Corporal Punishment and Elevated Neural Response to Threat in Children

Reconsidering the nature of threat in infancy: Integrating animal and human studies on neurobiological effects of infant stress

Early life stress has been associated with elevated risk for later psychopathology. One mechanism that may contribute to such long-term risk is alterations in amygdala development, a brain region critical to stress responsivity. Yet effects of stress on the amygdala during human infancy, a period of particularly rapid brain development, remain largely unstudied. In order to model how early stressors may affect infant amygdala development, several discrepancies across the existing literatures on early life stress among rodents and early threat versus deprivation among older human children and adults need to be reconciled. We briefly review the key findings of each of these literatures. We then consider them in light of emerging findings from studies of human infants regarding relations among maternal caregiving, infant cortisol response, and infant amygdala volume. Finally, we advance a developmental salience model of how early threat may impact the rapidly developing infant brain, a model with the potential to integrate across these divergent literatures. Future work to assess the value of this model is also proposed.

Epidemiology of violence against young children in Jamaica

Violence against young children is known to have detrimental short and long-term effects. Yet, few studies investigate the prevalence of violence against young children, particularly very young children under the age of 2 years. This paper reports on the prevalence of violence against young children in Jamaica using data obtained from the JA KIDS birth cohort study that undertook pre-enrolment of pregnant mothers in the antenatal period and followed full or sub-samples of parents and children at 9-12 months, 18-22 months and 4-5 years. Violence in pregnancy was experienced by 6.1% of pre-enrolled mothers. As many as 43.1% of Jamaican children ages 9-12 months were shouted at, and almost 30% were slapped. Physical and emotional violence increased with age, and by 4-5 years, approximately 90% of children experienced physical and emotional violence. Non-violent methods, primarily explaining and reasoning with children, were also reported by more than 95% of parents at 4-5 years. Corporal punishment was the most common form of violence experienced, but young children also witnessed hurtful physical and emotional violence between mothers and their partners and lived in communities in which there were violent events. Strategies to reduce young children's experiences as victims and witnesses of violence are discussed.

The time sensitive and dose-responsive association between parental corporal punishment and sleep disturbances in preschoolers: A prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

To examine whether parental corporal punishment is associated with increased risk of concurrent and later sleep disturbances among preschoolers, and whether the association is time-sensitive or dose-responsive.

METHODS

This 3-year prospective cohort study used data from the Shanghai Children's Health, Education and Lifestyle Evaluation, Preschool(SCHEDULE-P). Participants were newly enrolled preschoolers in November 2016(wave 1) and followed up in April 2018(wave 2) and April 2019(wave 3). Parents reported the children's corporal punishment experiences and sleep disturbances at each wave survey. Children's risk of sleep disturbances in relation to corporal punishment was examined using logistic regression, adjusting for children's age, gender, emotional/behavioral problems, family annual income, and maternal educational level.

RESULTS

The participants of 19,668 children included 9436(47.98 %) females, with a mean age of 3.73(SD = 0.29) years at wave 1. Exposure to corporal punishment was associated with increased odds of concurrent sleep disturbances at wave 1, 2, and 3 (aOR,1.57; 95 % CI, 1.40-1.75; P < .001; aOR,1.60; 95 % CI, 1.43-1.80; P < .001; aOR,1.74; 95 % CI, 1.54-1.95; P < .001), respectively. Exposure to corporal punishment at any wave of preschool was associated with increased odds of sleep disturbances at wave 3, and the risks were greater for proximal and accumulative corporal punishment exposure.

CONCLUSION

There is a time-sensitive and dose-responsive association between corporal punishment and sleep disturbance among preschoolers, with greater risk of sleep disturbances for proximal and accumulative exposure of corporal punishment. Promoting positive parenting strategies and avoiding corporal punishment can be a promising strategy to prevent and intervene sleep disturbances in preschoolers.

Paternal involvement in childcare and housework and mothers' spanking behavior: The Japanese longitudinal survey of newborns in the 21st century

BACKGROUND

No previous study reported an association between paternal involvement in childcare and housework and maternal physical punishment.

METHODS

Using data from the Japanese Longitudinal Survey of Newborns in the 21st century (N = 38,554), we analyzed responses about fathers' involvement in childcare and housework at 6 months and mothers' spanking of children at 3.5 years. Fathers' involvement in childcare and housework was scored and categorized into quartiles. Spanking frequency was asked in the "often", "sometimes", or "not at all" categories. Multivariable-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the mothers' often spanking children were computed for the fathers' involvement in childcare and housework. We also stratified the association by fathers' working hours (40-49, 50-59, or ≥ 60 hours/week).

