Paternal Sensitivity and Children's Cognitive and Socioemotional Outcomes: A Meta-Analytic Review

Maternal emotional availability and perinatal depressive symptoms as predictors of early childhood executive function

BACKGROUND

The interconnected effects of maternal perinatal depression and the early mother-infant relational quality on children's executive function development are crucial yet understudied. This study addresses this gap, focusing on how perinatal depressive symptoms and emotional availability at 6 months predict child executive function performance at age four, with an emphasis on the moderating role of emotional availability.

METHOD

This study included 282 mother-infant pairs recruited from the Mercy Pregnancy and Emotional Wellbeing Study, utilising repeated Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale measurement over the perinatal period, Emotional Availability Scales, and child executive function assessments (Shape School, NEPSY-II, Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity scale, inattentive subscale). Latent growth curve analysis incorporated controls for socioeconomic status and maternal cognitive abilities, and moderation effects were examined through multiplicative interaction terms.

RESULTS

We found that emotional availability influences children's executive function, specifically switching, motor inhibition, and inattentive symptoms, irrespective of maternal depressive symptom changes. This effect is further nuanced by emotional availability's moderating role in the association between depressive symptom change and switching.

LIMITATIONS

The study's limitations include a relatively small sample size for moderation analysis and the exclusion of paternal influences.

CONCLUSION

This study is a significant step in understanding the profound influence of maternal emotional availability in infancy on child executive function development, offering new avenues for research and, if replicated, a foundation for innovative intervention approaches.

Parental reflective functioning in mothers and fathers of preschoolers: Associations with adult attachment and parenting behavior

Parental reflective functioning (PRF) is considered a key parental competence. Since most research on PRF has focused on infancy or the first years of life, there is a gap in our understanding of PRF among parents of older children. Therefore, we investigated PRF in mothers and fathers with preschool-aged children, examining associations between PRF, parent's romantic attachment, and observed parenting behavior. The sample comprised 50 mothers, 40 fathers, and their 5-year-old children. PRF was assessed using the parental reflective functioning questionnaire (PRFQ), parental romantic attachment was assessed using the experiences in close relationships scale-revised (ECR-R), and parenting behavior was assessed during a parent-child free-play interaction with the coding interactive behavior (CIB) coding system. Results showed that mothers scored higher on the interest and curiosity scale than fathers, indicating that mothers show a more active interest and curiosity in their child's mental states. Further, higher levels of attachment anxiety in fathers were associated with higher levels of pre-mentalizing modes. In mothers, higher levels of attachment avoidance were associated with lower levels of interest and curiosity. Finally, and unexpectedly, higher levels of interest and curiosity in mothers were associated with less sensitivity during free play. In summary, the study found meaningful associations between mothers' and fathers' romantic attachment and their PRF indicating a spill-over of their attachment strategies into their relationship with their child. Further, the study results suggest that very high levels of interest and curiosity in mothers reflect hypermentalizing.

Paternal and Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Sensitivity: Links with Trajectories of Socioemotional Problems in Toddlerhood

Parental depressive symptoms and sensitivity have well-documented consequences for children; however, studies considering both parents are still scarce. This longitudinal study aimed to investigate the respective roles of paternal and maternal depressive symptoms and sensitivity in predicting the development of child socioemotional problems during toddlerhood. We also investigated the buffering role of each parent's sensitivity in the associations between the other parent's depressive symptoms and toddlers' socioemotional problems. The sample consisted of 140 Canadian families who were visited in their homes when children were around 13 (T1), 19 (T2), and 27 (T3) months of age. At T1, both parents' sensitivity was assessed from observations of parent-child interactions at home and each parent reported on his or her own depressive symptoms. At T1, T2, and T3, maternal and paternal perceptions of their toddler's socioemotional problems were assessed and aggregated. Growth curve analyses revealed that paternal and maternal depressive symptoms as well as paternal sensitivity were unique and persistent predictors of child socioemotional problems and that sensitive fathering acted as a buffer in the context of maternal depressive symptoms. This study highlights the importance of considering both parents when studying risk and protective factors for young children's socioemotional problems.

EEG responses to infant faces in young adults can be influenced by the quality of early care experiences with caregivers

BACKGROUND

The quality of early experiences with caregivers affects individual adjustment and can modulate adults' responses to salient social stimuli, like infant faces. However, in the framework of Interpersonal Acceptance-Rejection Theory (IPARTheory), no research to date has examined whether early experiences of acceptance or rejection from caregivers are associated with individual differences in the electrophysiological (EEG) responses to infant faces.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the associations between the perceived quality of care during childhood and the behavioral and EEG responses to infant and adult faces in non-parent young adults.

METHODS

N = 60 non-parent young adults (30 males; 30 females) completed an Emotion Recognition task displaying emotional and unemotional infant and adult faces during an EEG recording. Memories of past care experiences with mothers and fathers were collected using the short form version of the Parental Acceptance-Rejection scale.

RESULTS

At the behavioral level, slower Reaction Times (RTs) in recognizing all faces were related to higher levels of perceived maternal rejection in young adults; in particular, males who reported higher levels of maternal rejection displayed longer RTs in recognizing faces compared to females. At the neurophysiological level, as the level of perceived paternal rejection increased, the N170 amplitude to infant faces increased. Females who reported higher levels of paternal rejection, compared to males, had a larger increase in the N170 amplitude and a larger decrease in the LPP amplitude in response to emotional faces.

CONCLUSIONS

While a higher perception of maternal rejection hindered the behavioral responses of adults in recognizing faces, those who felt more rejected by their own father during childhood showed an enhanced N170 amplitude to infant faces. This might reflect a greater need for discrimination resources, at a very early stage of infant face processing, in those adults who perceived higher levels of paternal rejection. Adults' sex modulated the associations found at the behavioral and neurophysiological levels. Overall, our findings extended the IPARTheory postulates that being neglected during childhood might trigger perceptual changes in adults, hindering the elaboration of social cues like infant and adult faces at different levels.

A meta-analytic examination of sensitive responsiveness as a mediator between depression in mothers and psychopathology in children

The current meta-analysis examined the mediating role of sensitive-responsive parenting in the relationship between depression in mothers and internalizing and externalizing behavior in children. A systematic review of the path of maternal sensitive responsiveness to child psychopathology identified eligible studies. Meta-analytic structural equation modelling (MASEM) allowed for the systematic examination of the magnitude of the indirect effect across 68 studies (N = 15,579) for internalizing and 92 studies (N = 26,218) for externalizing psychopathology. The synthesized sample included predominantly White, English-speaking children (age range = 1 to 205 months; Mage = 66 months; 47% female) from Western, industrialized countries. The indirect pathway was small in magnitude and similar for externalizing (b = .02) and internalizing psychopathology (b = .01). Moderator analyses found that the indirect pathway for externalizing problems was stronger when mother-child interactions were observed during naturalistic and free-play tasks rather than structured tasks. Other tested moderators were not significant.

