, such as integration with clinical care and additional visual resources.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Retrospectively registered at ClinicalTrials.gov ( NCT03080064 , 3/14/2017).

Attenuating Pregnancy Weight Gain-What Works and Why: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Excessive maternal gestational weight gain (GWG) contributes to generational obesity. Our aim was to explore efficacy and intervention characteristics (trimester, duration, frequency, intensity, and delivery method) of interventions to prevent excessive GWG. CINAHL, Cochrane, EMBASE, LILACS, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and Scopus were searched up to May 2018 (no date or language restrictions). Keywords and MeSH terms for diet, GWG, intervention, lifestyle, maternal, physical activity, and pregnancy were used to locate randomized-controlled trials (RCTs). The Cochrane Collaboration tool for assessing risk of bias was applied. Eighty-nine RCTs were included. Meta-analysis (60 trials) estimated that women in diet only (WMD: -3.27; 95% CI: -4.96, -1.58, p < 0.01), physical activity (PA) (WMD: -1.02; 95% CI: -1.56, -0.49, p < 0.01), and lifestyle interventions (combining diet and PA) (WMD: -0.84; 95% CI: -1.29, -0.39, p < 0.01) gained significantly less weight than controls. The three eHealth interventions favored neither intervention nor control (WMD: -1.06; 95% CI: -4.13, 2.00, p = 0.50). Meta-regression demonstrated no optimal duration, frequency, intensity, setting, or diet type. Traditional face to face delivery of weight management interventions during pregnancy can be successful. Delivery via eHealth has potential to extend its reach to younger women but needs further evaluation of its success.

Is birth weight the major confounding factor in the study of gestational weight gain?: an observational cohort study

BACKGROUND

Much interest has been focussed on both maternal obesity and gestational weight gain (GWG), particularly on their role in influencing birth weight (BW). Several large reviews have reported that excessive GWG is associated with an increase in BW. However recent large, well-designed, randomized controlled trials studying interventions aimed at reducing GWG have all consistently failed to show a reduction in BW despite achieving a reduction in GWG. The aim of this longitudinal prospective study was to examine the relationship between GWG and birth weight in women where GWG and Body Mass Index (BMI) were measured accurately in a strictly standardized way.

METHODS

Women were enrolled at their convenience before 18 weeks gestation. Height and weight were measured accurately at the first antenatal visit and BMI calculated. Maternal weight was measured again after 37 weeks gestation. The weight of the baby was measured at birth. Relationships were tested using linear regression analysis, chi-squared tests and t-tests as appropriate.

RESULTS

Of the 522 women studied, the mean BMI was 25.3 kg/m2 and 15.7% were obese. The mean BW at term was 3576 g (2160-5120) and 2.7% (n = 14) weighed ≥4500 g. The mean GWG overall was 12.3 kg (4.6 to 28.4) and GWG decreased as BMI increased. The mean GWG was less in obese women, at 8.7 kg (- 4.6 to 23.4), compared to non-obese,13.0 kg (0.6-28.4) (p < 0.001). Mean BW in obese women was 3630 g vs 3565 g in non-obese (p = 0.27). The total GWG correlated positively with BW (p < 0.001). When BW was subtracted from total GWG, GWG no longer correlated with BW (p = 0.12).

CONCLUSIONS

The positive correlation between GWG in pregnancy and BW can be accounted for by the contribution of fetal weight to GWG antenatally without a contribution from increased maternal adiposity. There was a wide range of BW irrespective of the degree of GWG and obese women had a lower GWG than non-obese women. These findings help explain why Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) designed to reduce GWG have failed to decrease BW and suggest there is no causative link between excessive GWG and increased BW.

Prevention of Excessive Gestational Weight Gain and Postpartum Weight Retention

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The purpose of this review is to summarize the current evidence on the prevention of excessive gestational weight gain (GWG) and reduction of postpartum weight retention (PPWR) by lifestyle intervention and pharmacotherapy.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent findings demonstrate that tailored nutrition counseling and adapting certain eating patterns, supervised exercise programs aiming at achieving at least moderate level of physical activity, and interactive and monitored behavior change interventions are effective in reducing excessive GWG and PPWR. Among the pharmacologic agents, Metformin has been shown to reduce GWG. Excessive GWG and PPWR are associated with adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. Recent evidence shows that weight during gestation and the postpartum period can be significantly reduced by more frequent nutrition counseling sessions on balanced diet focusing on healthier food choices and eating patterns, supervised moderate-intensity exercise for at least 30 min three times a week, and interactive behavior change interventions with regular feedback and follow-up. The benefits on weight are seen when these interventions are utilized together in a multimodality approach. Metformin is effective in preventing excessive GWG but has no impact on neonatal outcomes.