RESULTS

Among the 16,373 respondents, the proportion of mothers who often spanked their children was 4.8%. Compared with the lowest quartile, a higher frequency of paternal involvement in housework was associated with a lower risk of spanking children (p trend = 0.001). Adjustment for covariates attenuated the association, but significant association was observed in the 3rd quartile of paternal involvement in housework [OR (95% CI): 0.77 (0.62-0.96)]. When the fathers worked fewer than 50 hours a week, a significant negative association was observed between the fathers' frequency of childcare and the likeliness of the mothers' spanking their children (p trend = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

The fathers' active involvement in childcare and housework could reduce the mothers' physical punishment for their children.

A Factorial Randomized Controlled Trial to Optimize User Engagement With a Chatbot-Led Parenting Intervention: Protocol for the ParentText Optimisation Trial

BACKGROUND

Violence against children (VAC) is a serious public health concern with long-lasting adverse effects. Evidence-based parenting programs are one effective means to prevent VAC; however, these interventions are not scalable in their typical in-person group format, especially in low- and middle-income countries where the need is greatest. While digital delivery, including via chatbots, offers a scalable and cost-effective means to scale up parenting programs within these settings, it is crucial to understand the key pillars of user engagement to ensure their effective implementation.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to investigate the most effective and cost-effective combination of external components to optimize user engagement with ParentText, an open-source chatbot-led parenting intervention to prevent VAC in Mpumalanga, South Africa.

METHODS

This study will use a mixed methods design incorporating a 2 × 2 factorial cluster-randomized controlled trial and qualitative interviews. Parents of adolescent girls (32 clusters, 120 participants [60 parents and 60 girls aged 10 to 17 years] per cluster; N=3840 total participants) will be recruited from the Ehlanzeni and Nkangala districts of Mpumalanga. Clusters will be randomly assigned to receive 1 of the 4 engagement packages that include ParentText alone or combined with in-person sessions and a facilitated WhatsApp support group. Quantitative data collected will include pretest-posttest parent- and adolescent-reported surveys, facilitator-reported implementation data, and digitally tracked engagement data. Qualitative data will be collected from parents and facilitators through in-person or over-the-phone individual semistructured interviews and used to expand the interpretation and understanding of the quantitative findings.

RESULTS

Recruitment and data collection started in August 2023 and were finalized in November 2023. The total number of participants enrolled in the study is 1009, with 744 caregivers having completed onboarding to the chatbot-led intervention. Female participants represent 92.96% (938/1009) of the sample population, whereas male participants represent 7.03% (71/1009). The average participant age is 43 (SD 9) years.

CONCLUSIONS

The ParentText Optimisation Trial is the first study to rigorously test engagement with a chatbot-led parenting intervention in a low- or middle-income country. The results of this study will inform the final selection of external delivery components to support engagement with ParentText in preparation for further evaluation in a randomized controlled trial in 2024.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Open Science Framework (OSF); https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/WFXNE.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/52145.

Examining the Moderating Role of Parental Stress in the Relationship between Parental Beliefs on Corporal Punishment and Its Utilization as a Behavior Correction Strategy among Colombian Parents

Understanding beliefs about corporal punishment is crucial, as evidence suggests that positive beliefs in its effectiveness predict its use. High parental stress, especially in those valuing corporal punishment, increases the potential for child abuse. Factors such as having many children or low education and socioeconomic status contribute to parental tensions, leading to the use of corporal punishment for behavior correction. We posit that the accumulation of such variables results in heightened stress levels. Our focus aimed to determine the moderating role of stress levels among parental beliefs about corporal punishment and its reported use through quantitative research. In our study, 853 Colombian parents of low, middle, and high socioeconomic status, and from four different regions of Colombia, with children aged 0 to 17 participated. They provided information about their beliefs on corporal punishment, using the Beliefs and Punishment Scale. Correlations indicated that older parents with better socioeconomic status were less inclined to believe that strictness improves children. Regressions suggested that increased belief in corporal punishment modifying behavior, along with higher parental stress, increases corporal punishment use. Moderation models highlighted that when more stressors were present, corporal punishment was used due to stress rather than parental beliefs. Ultimately, stress emerged as a crucial factor influencing corporal punishment use among Colombian parents.