Parental sensitivity and family conversation: A naturalistic longitudinal study with both mothers and fathers across three time-points in early infancy

Parental verbal sensitivity is known to promote child language skills, but few studies have considered: (a) links between global (i.e., verbal, behavioral, and affective) measures of parental sensitivity and infant-initiated conversations, an important precursor to language development; (b) whether maternal and paternal sensitivity show similar links with infant-initiated conversation; or (c) the transactional role of infant conversation for later parental sensitivity. Addressing these gaps, this study of 186 British first-time parents (93 families) examines the developmental dynamics between parental sensitivity and infant communication across the first year of life. We explore; (i) the role of maternal and paternal sensitivity (assessed during structured home observations at 4 months post-partum) for parent-infant conversational interactions at 7 months (indexed by day-long naturalistic recordings), and (ii) whether these mother-infant and father-infant conversations at 7 months shape maternal and paternal sensitivity at 14 months (also assessed via structured home observations). For both male and female infants, maternal (but not paternal) sensitivity at 4 months predicted infant vocalisations and conversational initiation at 7-months. By contrast, neither index of infant talk predicted maternal or paternal sensitivity at 14 months. Together these findings refine understanding of theoretical models of social development and suggest new possibilities for future research.

Effects of a Baby Carrier Intervention on Fathers' Sensitivity, Involvement, and Hormonal Levels: Follow-Up of a Randomized Controlled Study

Objective. Fathers are of great importance for healthy child development. This randomized controlled study investigated the longer-term effects of an intervention using a soft baby carrier on fathers' observed sensitive caregiving, involvement, and oxytocin and cortisol levels. Design. First-time fathers were randomly assigned to use a baby carrier (n = 41) or baby seat (n = 39) and were asked to use the carrier or seat for at least 6 h per week for 3 weeks. Pretest (M child age  = 2.67 months), posttest (M child age  = 3.99 months), and follow-up (M child age  = 8.25 months) father data were collected. Results. No intervention effects of baby carrier use on fathers' sensitivity, involvement, and oxytocin or cortisol levels at follow-up emerged. Unexpectedly, fathers in the baby seat condition reported an increase in the amount of time spent with the infant. Fathers' sensitivity and oxytocin levels decreased over time, while cortisol levels increased over time, irrespective of condition. Conclusions. This study showed less optimal hormonal levels in fathers over time, suggesting that support during the first months of fatherhood is needed. Furthermore, use of a baby seat may have contributed to fathers enjoying their time with their infant and consequently their involvement in child caregiving.

A follow up investigation of placental pathology, responsive parenting, and preschool children's executive functioning and language development

Despite documented effects linking underlying placental diseases and neurological impairments in children, little is known about the long-term effects of placental pathology on children's neurocognitive outcomes. In addition, maternal responsivity, known to positively influence early postnatal cognitive development, may act to protect children from putative adverse effects of placental pathology. The current study is a follow up of medically healthy, term born, preschool age children, born with placental pathology. A sample of 118 children (45 comparison children with normal placental findings, 73 born with placental pathology) were followed when children were 3-4 years old. In comparison to children born to mothers with normal placentas, placental pathology was associated with poorer performance in the executive function involving cognitive flexibility, but not inhibitory control or receptive language. Maternal responsivity was observed to be marginally protective on the impact of placental pathology risk on cognitive flexibility, but this was not seen for either inhibitory control or receptive language.

Parental sensitivity and intrusiveness with mothers and fathers: Associations between parental behavioral activation/inhibition and infant temperament

Understanding the factors contributing to sensitive parenting is crucial to optimize infant social and emotional functioning. Research has supported the association between parents' personality and parenting quality, but findings are inconsistent when examining various global personality measures. Further, it is likely that the interaction between parent-level (e.g., personality) and infant-level characteristics (e.g., temperament) are more strongly associated with caregiving quality. Most studies examining predictors of parenting quality have only included mothers, compared to fathers. The current study examined the interaction between parental personality and infant temperament and associations with parental sensitivity and intrusiveness with mothers and fathers. The participants included families (n = 102) when the infants were 4, 6, and 8 months old. Using parent report measures and a face-to-face play task, significant main effects of maternal behavioral inhibition on parenting behaviors were observed for mothers. A Behavioral Activation X Infant Negative Reactivity interaction predicted both maternal sensitivity and intrusiveness, whereas a Behavioral Inhibition X Infant Surgency predicted paternal intrusiveness. In summary, the results revealed support for the goodness-of-fit perspective between parents' personality and infant temperament.

ADHD Symptoms in Middle Childhood: The Role of Child Attachment and Maternal Emotional Availability in an Inpatient Clinical Sample

BACKGROUND

Child ADHD symptoms are highly prevalent in middle childhood, alongside impairment in social functioning. The parent-child relationship has been shown to play an important role; however, studies investigating specific facets of the parent-child relationship in ADHD symptomatology in middle childhood have been neglected. We assumed that higher ADHD symptoms were associated with both (1) lower maternal emotional availability (EA) and (2) lower child attachment security. Moreover, (3) we aimed to explore which specific EA dimensions were associated with ADHD symptoms.

METHODS

In a socio-pediatric clinic in Germany, 71 inpatient mother-child dyads (child age: M = 7.70, SD = 1.06; n = 54 boys) were assessed. Clinical data about child ADHD symptoms (Child Behavior Checklist 6-18 subscale "attention deficit/hyperactivity problems"), maternal EA (free play), and child attachment representation (Attachment Story Completion Task, GEV-B) were analyzed cross-sectionally.

RESULTS

Controlling for child oppositional behavior and sex, child ADHD symptoms were associated with overall maternal EA, and more specifically non-hostility, but not with child attachment representation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results imply that the role of parent-child interaction quality should be considered in the treatment of ADHD. Bidirectional effects cannot be ruled out.

Modeling trajectories of physical aggression from infancy to pre-school age, their early predictors, and school-age outcomes

This study identified latent trajectories of physical aggression (TPA) from infancy to preschool age and evaluated (a) effects of early parent, parenting and child predictors on TPA as well as on social, behavioral, and academic functioning in Grade 2, and (b) TPA effects net of early predictor effects on Grade 2 functioning. We used data from the Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study (BONDS), which included 1,159 children (559 girls). Parents reported on risk and protective factors, and on physical aggression from 1 to 5 years of age; teachers reported on Grade 2 outcomes. We employed latent class growth curve analyses and identified nine TPA. In fully adjusted models simultaneously testing all associations among predictors, trajectories, and outcomes, maternal and paternal harsh parenting, child gender, and sibling presence predicted TPA, which significantly predicted externalizing and academic competence in Grade 2. Child gender had a pervasive influence on all outcomes as well as on TPA. To our knowledge, this is the first trajectory study to determine which predictors are most proximal, more distal, or just confounded, with their relative direct effect sizes, and to link early paternal as well as maternal harsh parenting practices with children's TPA. Our findings underscore the need to include fathers in developmental research and early prevention and intervention efforts.

Does early child negative emotionality moderate the association between maternal stimulation and academic readiness and achievement?