The effectiveness of an online intervention in preventing excessive gestational weight gain: the e-moms roc randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Excessive gestational weight gain (GWG) is common and contributes to the development of obesity in women and their offspring. Electronic or e-health interventions have the potential to reach large groups of women and prevent excessive GWG, but their effectiveness has not been demonstrated. The purpose of this study was to evaluate, in a real-world setting, the effectiveness of a self-directed, integrated online and mobile phone behavioral intervention in preventing excessive GWG.

METHODS

This effectiveness trial was a double-blind, three-arm trial with a parallel group design. Two arms received the same e-health intervention during pregnancy with the third arm serving as the placebo control. The intervention was based on a previously efficacious non-digital intervention that was adapted to electronic format. It included three behavior change tools: a weight gain tracker, and separate diet and physical activity goal-setting and self-monitoring tools. Both treatment conditions received access to informational tools, event reminders, and a blogging feature. Healthy pregnant women age 18-35 years with body mass indexes (BMI) ≥18.5 and < 35, at ≤20 weeks gestation, and an e-mail address were eligible. The proportion of women with excessive total GWG, as defined by the Institute of Medicine (IOM), was the primary outcome. 1689 randomized women were analyzed in the intent-to-treat (ITT) analysis. The study was designed to have 87% power to detect a 10 percentage point reduction from a control rate of 55% with a sample of 1641 (p = 0.0167, two-sided).

RESULTS

In the ITT sample, 48.1% (SD = 2.0%) gained excessively in the intervention group as did 46.2% (SD = 2.4%) in the placebo control group. These proportions were not significantly different (RR 1.09; 95% CI 0.98, 1.20, p = 0.12). The results were not altered in several sensitivity analyses.

CONCLUSION

The addition of three behavior change tools to an informational placebo control did not result in a difference in the proportion of women with excessive total GWG compared to the placebo control in this effectiveness trial of an online, self-directed intervention. The similarity of intervention and control treatments and low usage of the behavior change tools in the intervention group are possible explanations.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT01331564 , ClinicalTrials.gov.

Randomized controlled clinical trial of behavioral lifestyle intervention with partial meal replacement to reduce excessive gestational weight gain

Background

Behavioral lifestyle interventions during pregnancy can prevent excessive gestational weight gain (GWG) in women with normal weight; however, effective interventions to reduce GWG in ethnically diverse women with obesity are lacking.

Objective

A randomized controlled trial was conducted to test whether a behavioral lifestyle intervention with partial meal replacement reduces GWG rate in Hispanic and non-Hispanic women with overweight or obesity relative to enhanced usual care.

Design

Participants (n = 257) were recruited in San Luis Obispo, California, and Providence, Rhode Island, between November 2012 and May 2016. Participants were pregnant (mean ± SD: 13.6 ± 1.8 wk of gestation) with overweight or obesity and had a mean age of 30.3 y; 41.6% of participants were Hispanic. Women were randomly assigned within site and by ethnicity to enhanced usual care (n = 128) or to a behavioral lifestyle intervention with partial meal replacement (n = 129). The primary outcome was GWG per week of observation. Secondary outcomes were proportions exceeding Institute of Medicine (IOM) guidelines for total GWG, changes in weight-control behaviors and cardiovascular disease risk factors, and incidence of pregnancy complications. Study retention was 99.6% (256 of 257).

Results

The intervention compared with usual care resulted in less mean ± SD weekly GWG (0.33 ± 0.25 compared with 0.39 ± 0.23 kg/wk; P = 0.02) and total GWG (9.4 ± 6.9 compared with 11.2 ± 7.0 kg; P = 0.03) and reduced the proportion of women who exceeded IOM guidelines for total GWG (41.1% compared with 53.9%; P = 0.03). No significant group × time × demographic subgroup (ethnicity, BMI, age, parity, and income) interactions were observed. Among intervention participants, greater meal replacement intake was related to reduced GWG rate (β = -0.07; 95% CI:-0.12, -0.03; P = 0.002). The intervention compared with usual care increased weight-control strategies (P < 0.0001) and cognitive restraint (P < 0.0001) and reduced triglycerides (P = 0.03).