Physical punishment and effective verbal communication in children aged 9-36 months, according to sex: secondary analysis of a national survey

BACKGROUND

A substantial number of children in the world are regularly subjected to physical punishment by their parents as a method of upbringing. Evidence suggests that it has negative effects on the development of brain function. However, evidence regarding its association with verbal communication is limited and heterogeneous. It is also unknown whether the effects are the same in both boys and girls; especially in the contexts of developing countries, where the highest rates of physical punishment are found.

OBJECTIVE

This investigation aimed at analyzing the association between physical punishment administered by both fathers and mothers and effective verbal communication among children aged 9-36 months according to sex.

METHODS

A secondary analytical cross-sectional study was conducted based on the 2018-2019 Peruvian Demographic and Family Health Survey. Physical punishment, based on the mother's report of the use of hitting and/or slapping, was considered as a method to correct children by the father and/or mother. Effective verbal communication (EVC) was measured using the Battle scale which consists of age-appropriate questions included in the early childhood development module. A generalized linear model of the family and Log Poisson link option was used to identify the association between them, using the crude, general adjusted, and sex-stratified models.

RESULTS

Of all the children, 16.31% received physical punishment from their father and/or mother, wherein 16.65% were boys and 15.97% were girls. Moreover, 36.48% exhibited EVC, wherein 32.55% were boys and 40.50% were girls. Adjusting for socioeconomic level, witnessing violence, mother's marital status, age, occupation, education level, language, number of children, and moderate-to-severe depressive symptoms, it was found that boys who received physical punishment from their father and/or mother have a 31% lower probability of EVC (adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR) 0.69, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.58-0.83, p < 0.001), whereas no association was found in girls who received physical punishment from their father and/or mother and EVC (aPR 0.93, 95% CI 0.81-1.06, p = 0.278).

CONCLUSIONS

An association was found between physical punishment administered by father and/or mother and reduced EVC among boys, whereas no such association was found among girls. It is possible that even though a significant impact has not been observed in girls during this early stage, they may experience consequences in later stages of life, further research is needed.

Translation, cross-cultural adaptation and validity study of the "Play Nicely Program: The Healthy Discipline Handbook" for use in Brazil

OBJECTIVE

to describe the translation, cross-cultural adaptation and validity process of the "Play Nicely Program: The Healthy Discipline Handbook" for use in Brazil.

METHODS

a methodological study that followed the translation, back-translation, expert committee assessment, and pre-test steps. The Content Validity Index (CVI) was calculated for both the judge population and the pre-test population. Four translators, seven expert judges in the field of child health and thirty participants in the pre-test, including parents, teachers and healthcare professionals, participated in the study.

RESULTS

in experts' analysis (98.4%), a value of 100% of adequate assessments was obtained, and in the target population's analysis (89.5%), there were 100% of adequate assessments. In both analyses, suggested adaptations were made.

CONCLUSIOS

cross-cultural adaptation and content validity into Brazilian Portuguese of the "Play Nicely Program: The Healthy Discipline Handbook" were considered adequate for application in the target population.

Maternal Childhood Abuse Versus Neglect Associated with Differential Patterns of Infant Brain Development

Severity of maternal childhood maltreatment has been associated with lower infant grey matter volume and amygdala volume during the first two years of life. A developing literature argues that effects of threat (abuse) and of deprivation (neglect) should be assessed separately because these distinct aspects of adversity may have different impacts on developmental outcomes. However, distinct effects of threat versus deprivation have not been assessed in relation to intergenerational effects of child maltreatment. The objective of this study was to separately assess the links of maternal childhood abuse and neglect with infant grey matter volume (GMV), white matter volume (WMV), amygdala and hippocampal volume. Participants included 57 mother-infant dyads. Mothers were assessed for childhood abuse and neglect using the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) questionnaire in a sample enriched for childhood maltreatment. Between 4 and 24 months (M age = 12.28 months, SD = 5.99), under natural sleep, infants completed an MRI using a 3.0 T Siemens scanner. GMV, WMV, amygdala and hippocampal volumes were extracted via automated segmentation. Maternal history of neglect, but not abuse, was associated with lower infant GMV. Maternal history of abuse, but not neglect, interacted with age such that abuse was associated with smaller infant amygdala volume at older ages. Results are consistent with a threat versus deprivation framework, in which threat impacts limbic regions central to the stress response, whereas deprivation impacts areas more central to cognitive function. Further studies are needed to identify mechanisms contributing to these differential intergenerational associations of threat versus deprivation.