We investigated whether child temperament (negative emotionality, 5 months) moderated the association between maternal stimulation (5 months-2½ years) and academic readiness and achievement (vocabulary, mathematics, and reading). We applied structural equation modeling to the data from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (N = 1121-1448; mostly Whites; 47% girls). Compared to children with low negative emotionality, those with high negative emotionality had higher levels of academic readiness (6 years) and mathematics achievement (7 years) when exposed to high levels of maternal stimulation (β = 3.17, p < .01 and β = 2.91, p < .01, respectively). The results support the differential susceptibility model whereby highly emotionally negative children were more susceptible to the influences of low and high levels of maternal stimulation in academic readiness and mathematics achievement's developments.

Parent-child interactive behavior in a German sample of parents with and without a mental illness: model replication and adaption of the Coding Interactive Behavior system

Studies using observational measures often fail to meet statistical standards for both reliability and validity. The present study examined the psychometric properties of the Coding Interactive Behavior (CIB) System within a German sample of parent-child dyads. The sample consisted of 149 parents with and without a mental illness and their children [n experimental group (EG) = 75, n control group (CG) = 74] who participated in the larger Children of Mentally Ill Parents at Risk Evaluation (COMPARE) study. The age of the children ranged from 3 to 12 years (M = 7.99, SD = 2.5). Exploratory factor analysis supported a five-factor model of the CIB with items describing 1) parental sensitivity/reciprocity, 2) parental intrusiveness, 3) child withdrawal, 4) child involvement, and 5) parent limit setting/child compliance. Compared to international samples, the model was reduced by two independent dyadic factors. Testing for predictive validity identified seven items with predictive power to differentiate parental group membership. The CIB factors did not seem to be sufficiently sensitive to illustrate differences in interaction within a sample of parents with various mental illnesses. To apply the CIB to the described sample or similar ones in the future, additional measurement instruments may be necessary.

The oral health impact profile and well-being on mothers and preschool children

OBJECTIVES

to verify the contribution of mothers' oral health impact profile to their children's oral health profile and the contribution of mothers' well-being and the caries index (dmft) to children's well-being.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional observational study. Mothers and pre-school children enrolled in public schools in the municipality of Araraquara-SP took part. The Oral Health Impact Profile Questionnaire (OHIP-14), Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), Early Childhood Oral Health Impact Scale (ECOHIS) and the Autoquestionnaire Qualité de Vie Enfant Imagé (AUQEI) were used. To diagnose caries, a clinical examination was carried out to calculate the dmft index. Path analysis was carried out and the path coefficients were estimated (β) and evaluated using the z-test (α = 5%).

RESULTS

443 children took part (5.19 ± 0.64 years; 52.4% boys) with an mean dmft of 1.31 ± 2.19. The mean age of the mothers was 33.4 ± 7.01 years. There was a significant impact of dmft and maternal well-being on the child's subjective well-being (s2explained = 43%). The mothers' oral health impact profile and the child's caries experience had a significant influence on both the child (OHIP: β = 0.22; p < 0.001; dmft: β = 0.48; p < 0.001) and the family (OHIP: β = 0.29; p < 0.001; dmft: β = 0.32; p < 0.001). The child's dmft (β=-0.10; p = 0.005) and the mothers' subjective well-being (β=-0.61; p < 0.001) had a significant impact on the child's subjective well-being.

CONCLUSION

The mothers' oral health impact profile and the child's caries experience had an impact on both the child and the family. Mothers' subjective well-being and caries experience should be considered when assessing the subjective well-being of Brazilian preschool children.

The role of fathers in child development from preconception to postnatal influences: Opportunities for the National Institutes of Health Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) program

A growing body of literature highlights the important role of paternal health and socioemotional characteristics in child development, from preconception through adolescence. Much of this research addresses the indirect effects of fathers, for instance, their influence on maternal behaviors during the prenatal period or via the relationship with their partner. However, emerging evidence also recognizes the direct role of paternal health and behavior for child health and adjustment across development. This critical review presents evidence of biological and sociocultural influences of fathers on preconception, prenatal, and postnatal contributions to child development. The National Institutes of Health Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) program incorporates in its central conceptualization the impact of fathers on family and child outcomes. This critical synthesis of the literature focuses on three specific child outcomes in the ECHO program: health outcomes (e.g., obesity), neurodevelopmental outcomes (e.g., emotional, behavioral, psychopathological development), and positive health. We highlight the unique insights gained from the literature to date and provide next steps for future studies on paternal influences.

Skin-to-Skin Care and Spontaneous Touch by Fathers in Full-Term Infants: A Systematic Review

A series of studies have shown that mothers' early tactile behaviors have positive effects, both on full-term and preterm infants, and on mothers alike. Regarding fathers, research has focused mostly on paternal skin-to-skin care with preterm infants and has overlooked the tactile behavior effects with full-term newborns on infants' outcomes and on fathers themselves. The current systematic review considered the evidence regarding paternal tactile behaviors with full-term infants, including skin-to-skin care (SSC) and spontaneous touch (ST), during parent-infant interactions, and differentiated biophysiological, behavioral and psychological variables both in fathers and in infants. We also compared fathers' and mothers' tactile behaviors for potential differences. The few available studies suggest that paternal touch-SSC and ST-can have positive effects on fathers and infants alike. They also show that, despite some intrinsic differences, paternal touch is as pleasant as maternal touch. However, given the paucity of studies on the topic, we discuss why this field of research should be further explored.

Configurations of mother-child and father-child attachment relationships as predictors of child language competence: An individual participant data meta-analysis

An individual participant data meta-analysis was conducted to test pre-registered hypotheses about how the configuration of attachment relationships to mothers and fathers predicts children's language competence. Data from seven studies (published between 1985 and 2014) including 719 children (Mage : 19.84 months; 51% female; 87% White) were included in the linear mixed effects analyses. Mean language competence scores exceeded the population average across children with different attachment configurations. Children with two secure attachment relationships had higher language competence scores compared to those with one or no secure attachment relationships (d = .26). Children with two organized attachment relationships had higher language competence scores compared to those with one organized attachment relationship (d = .23), and this difference was observed in older versus younger children in exploratory analyses. Mother-child and father-child attachment quality did not differentially predict language competence, supporting the comparable importance of attachment to both parents in predicting developmental outcomes.

Interactive synchrony and infants' vagal tone as an index of emotion regulation: associations within each mother- and father-infant dyad and across dyads

Introduction

Studies have shown that infants' emotion regulation capacities are closely linked to the quality of parent-infant interactions. However, these links have been mostly studied in mother-infant dyads and less is known about how the quality of father-infant interactions contributes to the development of emotion regulation during infancy. In this study, we aimed to investigate the links between interactive synchrony (i.e., an index of the quality of parent-infant coordination of interactive behaviors) and infants' vagal tone (i.e., a physiological index of emotion regulation). To understand the respective contributions of both parents, as well as the interrelations between the functioning of both dyads within a family, we observed mothers and fathers from 84 families interacting with their infants.

Methods

Synchrony was assessed by using the CARE-Index; infants' vagal tone was derived from the analysis of infants' electrocardiograms recorded during the interactions. Moreover, to take the play's order into account, we counterbalanced the procedure, so that approximately half of the mothers played first. We specified a first structural equation modeling (SEM) model to investigate the associations between interactive synchrony and the infants' root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD), an index of vagal regulation, in the two successive parts of the play. We conducted a multigroup analysis in a second SEM model to investigate the associations of the first SEM model in two groups based on the order of interaction.