Conclusion

Prenatal behavioral intervention with partial meal replacement significantly reduced GWG in Hispanic and non-Hispanic women with overweight or obesity. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01545934.

Combined diet and exercise interventions for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is associated with a wide range of adverse health consequences for women and their infants in the short and long term. With an increasing prevalence of GDM worldwide, there is an urgent need to assess strategies for GDM prevention, such as combined diet and exercise interventions. This is an update of a Cochrane review that was first published in 2015.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of diet interventions in combination with exercise interventions for pregnant women for preventing GDM, and associated adverse health consequences for the mother and her infant/child.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register (27 November 2016) and reference lists of retrieved studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and cluster-RCTs, comparing combined diet and exercise interventions with no intervention (i.e. standard care), that reported on GDM diagnosis as an outcome. Quasi-RCTs were excluded. Cross-over trials were not eligible for inclusion. We planned to include RCTs comparing two or more different diet/exercise interventions, however none were identified.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed study eligibility, extracted data, assessed the risk of bias of the included trials and assessed quality of evidence for selected maternal and infant/child outcomes using the GRADE approach. We checked data for accuracy.

MAIN RESULTS

In this update, we included 23 RCTs (involving 8918 women and 8709 infants) that compared combined diet and exercise interventions with no intervention (standard care). The studies varied in the diet and exercise programs evaluated and health outcomes reported. None reported receiving funding from a drug manufacturer or agency with interests in the results. Overall risk of bias was judged to be unclear due to the lack of methodological detail reported. Most studies were undertaken in high-income countries.For our primary review outcomes, there was a possible reduced risk of GDM in the diet and exercise intervention group compared with the standard care group (average risk ratio (RR) 0.85, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.71 to 1.01; 6633 women; 19 RCTs; Tau² = 0.05; I² = 42%; P = 0.07; moderate-quality evidence). There was also a possible reduced risk of caesarean section (RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.88 to 1.02; 6089 women; 14 RCTs; moderate-quality evidence). No clear differences were seen between groups for pre-eclampsia (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.79 to 1.22; 5366 participants; 8 RCTs; low-quality evidence), pregnancy-induced hypertension and/or hypertension (average RR 0.78, 95% CI 0.47 to 1.27; 3073 participants; 6 RCTs; Tau² = 0.19; I² = 62%; very low-quality evidence), perinatal mortality (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.42 to 1.63; 3757 participants; 2 RCTs; low-quality evidence) or large-for-gestational age (RR 0.93, 95% CI 0.81 to 1.07; 5353 participants; 11 RCTs; low-quality evidence). No data were reported for infant mortality or morbidity composite.Subgroup analyses (based on trial design, maternal body mass index (BMI) and ethnicity) revealed no clear differential treatment effects. We were unable to assess the impact of maternal age, parity and specific features of the diet and exercise interventions. Findings from sensitivity analyses (based on RCT quality) generally supported those observed in the main analyses. We were not able to perform subgroup analyses based on maternal age, parity or nature of the exercise/dietary interventions due to the paucity of information/data on these characteristics and the inability to meaningfully group intervention characteristics.For most of the secondary review outcomes assessed using GRADE, there were no clear differences between groups, including for perineal trauma (RR 1.27, 95% CI 0.78 to 2.05; 2733 participants; 2 RCTs; moderate-quality evidence), neonatal hypoglycaemia (average RR 1.42, 95% CI 0.67 to 2.98; 3653 participants; 2 RCTs; Tau² = 0.23; I² = 77%; low quality evidence); and childhood adiposity (BMI z score) (MD 0.05, 95% CI -0.29 to 0.40; 794 participants; 2 RCTs; Tau² = 0.04; I² = 59%; low-quality evidence). However, there was evidence of less gestational weight gain in the diet and exercise intervention group compared with the control group (mean difference (MD) -0.89 kg, 95% CI -1.39 to -0.40; 5052 women; 16 RCTs; Tau² = 0.37; I² = 43%;moderate-quality evidence). No data were reported for maternal postnatal depression or type 2 diabetes; childhood/adulthood type 2 diabetes, or neurosensory disability.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Moderate-quality evidence suggests reduced risks of GDM and caesarean section with combined diet and exercise interventions during pregnancy as well as reductions in gestational weight gain, compared with standard care. There were no clear differences in hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, perinatal mortality, large-for-gestational age, perineal trauma, neonatal hypoglycaemia, and childhood adiposity (moderate- tovery low-quality evidence).Using GRADE methodology, the evidence was assessed as moderate to very low quality. Downgrading decisions were predominantly due to design limitations (risk of bias), and imprecision (uncertain effect estimates, and at times, small sample sizes and low event rates), however two outcomes (pregnancy-induced hypertension/hypertension and neonatal hypoglycaemia), were also downgraded for unexplained inconsistency (statistical heterogeneity).Due to the variability of the diet and exercise components tested in the included studies, the evidence in this review has limited ability to inform practice. Future studies could describe the interventions used in more detail, if and how these influenced behaviour change and ideally be standardised between studies. Studies could also consider using existing core outcome sets to facilitate more standardised reporting.