Spanking and Corporal Punishment Parenting Practices and Child Development: A Systematic Review

Violence against children is a significant problem, particularly during early childhood development. Spanking and other forms of corporal punishment in child-rearing have been used by families worldwide to correct children's unwanted behaviors. Despite previous studies focusing on the negative consequences of these parental practices, open questions remain. The present study aimed to systematically review the empirical studies published in scientific literature that examined the associations between parenting practices of spanking and corporal punishment of mothers and their children's behaviors and development in early childhood. Search was performed in PubMed, APA PsycNet, Web of Science, SciELO, and LILACS databases using the combination of the following keywords: ((spank OR physical punishment OR physical abuse OR physical maltreatment OR corporal punishment) AND (parenting)) AND (child* development OR child* behavior). The inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied and 34 articles were selected for review. The inclusion criteria were the following: studies that evaluated associations between maternal spanking or corporal punishment practices and behaviors or development of 0-to-6-year-old children; quantitative studies; studies published in English, Spanish, or Portuguese language. The results showed that in 94% of the studies, there were significant associations between maternal spanking and corporal punishment with deteriorated child behavior and development, concurrently or later. In addition, maternal physical practices also acted as mediators or moderator variables in models that explained behavioral and developmental problems in early childhood.

Corporal Punishment and Child Development in Low- and- Middle-Income Countries: Progress, Challenges, and Directions

Most studies and reviews of studies on the developmental consequences of corporal punishment have focused on samples from the U.S. and other high-income countries. This study conducted a rapid review of the literature on the associations between corporal punishment and children's cognitive and social-emotional development in low- and- middle-income countries (LMICs). Information from more than 42 studies of children younger than 18 years living in 64 LMICs was reviewed. Overall, the reviewed studies show associations between corporal punishment and negative cognitive and social-emotional outcomes, and there is no evidence that corporal punishment may relate to any positive developmental outcome in LMICs. Yet, issues of internal and external validity are common in the literature. The current evidence indicates that corporal punishment might increase the risk of detrimental child outcomes in LMICs, but further research with stronger methodological designs including samples from multiple settings is warranted.

Spanking and executive functioning in US children: A longitudinal analysis on a matched sample

BACKGROUND

Spanking has been linked to multiple maladaptive child outcomes. However, previous research linking spanking with children's executive function skills (EFs; inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory) is limited by research designs that do not adequately address selection bias concerns, wherein the participant characteristics potentially differ between those who are spanked versus not spanked.

OBJECTIVE

Using a representative sample of US children aged 5 to 6, this study strengthened the evidence for causal estimates on the link between spanking and subsequent EFs with a matched-group design. Low-frequency spanking and potential moderators (child gender, parent race/ethnicity, parental warmth) were tested to determine if they moderated the link between spanking and EFs.

PARTICIPANTS

Data were drawn from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (Ns = 12,750-12,830). To mitigate selection bias, entropy-balanced matching was utilized to match spanked versus not-spanked groups, and lagged dependent variable regression analyses were conducted on the matched sample to predict EFs by spanking group status.

RESULTS

After matching, spanking at age 5 was associated with lower inhibitory control and lower cognitive flexibility at age 6, but was not significantly predictive of later working memory. The association with inhibitory control was observed even for low frequency spanking. However, no evidence of moderation by child gender, parent race/ethnicity, and parental warmth was identified.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides evidence that spanking is associated with lower executive functioning in children, although the associations varied by different EF domains.

Physically Violent Parental Practices: A Cross-Cultural Study in Cameroon, Switzerland, and Togo

Violence against children and adolescents is a widespread problem. However, most studies conducted in this field has been carried out in Western countries and studies are needed in non-Western countries, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, where rates of child physical violence are high. The present study aimed firstly to document the different forms of physical violence and attitudes toward corporal punishment (CP) across Cameroon, Switzerland, and Togo. The second objective aimed, on the one hand, to understand the influence of cultural context, childhood physical abuse, and parental attitudes on physically violent parental practices in these three different cultural contexts. On the other, this study aimed to investigate the mediating role of childhood physical abuse and parental attitudes on the effect of cultural contexts on parental practices. Five hundred and forty-seven parents from Togo, Cameroon, and Switzerland filled out questionnaires concerning violent parental practices (ICAST-P), childhood physical abuse (CTQ-SF), and parental attitudes in favor of CP. Firstly, results highlighted some cultural differences regarding parental attitudes and practices. Secondly, the hierarchical regression showed that physical violence could be partially predicted by the cultural context, childhood abuse, and attitudes in favor of CP. Finally, childhood abuse and parental attitudes mediated the link between the cultural context and parental practices. This study underscores the importance of considering the cultural context when examining parental practices. Moreover, these results provide a better understanding of these types of parental practices in less studied contexts.