Results

The results of the SEM models showed that greater synchrony was related to greater infant RMSSD within mother-infant dyads and across one dyad to the other dyad in the full sample and in the group of fathers who interacted first with the infants. The associations between synchrony and infant vagal tone within father-infant dyads never appeared to be significant, nor did any associations within each dyad and across dyads when mothers interacted first.

Discussion

This study highlights that the links between interactions and infants' vagal tone are sensitive to family members' interdependencies and some conditions (the order of interaction).

Advancing early relational health: a collaborative exploration of a research agenda

Here, we introduce the Early Relational Health (ERH) Learning Community's bold, large-scale, collaborative, data-driven and practice-informed research agenda focused on furthering our mechanistic understanding of ERH and identifying feasible and effective practices for making ERH promotion a routine and integrated component of pediatric primary care. The ERH Learning Community, formed by a team of parent/caregiver leaders, pediatric care clinicians, researchers, and early childhood development specialists, is a workgroup of Nurture Connection-a hub geared toward promoting ERH, i.e., the positive and nurturing relationship between young children and their parent(s)/caregiver(s), in families and communities nationwide. In response to the current child mental health crisis and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) policy statement promoting ERH, the ERH Learning Community held an in-person meeting at the AAP national headquarters in December 2022 where members collaboratively designed an integrated research agenda to advance ERH. This agenda weaves together community partners, clinicians, and academics, melding the principles of participatory engagement and human-centered design, such as early engagement, co-design, iterative feedback, and cultural humility. Here, we present gaps in the ERH literature that prompted this initiative and the co-design activity that led to this novel and iterative community-focused research agenda, with parents/caregivers at the core, and in close collaboration with pediatric clinicians for real-world promotion of ERH in the pediatric primary care setting.

Parental sensitivity, family alliance and infants' vagal tone: Influences of early family interactions on physiological emotion regulation

In this study, we investigated the influence of parental sensitivity and family alliance on infants' vagal tone, considered as a physiological indicator of emotion regulation. Studies on mother-infant interactions have shown that vagal tone can be influenced by the quality of the interaction, such as interacting with a sensitive mother. To date, no study has investigated the influence of paternal sensitivity or family alliance on infants' vagal tone. We hypothesized that maternal sensitivity, paternal sensitivity, and family alliance would be associated with infants' vagal tone during dyadic and triadic interactions. We also explored if family alliance would act as a moderator on the association between parental sensitivity and vagal tone and if the sensitivity of both parents would act as a moderator on the association between family alliance and vagal tone. This study took place in Switzerland and included 82 families with their 3-4-month-old infants. Results showed that maternal sensitivity and family alliance were associated with infants' vagal tone, but paternal sensitivity was not. We found no significant moderation effect. However, result tendencies suggested that the contribution of paternal sensitivity to infants' emotion regulation could be influenced by family alliance, whereas maternal sensitivity and family alliance have a unique contribution.

Vagal Flexibility Moderates the Links between Observed Sensitive Caregiving in Infancy and Externalizing Behavior Problems in Middle Childhood

This study explored how patterns of physiological stress reactivity underpin individual differences in sensitivity to early rearing experiences and childhood risk for psychopathology. To examine individual differences in parasympathetic functioning, past research has largely relied on static measures of stress reactivity (i.e., residual and change scores) in infancy which may not adequately capture the dynamic nature of regulation across contexts. Using data from a prospective longitudinal study of 206 children (56% African Americans) and their families, this study addressed these gaps by employing the latent basis growth curve model to characterize the dynamic, non-linear patterns of change in infants' respiratory sinus arrhythmia (i.e., vagal flexibility) across the Face-to-Face Still-Face Paradigm. Furthermore, it investigated whether and how infants' vagal flexibility moderates the links between sensitive parenting, observed during a free play task when children were 6 months of age, and parent-report of children's externalizing problems at 7 years of age. Results of the structural equation models revealed that infants' vagal flexibility moderates the predictive relations between sensitive parenting in infancy and children's later externalizing problems. Simple slope analyses revealed that low vagal flexibility, characterized by less suppression and flatter recovery patterns, exacerbated risk for externalizing psychopathology in the context of insensitive parenting. Children with low vagal flexibility also benefited most from sensitive parenting, as indicated by the lower number of externalizing problems. Findings are interpreted in the light of the biological sensitivity to context model and provide evidence for vagal flexibility as a biomarker of individual's sensitivity to early rearing contexts.

Mentalizing in first-time fathers: reflective functioning as a mediator between attachment representation and sensitivity

Sensitivity in parent-child interaction is essential for child development. Since fathers are increasingly involved in childrearing, identifying factors leading to paternal sensitivity is crucial. We examined the relation between attachment representation and reflective functioning (RF) as factors influencing paternal sensitivity in a longitudinal study including N = 40 first-time fathers (Mage = 33) and their 6-month-old children. We used the Adult Attachment Interview during pregnancy to assess paternal attachment representation and general RF, the Parental Development Interview to assess fathers' parental RF, and the Emotional Availability Scale to measure sensitivity at child's age of 6 month. Data show that secure paternal attachment representation, high general and parental RF are associated with higher levels of paternal sensitivity. Further, parental RF mediates the association between attachment representation and paternal sensitivity. These findings contribute to the identification of a causal interplay in that they suggest an explanatory effect of RF on the association between fathers' attachment representation, and sensitivity.

Changes in patterns of Early Mother-Child Interaction: A longitudinal study of the first 18 months of life

OBJECTIVE

The main objective of the present longitudinal study is to describe the progression of early adult-child interactions between the first and second years of life. Changes identified in interactions are described, focusing on both the qualitative aspects of maternal responses, as well as maternal response latency to the child's behavior using a microanalytical methodology that collected data on maternal and child behavior in real-time without losing sight of the temporal dimension.

PARTICIPANTS

This study examined 52 mother-child dyads from intact families that presented no psychological, social, or biological risk factors at 6, 12 and 18 months of age.

INSTRUMENT

CITMI-R (early mother-child interaction coding system, revised edition) was used to assess early mother-infant interactions during free play sessions between mother and child the.

RESULTS

The results indicate that some components of maternal sensitivity improve as children progress towards the second year of life, detecting an increase in sensitive maternal behavior and a decrease in intrusive behavior in the evolutive observed period; moreover, regarding latency of maternal response, we observed that mothers of older children give more time for their children to explore, which stimulates autonomy. Finally, the implication of these results for intervention directed to optimizing early adult-child interactions are addressed.