Behavioral weight-loss treatment plus motivational interviewing versus attention control: lessons learned from a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Studies evaluating the benefit of adding motivational interviewing (MI) to behavioral weight-loss programs (BWLPs) have yielded mixed findings.

METHODS

The aims of this randomized controlled trial were to: (1) assess the efficacy of adding MI to a BWLP on weight loss and adherence among 135 individuals with overweight and obesity (77.8% female; mean BMI = 33.6 kg/m2) enrolled in a 12-week BWLP and (2) explore levels of importance, confidence, and readiness for change ratings.

RESULTS

Participants, who were randomized to receive two MI sessions or two attention control sessions, were assessed at baseline, the end of the BWLP, and 6 months post BWLP. Both groups decreased their weight from baseline to the end of the BWLP; however, there was no weight change in either group when measured between baseline and 6 months post BWLP. We observed no group differences in importance, confidence, and readiness for change after each session.

CONCLUSIONS

We highlight some important lessons learned from the present trial that can be applied to MI + BWLP research. Participants may not have benefited from MI because they were already highly motivated to change, which highlights the importance of pretreatment assessment. Findings also suggest that treatment monitoring may help to enhance MI + BWLP efficacy by guiding a stepped-care approach that identifies individuals for whom additional MI sessions are needed, and when. A focus on refining elements of treatment remains an important direction.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov, Identifier: NCT02649634 . Retrospectively registered on 5 January 2016.

Women's Perceived Reasons for Their Excessive Postpartum Weight Retention: A Qualitative Interview Study

Introduction

Obesity in Sweden has doubled to 14% over the last 20 years. New strategies for treatment and prevention are needed. Excessive gestational weight gain has been found to contribute substantially to obesity, and there is a consistent association between postpartum weight retention and obesity later in life. We aimed to explore what factors women perceive as reasons for having substantial postpartum weight retention, to identify areas for new and improved interventions.

Methods

Qualitative interview study (semi-structured) using an emergent design. Fifteen women, with a postpartum weight retention ≥ 10 kg, were interviewed by a trained cognitive therapist. Eight women had pre-pregnancy BMI below 30 kg/m². Interviews were transcribed verbatim and data analysed using inductive manifest content analysis. Salient text passages were extracted, shortened, coded and clustered into categories.

Results

Participants reported no knowledge of current gestational weight gain recommendations or of risks for adverse pregnancy outcomes with excessive weight gain or postpartum weight retention. Excessive eating emerged as a common strategy to provide relief of psychological, emotional and physical discomfort, such as depression and morning sickness. Women perceived medical staff as being unconcerned about weight, and postpartum weight loss support was scarce or absent. Some women reported eating more due to a belief that breastfeeding would automatically lead to weight loss.

Conclusion

There is a need to raise awareness about risks with unhealthy gestational weight development and postpartum weight retention in women of childbearing age. The common strategy to cope with psychological, emotional or physical discomfort by eating is an important factor to target with intervention. The postpartum year is a neglected period where additional follow-up on weight and weight loss support is strongly indicated.