Formative research to inform the future design of a multicomponent fatherhood intervention to improve early child development in Mwanza, Tanzania

Fathers can influence child development through various pathways, such as via their caregiving behaviors, marital relationships, and their psychosocial wellbeing. However, few parenting interventions have been designed to target these multiple dimensions among fathers with young children in low- and middle-income countries. In June 2022, we conducted qualitative formative research to explore the perceptions surrounding fatherhood and the underlying barriers and enablers to engaged fathering in Mwanza, Tanzania. We completed individual in-depth interviews with 29 fathers and 23 mothers of children under aged 2 years along with 5 community leaders and 3 community health workers. We also completed 10 focus group discussions: 4 with fathers, 2 with mothers, and 4 mixed groups that combined both fathers and mothers. In total, the sample included 120 respondents stratified from across 4 study communities. Data were analyzed using thematic content analysis. Respondents highlighted that poor couples' relationships (e.g., limited male partner support, male dominance in decision-making) and fathers' mental health problems (e.g., parenting stress) were major priorities affecting fathers. Father involvement in parenting, childcare, and household activities were generally low. These dimensions of fatherhood were interlinked (e.g., poor paternal mental health constrained marital relationships and parenting). A constellation of determinants impacted engaged fathering. Common barriers included poverty, restrictive gender attitudes and norms, men's limited time at home, and inadequate knowledge about caregiving. Key enablers included mutual respect in marital relationships and men's desires to show their love for their families. Our results highlight the cultural relevance and the need for multicomponent strategies that jointly target fathers' caregiving, marital relationships, and psychosocial wellbeing for enhancing nurturing care and promoting early child development in Tanzania. Study findings can be used to inform the design of a future father-inclusive, gender-transformative parenting intervention for engaging and supporting fathers with young children in the local cultural context.

The Child-Mother-Father-Teacher Relationship Network in Kindergarten and Its Association with Children's Social and Academic Development: An Ecological Perspective

This study examines how a set of the child's proximal relationships (mother-child, father-child, and teacher-child) and parent-teacher relationships relate to the child's prosocial and learning behaviors in kindergarten. The sample included 95 mother-father-child triads (child mean age 5.9 years) and 42 kindergarten teachers. All adults reported on their relationship with the child and on their perceptions of parent-teacher relationships. Teachers reported on the child's behaviors. Main findings: (1) All proximal relationships and the teachers' relationships with mothers and fathers were related to children's outcomes; and (2) different patterns of associations were found between father-child and mother-child relationships, and teacher-child relationship, parent-teacher relationships, and children's outcomes. These findings hint to the different roles of fathers and mothers in their children's development and to distinguished patterns of relationships of mothers and fathers with kindergarten teachers.

Curiosity constructs communicative competence through social feedback loops

One of the most important challenges for a developing infant is learning how best to allocate their attention and forage for information in the midst of a great deal of novel stimulation. We propose that infants of altricial species solve this challenge by learning selectively from events that are contingent on their immature behavior, such as babbling. Such a contingency filter would focus attention and learning on the behavior of social partners, because social behavior reliably fits infants' sensitivity to contingency. In this way a contingent response by a caregiver to an immature behavior becomes a source of learnable information - feedback - to the infant. Social interactions with responsive caregivers afford infants opportunities to explore the impacts of their immature behavior on their environment, which facilitates the development of socially guided learning. Furthermore, contingent interactions are opportunities to make and test predictions about the efficacy of their social behaviors and those of others. In this chapter, we will use prelinguistic vocal learning to exemplify how infants use their developing vocal abilities to elicit learnable information about language from their social partners. Specifically, we review how caregivers' contingent responses to babbling create information that facilitates infant vocal learning and drives the development of communication. Infants play an active role in this process, as their developing predictions about the consequences of their actions serve to further refine their allocation of attention and drive increases in the maturity of their vocal behavior.

History of "Serve and Return" and a Synthesis of the Literature on its Impacts on Children's Health and Development

Parent/caregiver sensitivity and responsiveness are important for children's health and development. The "serve and return" metaphor was created to help providers and caregivers understand the importance of sensitive and responsive early caregiving. In this review, we explain the concept of "serve and return", outline historical and theoretical principles that culminated in this metaphor, highlight parent and child constructs associated with "serve and return" interactions, and synthesize literature on sensitive and responsive caregiving and children's health and developmental outcomes. Nurses and other healthcare professionals in public policy, clinical, community, education, and research roles need knowledge of "serve and return" interactions.

The long-term association between paternal involvement in infant care and children's psychological well-being at age 16 years: An analysis of the Japanese Longitudinal Survey of Newborns in the 21st Century 2001 cohort

BACKGROUND

Some studies conducted in the United Kingdom have shown long-term associations between paternal involvement in childcare and adolescents' mental health issues. However, findings were inconsistent, and similar epidemiologic studies have not been conducted in other countries in Europe or Asia. Thus, we aimed to examine this association using Japanese population-based cohort study data.

METHODS

The Japanese Longitudinal Survey of Newborns in the 21st Century commenced in 2001. Data from 18,568 16-year-olds enrolled in the survey were analyzed. Poor psychological well-being was assessed using the WHO-5 Well-being Index. Paternal involvement in childcare-in tasks such as changing diapers-was assessed at the children's 6 months of age. We created four groups from least involvement to most active involvement based on the frequency of fathers' performing the tasks.

RESULTS

The risk of poor psychological well-being was lower among more active involvement groups compared with the least involvement group, after adjusting for potential confounders (risk ratios = 0.90 [95 % confidence intervals: 0.85, 0.95] for the most active group).

LIMITATIONS

Due to 16 years of follow-up, loss to follow-up may have caused a selection bias.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study is the first in Asian countries to show that fathers' active involvement in childcare is associated with poor psychological well-being in adolescence. Encouraging fathers' involvement in childcare may ameliorate prevalent issues of school refusals and withdrawals in the long term in Japan.

Fathers' sensitive parenting enhanced by prenatal video-feedback: a randomized controlled trial using ultrasound imaging

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to evaluate an interaction-based prenatal parenting intervention program aimed at promoting parental sensitivity and involvement in expectant fathers using ultrasound images: Prenatal Video-Feedback Intervention to Promote Positive Parenting (VIPP-PRE).

METHODS

In this randomized controlled trial, 73 first-time, healthy expectant fathers were enrolled. Participants were randomly assigned to the VIPP-PRE intervention (n = 39) or a dummy intervention (n = 34). Parental sensitivity was coded from video-recorded 10-min interactions with an infant simulator at a prenatal pretest and with fathers' own infant at a postnatal posttest. Prenatal and postnatal involvement was assessed via an application on participants' smartphones.

RESULTS

Fathers receiving VIPP-PRE demonstrated increased sensitivity across the perinatal period, relative to fathers receiving a dummy intervention. Fathers' involvement with the infant increased significantly from the prenatal to postnatal period, regardless of the intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal video-feedback using ultrasound imaging of the unborn child has the potential to promote the quality of parenting in an important, but understudied, population and period: men in the transition to fatherhood. Future research should examine the long-term effectiveness of VIPP-PRE and its effectiveness in increasing parenting quality in at-risk families.

IMPACT

This study identifies a brief and focused prenatal intervention using assisted interactions between the father and his baby by means of ultrasound imaging as a promising strategy to improve sensitive fathering in the early postnatal phase. Our study shows that pregnancy provides a window of opportunity for promoting prenatal involvement and bonding in expectant fathers, with potential long-term benefits for the future father-child relationship. Ultrasound measures are currently used to monitor fetal growth and development, but our results suggest that they may also create an opportunity for stimulating father-infant interaction to promote postnatal caregiving quality.

Maternal mental-health treatment moderates the association between psychological distress and harsh parenting: A prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

Parental psychological distress (depression, anxiety) is detrimental to child mental health. A key reason for this is that depressed and anxious parents are at risk of engaging in more negative, reactive and harsh parenting. While treatment for psychological distress has a long history of success in adults, less is known about how treatment for parental psychological distress may positively influence parenting behaviours, particularly in the general population. We examined the moderating role of mothers receiving treatment for depression or anxiety on the longitudinal relationship between maternal psychological distress and the development of harsh parenting (smacking and shouting) across early childhood (ages 3 to 7).

METHOD

Using prospective data from 16,131 families participating in the UK's Millennium Cohort Study, we conducted moderator analysis within a multilevel repeated measures model to test whether receiving treatment for mental health problems could protect mothers with high psychological distress from engaging in harsh parenting.

RESULTS

In each wave, about 7% of mothers reported undergoing treatment for depression or anxiety at that time. Maternal psychological distress was associated with increased use of harsh parenting and that, adjusting for psychological distress, receiving psychological treatment was related to decreased use of harsh parenting. Importantly, receiving psychological treatment buffered the negative effect of psychological distress on harsh parenting.

CONCLUSION

In early-to-middle childhood, mental health treatment may help mothers with depression or anxiety to be less harsh toward their children, thereby benefiting their child's psychological adjustment.

Mother and father interaction with their 3-month-old infants: Similarities and differences in parenting behaviour in well-resourced parents

Infancy is characterized by intensive parenting which may affect later child development. However, little is known about similarities and differences in maternal and paternal parenting behaviour, as the majority of the studies have mainly focused on mothers. The present study investigated similarities and differences in mothers' and fathers' parenting behaviour during parent-infant interaction in 56 mothers and 56 fathers of 3-months-old infants in a good-resourced sample. Parent-child interactions were videotaped and coded by the Global Rating Scales. Results suggested similar parenting behaviour in terms of maternal and paternal sensitivity, intrusiveness and remoteness. Moreover, regardless of sex infant's behaviour was similar during interactions with mothers and fathers. The low-risk and non-clinical nature of our sample may have had a positive influence on mother-child and father-child dyadic exchanges. These findings suggest including family system models in research and clinical practice.

Positive Parenting and Early Childhood Cognition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

This review examines the effectiveness of positive parenting interventions aimed at improving sensitivity, responsiveness, and/or non-harsh discipline on children's early cognitive skills, in four meta-analyses addressing general mental abilities, language, executive functioning, and pre-academics. The objectives are to assess the magnitude of intervention effectiveness and identify moderators of effectiveness. We include randomized controlled trials of interventions targeting positive parenting to improve cognition in children < 6 years. Studies that include children with neurodevelopmental and/or hearing disorders were excluded. MEDLINE, PsycINFO, ERIC, and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (October 2021) and citation chaining identified relevant records. Five reviewers completed screening/assessments, extraction, and risk of bias. Pooled analysis in Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (Version 3) used random effects modeling, with moderation via Q-statistics and meta-regression. Positive parenting interventions led to significant improvements in mental abilities (g = 0.46, N = 5746; k = 33) and language (g = 0.25, N = 6428; k = 30). Effect sizes were smaller and nonsignificant for executive functioning (g = 0.07, N = 3628; k = 14) and pre-academics (g = 0.16, N = 2365; k = 7). Robust moderators emerged for language and cognition. For cognition, studies with higher risk of bias scores yielded larger intervention effects. For language, studies with younger children had larger effect sizes. Studies mitigated selection and detection bias, though greater transparency of reporting is needed. Interventions that promote parental sensitivity, responsiveness, and non-harsh discipline improve early mental abilities and language. Studies examining executive functioning and pre-academics are needed to examine moderators of intervention effectiveness. Trial registration Systematic review PROSPERO registration. CRD42020222143.

Child and family factors associated with child mental health and well-being during COVID-19

Understanding the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic on the current generation of youth is critical for post-pandemic recovery planning. This study aimed to identify the most salient child (i.e., connectedness to caregivers, screen time, sleep, physical activity, peer relationships, and recreational activities) and family (i.e., COVID-19 financial impact, maternal depression and anxiety) factors associated with children's mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, after controlling for pre-pandemic mental health. This study included 846 mother-child dyads (child age 9-11) from the All Our Families cohort. Mothers reported on the child's pre-pandemic mental health at age 8 (2017-2019) and during COVID-19 (May-July 2020), the family's financial impact due to COVID-19, and maternal depression and anxiety. During COVID-19 (July-August 2020), children reported on their screen time, sleep, physical activity, peer and family relationships, and recreational activities, as well as their happiness, anxiety and depression. After controlling for pre-pandemic anxiety, connectedness to caregivers (B - 0.16; 95% CI - 0.22 to - 0.09), child sleep (B - 0.11; 95% CI - 0.19 to - 0.04), and child screen time (B 0.11; 95% CI 0.04-0.17) predicted child COVID-19 anxiety symptoms. After controlling for pre-pandemic depression, connectedness to caregivers (B - 0.26; 95% CI - 0.32 to - 0.21) and screen time (B 0.09; 95% CI 0.02-0.16) predicted child COVID-19 depressive symptoms. After controlling for covariates, connectedness to caregivers (B 0.36; 95% CI 0.28-0.39) predicted child COVID-19 happiness. Fostering parent-child connections and promoting healthy device and sleep habits are critical modifiable factors that warrant attention in post-pandemic mental health recovery planning.

A Family Systems Perspective on Attachment Security and Dependency to Mother and Father in Preschool: Differential and Reciprocal Effects on Children's Emotional and Behavioral Problems

Attachment security and dependency play a decisive role for children's mental health. From a family systems perspective, reciprocal effects of dyadic attachment to each parent within the same family on child symptomatology may well offer additional insights in developmental processes as parents and children influence each other consistently. This study examined the influence of child-mother as well as child-father attachment security and dependency on maternal, paternal, and observed ratings of children's emotional and behavioral problems. A total of 124 families with preschool children participated in this study. Attachment security, dependency, and symptomatology of the children were independently observed during home visits. Furthermore, mothers and fathers rated child symptoms. Results revealed promotive effects of attachment security to both parents on observed child symptoms. Furthermore, we found a significant actor effect of child-mother attachment security, as well as a significant partner effect of child-father dependency on maternal ratings of child symptomatology. Attachment security to both parents is promotive for child mental health. The family systems perspective clarifies the meaning of child-father relationships for maternal perception of the own child.