Lifestyle intervention to prevent obesity during pregnancy: Implications and recommendations for research and implementation

Maternal obesity and excessive gestational weight gain (GWG) are significant contributors to the global obesity epidemic. However, isolated lifestyle interventions to address this in pregnancy appear to have only modest benefit and responses can be variable. This paper aims to address the question of why the success of lifestyle interventions to prevent excessive GWG is suboptimal and variable. We suggest that there are inherent barriers to lifestyle change within pregnancy as a life stage, including the short window available for habit formation; the choice for women not to prioritise their weight; competing demands including physiological, financial, relationship, and social situations; and lack of self-efficacy among healthcare professionals on this topic. In order to address this problem, we propose that just like all successful public health approaches seeking to change behaviour, individual lifestyle interventions must be provided in the context of a supportive environment that enables, incentivises and rewards healthy changes. Future research should focus on a systems approach that integrates the needs of individuals with the context within which they exist. Borrowing from the social marketing principle of 'audience segmentation', we also need to truly understand the needs of individuals to design appropriately tailored interventions. This approach should also be applied to the preconception period for comprehensive prevention approaches. Additionally, relevant policy needs to reflect the changing evidence-based climate. Interventions in the clinical setting need to be integrally linked to multipronged obesity prevention efforts in the community, so that healthy weight goals are reinforced throughout the system.

Interventions to improve physical activity during pregnancy: a systematic review on issues of internal and external validity using the RE-AIM framework

BACKGROUND

Physical activity (PA) during pregnancy has significant health benefits for the mother and her child; however, many women reduce their activity levels during pregnancy and most are not sufficiently active. Given the important health benefits of PA during pregnancy, evidence that supports research translation is vital.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the extent to which physical activity interventions for pregnant women report on internal and external validity factors using the RE-AIM framework (reach, efficacy/effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance).

SEARCH STRATEGY

Ten databases were searched up to 1 June 2015. Eligible published papers and unpublished/grey literature were identified using relevant search terms.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Studies had to report on physical activity interventions during pregnancy, including measures of physical activity during pregnancy at baseline and at least one point post-intervention. Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies that had a comparator group were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Reporting of RE-AIM dimensions were summarised and synthesised across studies.

MAIN RESULTS

The reach (72.1%) and efficacy/effectiveness (71.8%) dimensions were commonly reported; however, the implementation (28.9%) and adoption (23.2%) dimensions were less commonly reported and no studies reported on maintenance.

CONCLUSIONS

This review highlights the under-reporting of issues of contextual factors in studies of physical activity during pregnancy. The translation of physical activity interventions during pregnancy could be improved through reporting of representativeness of participants, clearer reporting of outcomes, more detail on the setting and staff who deliver interventions, costing of interventions and the inclusion of process evaluations and qualitative data.

TWEETABLE ABSTRACT

The systematic review highlights the under-reporting of contextual factors in studies of physical activity during pregnancy.

Maternal diet quality and nutrient intake in the gestational period: results from the delta healthy sprouts comparative impact trial

BACKGROUND

A woman's diet while pregnant can play an important role in her reproductive health as well as the health of her unborn child. Diet quality and nutrient intake amongst pregnant women residing in the rural Lower Mississippi Delta (LMD) region of the United States is inadequate. The Delta Healthy Sprouts Project was designed to test the comparative impact of two home visiting programs on weight status, dietary intake, and health behaviors of women and their infants residing in the LMD region. This paper reports results pertaining to maternal diet quality and nutrient intake in the gestational period.

METHODS

The experimental arm (PATE) received monthly home visits beginning in the second trimester using the Parents as Teachers curriculum enhanced with a nutrition and lifestyle behavior curriculum. The control arm (PAT) received monthly home visits using the Parents as Teachers curriculum only. Maternal diet was assessed via 24-h dietary recall at gestational months (GM) 4 (baseline), 6, and 8. Diet quality was computed using the Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010).

RESULTS

Gestational period retention rates for PAT and PATE arms were 77 % (33/43) and 67 % (26/39), respectively. Significant effects were not found for time, treatment, or time by treatment for the HEI-2010 total or component scores, macro- or micronutrient intake or percentage of women meeting recommended nutrient intakes.

CONCLUSIONS

Perhaps due to low participant enrollment and higher than expected rates of drop out and noncompliance, we were not able to demonstrate that the enhanced nutrition and lifestyle curriculum (PATE) intervention had a significant effect on diet quality or nutrient intake during pregnancy in this cohort of rural, Southern, primarily African American women.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

clinicaltrials.gov, NCT01746394. Registered 5 December 2012.