Paternal mind-mindedness and infant-toddler social-emotional problems

A growing body of evidence suggests that paternal behaviors are influential in child development. However, few studies have focused on paternal mind-mindedness, that is, the tendency of fathers to view their child as having mental agency, which is manifested as a propensity to name the child's mental states while they are interacting with the child. The purpose of this study was to better understand the role of paternal mind-mindedness in the development of social-emotional problems during infancy. 131 families (father-mother-child) were recruited from the community and assessed when children were 6, 12, and 18 months old. Paternal and maternal mind-mindedness was assessed through observation of father-child and mother-child dyads at 6 months. Children's social-emotional problems were measured with a questionnaire completed by both parents at 12 and 18 months. Results indicate that maternal mind-mindedness at 6 months predicts fewer social-emotional problems at 12 months, while fathers' mind-mindedness at 6 months predicts fewer social-emotional problems at 18 months. This study highlights the unique contribution of paternal mind-mindedness to children's early social-emotional development.

A meta-analysis on observed paternal and maternal sensitivity

Two meta-analyses were conducted (N = 10,980 child-father dyads) with 93 studies published between 1983-2020, primarily in North America and Europe, on observed parental sensitivity to children (3-180 months; 48% girls; 14% non-White) in partnered mothers and fathers. The first meta-analysis found higher maternal mean levels of observed sensitivity, with a small effect size (d = -.27). Differences between parents were larger with micro coding and triadic/family assessments. Differences narrowed as a function of publication year and were not significant in European samples. The second meta-analysis identified a moderate correlation between observed maternal and paternal sensitivity (r = .23 after adjusting for probable publication bias). Correlations were larger in Middle Eastern samples and with composite sensitivity scales.

Effects of oxytocin and vasopressin administration on human fathers' sensitive and challenging parenting: A randomized within-subject controlled trial

This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled within-subject study examined the effects of intranasal administration of oxytocin and vasopressin on fathers' sensitive and challenging parenting behaviors. Furthermore, we examined the moderating role of fathers' early childhood experiences. The sample consisted of 70 fathers with their 2- to 12-month-old infants. All fathers were assigned to each of the three experimental sessions (oxytocin, vasopressin, and placebo), on three separate days, with random order and intervening periods of one to two weeks. Sensitive and challenging parenting behaviors (CPB) were observed during a 10-minute free play task. Results showed no effects of vasopressin administration on paternal sensitivity. Fathers in the oxytocin condition were less sensitive than fathers in the placebo condition, and this effect was moderated by fathers' own childhood experiences: Fathers who reported higher levels of experienced parental love withdrawal were less sensitive in the oxytocin condition as compared to the placebo condition, whereas fathers with less experienced parental love withdrawal showed no difference in sensitivity between the oxytocin and placebo condition. No effects were found of oxytocin and vasopressin administration on fathers' CPB. Our results, although partly unexpected, are largely in line with previous literature showing that oxytocin administration can exert negative effects in individuals with adverse childhood experiences.

Pleasure in parenting as a mediator between fathers' attachment representations and paternal sensitivity

The present study examined the mediating role of pleasure in parenting in the link between fathers' attachment representations and paternal sensitivity among 138 father-infant dyads from a rural part of the southeastern United States. First-time fathers' attachment representations were assessed using the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) prenatally. Pleasure in parenting-a multidimensional construct assessing positive attitudes and beliefs toward the parenting role-was coded from fathers' interviews at 3 months. Paternal sensitivity was coded from father-infant play interactions at 12 months. Results indicated that fathers with secure-autonomous adult attachment representations showed more pleasure in parenting. In turn, fathers who took more pleasure in parenting also interacted more sensitively during father-infant interactions. Moreover, although the direct association between fathers' attachment representations and sensitivity was nonsignificant, the indirect effect from secure-autonomous representations to sensitivity via pleasure in parenting was significant. Findings suggest that first-time fathers' parenting attitudes may play a role in transmitting representations of early caregiving experiences to sensitive interactions with their own infants. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Parental sensitivity and child behavioral problems: A meta-analytic review

Meta-analytic associations between observed parental sensitivity and child behavioral problems were examined (children aged 0-17 years). Studies (k = 108, N = 28,114) contained sociodemographically diverse samples, primarily from North America and Europe, reporting on parent-child dyads (95% mothers; 54% boys). Sensitivity significantly related to internalizing (k = 69 studies; N = 14,729; r = -.08, 95% CI [-.12, -.05]) and externalizing (k = 94; N = 25,418; r = -.14, 95% CI [-.17, -.11]) problems, with stronger associations found for externalizing. For internalizing problems, associations were significantly stronger among samples with low socioeconomic status (SES) versus mid-high SES, in peer-reviewed versus unpublished dissertations, and in studies using composite versus single scale sensitivity measures. No other moderators emerged as significant.

The Role of Paternal Involvement on Behavioral Sensitive Responses and Neurobiological Activations in Fathers: A Systematic Review

As fathering research has flourished, a growing body of studies has focused on behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms, respectively associated with caregiving sensitivity and responsiveness to infant stimuli. However, the association between these aspects and the key concept of paternal involvement in childcare (i.e., contribution in infant care in terms of time, availability, and responsibility) has been poorly investigated. The current work aims to systematically review the role of involvement in childcare on both neural activations and sensitive behaviors in fathers by examining (a) how paternal involvement has been measured and (b) whether paternal involvement has been associated with neurobiological activation and behavioral sensitive responses. Inclusion criteria were peer-reviewed quantitative studies, concerning fathers responding to infant stimuli at neurobiological or behavioral level, and including a quantitative measurement of paternal involvement in childcare. A quality rating for each study has been performed based on the measurements adopted to assess paternal involvement. Of 2,529 articles, 27 studies were included. According to our quality rating, 10 out of 27 studies included fairly good-standard measures for measuring paternal involvement, whereas 17 studies used good-standard measures. In addition, 11 studies provided details of paternal involvement in the context of neurobiological responses to infant stimuli, whereas 16 addressed paternal sensitive behaviors. Overall, only 8 studies reported relevant findings about the relationship between paternal involvement and neurobiological responses or sensitive behaviors in fathers. The present study is the first systematically evaluating the scope of paternal involvement in the field of Paternal Brain and fathers' sensitive responsiveness research. When high-standard measures are used, paternal involvement seems to play a significant role in modulating both the hormonal and the neural pathways associated with paternal behaviors. Remarkably, the role of paternal engagement may underpin an adaptive nurturance that is not dependent on pregnancy and childbirth but on caregiving experience. A promising positive link between paternal involvement and behavioral sensitivity may be expected in further studies, which will need to corroborate our conclusion by adopting detailed and appropriate measures assessing paternal involvement. As a future line of research, the inclusion of gay fathers may be beneficial for the field.

Fathers' Sensitivity in Infancy and Externalizing Problems in Middle Childhood: The Role of Coparenting

The present study examined the role of father sensitivity and couple coparenting quality in the first 2 years of life in relation to the development of externalizing behavior problems in middle childhood, focusing on the unique role of fathers. In this study, 125 mothers, fathers, and their first-born children were followed from 8 months to age 7 years. Paternal sensitivity was rated when infants were 8 and 24 months old. Fathers were videotaped at home playing, feeding, and changing their 8-month-old infants’ clothes. They also were videotaped in a lab playing with their 24-month-olds and solving a variety of challenging tasks. At 24 months, competitive coparenting was assessed via videotaped triadic family interactions at home in which families participated in a variety of tasks (i.e., clothes change, eating a snack together and solving tasks). Teachers rated externalizing behavior problems when the children were age 7. Continuity in paternal sensitivity was documented from 8 to 24 months, and paternal sensitivity at 8 months predicted externalizing behavior in middle childhood through father sensitivity at 24 months. Moreover, paternal sensitivity at 8 months predicted competitive coparenting which, in turn, forecast externalizing behavior problems in middle childhood, even after controlling for maternal sensitivity at 8 and 24 months. These findings highlight the unique role of paternal caregiving quality during the first year of life on couple coparenting and children’s subsequent development of externalizing problems and have implications for creating effective interventions to prevent children from developing externalizing disorders.

Still Mother after All These Years: Infants Still Prefer Mothers over Fathers (If They Have the Choice)

Fathering and mothering have changed in many ways within the last decades. Earlier studies showed a clear hierarchy in infant attachment figures with a preference for mothers. This study examined whether infants in the 21st century still prefer mothers over fathers in their expression of attachment behaviors, whether differences in parental involvement still exist, and whether this will result in differences in attachment security to mother and father. A total of 50 German families with infants between 10 and 19 months were observed in an experimental setting and during home visits. Parents reported on their involvement. The results revealed a clear hierarchy with regard to the duration of attachment behaviors directed towards mothers, followed by fathers and strangers. Mothers reported to be more involved in child care on weekdays compared to fathers. Involvement was not associated with attachment variables. Attachment security to mother and father was positively related and did not differ significantly. Infants in the 21st century in a Western country still prefer mothers over fathers in their expression of attachment behaviors. Mothers were more involved in child care than fathers. However, these differences did not result in differences in attachment security to mother and father.

From Early Micro-Temporal Interaction Patterns to Child Cortisol Levels: Toward the Role of Interactive Reparation and Infant Attachment in a Longitudinal Study

Parental mental disorders increase the risk for insecure attachment in children. However, the quality of caregiver–infant interaction plays a key role in the development of infant attachment. Dyadic interaction is frequently investigated via global scales which are too rough to uncover micro-temporal mechanisms. Prior research found that the latency to reparation of uncoordinated dyadic states is associated with infant behavioral and neuroendocrine regulation. We investigated the hypothesis that this interactive mechanism is critical in predicting secure vs. insecure attachment quality in infancy. We also assessed the predictive quality of infant attachment regarding neuroendocrine reactivity later in childhood. A subsample of N = 58 dyads (n = 22 mothers with anxiety disorders, n = 36 controls) from a larger study were analyzed. At 3–8 months postpartum, maternal anxiety disorders were diagnosed via a structured clinical interview as well as dyadic interaction during the Face-to-Face-Still-Face (FFSF) was observed and coded on a micro-temporal scale. Infant attachment quality was assessed with the strange situation paradigm at 12–24 months of age. In an overlapping subsample of N = 39 (n = 13 mothers with anxiety disorder; n = 26 controls), we assessed child cortisol reactivity at 5 to 6 years of age. Generalized linear modeling revealed that longer latencies to interactive reparation during the reunion episode of the FFSF as well as maternal diagnosis at 3–8 months of age predict insecure attachment in children aged 12–24 months. Cox regressions demonstrated that dyads with infants who developed insecure attachment at 12–24 months of age were 48% less likely to achieve an interactive reparation at 3–8 months of age. Mixed models revealed that compared to securely attached children, children who had developed an insecure attachment at 12–24 months of age had an increased cortisol reactivity at 5 to 6 years of age during free play. The results confirm the hypothesis that the development of attachment is affected by experienced micro-temporal interactive patterns besides diagnostic categories. They also showed that infants of mothers with postpartum anxiety disorders have a more than fivefold increased risk of developing an insecure attachment than the infants of the control group. Moreover, results imply that these patterns may influence neurohormonal regulation even in preschool aged children.

The roots of paternal depression: Experienced and nonexperienced trauma or Folie a Deux?

The transition to fatherhood may be challenged with anxiety and trepidation. A high prevalence has been found for paternal depression and it is reactive to maternal depression. This review aims to address potential sources of paternal depression, which may have adverse consequences on child development. We describe through three hypotheses how fathers may be at risk of depression during the transition to fatherhood: (1) psychological (interacting with ecological systems); (2) brain functional∖structural changes; and (3) (epi)genomic. We propose that paternal stressful experiences during the transition to fatherhood may be the source for paternal depression through direct stressful paternal experiences or via (potential, currently debated) nonexperienced (by the father) epigenomic transgenerational transmission. On the other hand, we suggest that resilient fathers may undergo a transient dysphoric period affected by identifying with the newborn's vulnerability as well as with the mother's postpartum vulnerability resulting in "paternity blues." In accordance with recent views on paternal "heightened sensitivity" toward the infant, we propose that the identification of both parents with the vulnerability of the newborn creates a sensitive period of Folie a Deux (shared madness) which may be a healthy transient, albeit a quasi-pathological period, recruited by the orienting response of the newborn for survival.

Child-father attachment in early childhood and behavior problems: A meta-analysis

This meta-analytic study examined the associations between child-father attachment in early childhood and children's externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. Based on 15 samples (N = 1,304 dyads), the association between child-father attachment insecurity and externalizing behaviors was significant and moderate in magnitude (r = 0.18, 95% CI: 0.10, 0.27 or d = 0.37, 95% CI: 0.20, 0.55). No moderators of this association were identified. Based on 12 samples (N = 1,073), the association between child-father attachment insecurity and internalizing behaviors was also significant, albeit smaller in magnitude (r = 0.09, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.15; or d = 0.17, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.31). Between-study heterogeneity was insufficient to consider moderators. When compared to the effect sizes of prior meta-analyses on child-mother attachment and behavior problems, the quality of the attachment relationship with fathers yields a similar magnitude of associations to children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Results support the need to consider the role of the attachment network, which notably includes attachment relationships to both fathers and mothers, to understand how attachment relationships contribute to child development.

Long-term effects of father involvement in childhood on their son's physiological stress regulation system in adulthood

Using a long-term prospective longitudinal study of U.S. men and their fathers, the present study examined the extent to which the quantity (i.e., shared activities between fathers and sons) and the quality (i.e., assessors' ratings of fathers' positive behaviors toward sons and the relationship quality between fathers and sons) of father involvement during childhood influenced sons' diurnal patterns of salivary cortisol in adulthood (late 30s) directly and indirectly through substance use across the 20s. Findings indicated that the quantity of father involvement during childhood was directly associated with sons' diurnal cortisol patterns assessed almost 30 years later. Specifically, the quantity of father involvement in childhood significantly increased the intercept (i.e., upon awakening) and also led to a greater reduction in cortisol across the day, suggesting a well-regulated diurnal cortisol pattern. The quantity of father involvement significantly reduced the amount of sons' illicit drug and tobacco use across the 20s. Tobacco use across the 20s was associated with a lower cortisol intercept level (upon awakening), although the mediating path was not significant. The present study provided empirical evidence demonstrating long-term physiological and behavioral consequences of father involvement in childhood and its potency as a crucial early caregiving environment for sons.