Exploring Australian women's level of nutrition knowledge during pregnancy: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The Australian Guide to Healthy Eating (AGHE) for pregnancy provides a number of food- and nutrition-related recommendations to assist pregnant women in optimizing their dietary behavior. However, there are limited data demonstrating pregnant women's knowledge of the AGHE recommendations. This study investigated Australian pregnant women's knowledge of the AGHE and related dietary recommendations for maintaining a healthy pregnancy. The variations in nutrition knowledge were compared with demographic characteristics.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study assessed eight different nutrition knowledge domains and the demographic characteristics of pregnant women. Four hundred women across Australia completed a multidimensional online survey based on validated and existing measures.

RESULTS

More than half of the pregnant women surveyed (65%) were not familiar with the AGHE recommendations. The basic recommendations to eat more fruit, vegetables, bread, and cereals but less meat were poorly understood. An in-depth investigation of knowledge of nutrition information revealed misconceptions in a range of areas, including standard serving size, nutrients content of certain foods, energy density of fat, and the importance of key nutrients in pregnancy. Univariate analysis revealed significant demographic variation in nutrition knowledge scores. Multiple regression analysis confirmed the significant independent effects on respondents' nutrition knowledge score (P<0.000) of the education level, income, age, stage of pregnancy, language, and having a health/nutrition qualification. The model indicated that independent variables explained 33% (adjusted R (2)) of the variance found between respondents' knowledge scores.

CONCLUSION

Australian pregnant women's knowledge regarding AGHE for pregnancy and other key dietary recommendations is poor and varies significantly with their demographic profile. The setting of dietary guidelines is not sufficient to ensure improvement in their nutrition knowledge. It is essential that women receive support to achieve optimal and healthy diets during pregnancy.

Gestational Weight Gain: Results from the Delta Healthy Sprouts Comparative Impact Trial

Introduction. Delta Healthy Sprouts trial was designed to test the comparative impact of two home visiting programs on weight status, dietary intake, and health behaviors of Southern African American women and their infants. Results pertaining to the primary outcome, gestational weight gain, are reported. Methods. Participants (n = 82), enrolled early in their second trimester of pregnancy, were randomly assigned to one of two treatment arms. Gestational weight gain, measured at six monthly home visits, was calculated by subtracting measured weight at each visit from self-reported prepregnancy weight. Weight gain was classified as under, within, or exceeding the Institute of Medicine recommendations based on prepregnancy body mass index. Chi-square tests and generalized linear mixed models were used to test for significant differences in percentages of participants within recommended weight gain ranges. Results. Differences in percentages of participants within the gestational weight gain guidelines were not significant between treatment arms across all visits. Conclusions. Enhancing the gestational nutrition and physical activity components of an existing home visiting program is feasible in a high risk population of primarily low income African American women. The impact of these enhancements on appropriate gestational weight gain is questionable given the more basic living needs of such women. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01746394, registered 4 December 2012.

Falling short of dietary guidelines - What do Australian pregnant women really know? A cross sectional study

BACKGROUND

Maternal diets are not consistent with dietary guidance and this may affect the health of mothers and their infants. Nutrition knowledge and motivation may be important factors.

AIMS

To assess pregnant women's diets in relation to consistency with the Australian Guidelines for Healthy Eating (AGHE); factors influencing women's adherence to the recommendations; and women's attitudes towards pregnancy-specific nutrition information.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study using convenience sampling was undertaken at five hospitals in New South Wales (Australia) and through an online link (October 2012 to July 2013). N=388 pregnant women completed the survey. Categorical data were analysed using Chi square and logistic regression with significance set at P<0.05.

FINDINGS

Most participants were highly motivated to adopt a healthy diet, believed they were trying to do so and that knowing about nutrition in pregnancy was highly important. Reported dietary intakes were poor. No pregnant women met the recommended intakes for all five food groups. Poor knowledge of these recommendations was evident. Knowledge of selected recommendations (for Fruit, Vegetables, and Breads and Cereals) increased the likelihood of those foods' consumption 8 (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.3-27.7), 9.1 (95% CI, 2.6-31.3) and 6.8 (95% CI, 3.4-13.7) times respectively.

CONCLUSION

Pregnant women had high levels of motivation and confidence in their ability to achieve a healthy diet and understand dietary recommendations, but actually demonstrated poor knowledge and poor adherence to guidelines. Mistaken or false beliefs may be a barrier to effective nutrition education strategies.