How are parental practices and attitudes towards corporal punishment related to child academic, developmental, or psychological-emotional dysfunctioning?

Corporal punishment (CP) is a widely spread disciplining practice among parents and caregivers globally. Our paper aimed to explore the relationship between the parental attitudes towards CP, expected outcomes of CP, and parenting practices on one hand, with the reported dysfunctions of their children, on the other. Additionally, we aimed to explore the relationship between the use of CP and the reported academic, developmental, and psychological-emotional dysfunctions of their children. The present study involved a nationally representative sample of 1186 parents in Serbia, who had at least one child aged 0-18 years at the moment of interviewing. The parents filled out a series of questionnaires on their attitudes towards CP, expectations of CP outcomes, and their parental practices. Findings indicate that parents that report having a child with dysfunctions have positive attitudes towards CP and expect positive outcomes of CP. These parents also report using more CP as a disciplining method, as well as other harsh disciplining practices. We also identified parental positive expectations of CP, use of physical assault, psychological aggression, neglect as significant predictors of reported child dysfunctions severity. Having all the results in mind, we can assume that children with health-related and school-related issues might be at potential risk of further maltreatment.

Associations between 11 parental discipline behaviours and child outcomes across 60 countries

OBJECTIVES

To test associations between 11 caregiver aggressive and non-aggressive discipline behaviours and outcomes (aggression, distraction and prosocial peer relations) of children under 5 years in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs).

PARTICIPANTS

Data came from the fourth (2009-2013) and fifth (2012-2017) rounds of the UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. Analyses were restricted to households with children under 5 years, leaving a sample of 229 465 respondents across 60 LMICs. Data were analysed using Bayesian multilevel logistic regression.

RESULTS

Verbal reasoning (80%) and shouting (66%) were the most common parental discipline behaviours towards young children. Psychological and physical aggression were associated with higher child aggression and distraction. Compared with not using verbal reasoning, verbal reasoning was associated with lower odds of aggression (OR)=0.92, 95% credible interval (CI)=0.86 to 0.99) and higher odds of prosocial peer relations (OR=1.30, 95% CI=1.20 to 1.42). Taking away privileges was associated with higher odds of distraction (OR=1.09, 95% CI=1.03 to 1.15) and lower odds of prosocial peer relations (OR=0.92, 95% CI=0.87 to 0.98). Giving the child something else to do was associated with higher odds of distraction (OR=1.06, 95% CI=1.01 to 1.12). The results indicated country-level variation in the associations between parenting behaviours and child socioemotional outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Psychological and physical aggression were disadvantageous for children's socioemotional development across countries. Only verbal reasoning was associated with positive child socioemotional development. No form of psychological aggression or physical aggression benefited child socioemotional development in any country. Greater emphasis should be dedicated to reducing parental use of psychological and physical aggression across cultural contexts.

Spare the rod, spoil the child: measurement and learning from an intervention to shift corporal punishment attitudes and behaviors in Grenada, West Indies

Childrearing practices in the Caribbean and other postcolonial states have long been associated with corporal punishment and are influenced by expectations of children for respectfulness and obedience. Evidence across settings shows that physical punishment of young children is both ineffective and detrimental. Saving Brains Grenada (SBG) implemented a pilot study of an intervention based on the Conscious Discipline curriculum that aimed to build adult caregivers' skills around non-violent child discipline. We hypothesized that attitudes towards corporal punishment would shift to be negative as adults learned more positive discipline methods, and that child neurodevelopment would correspondingly improve. This report reviews the impact of monitoring and evaluation on the design and implementation of the intervention. Study 1 presents findings from the pilot study. Despite positive gains in neurodevelopmental outcomes among children in the intervention compared to controls, attitudes towards corporal punishment and reported use of it did not change. Additionally, several internal conflicts in the measures used to assess corporal punishment behaviors and attitudes were identified. Study 2 is a response to learning from Study 1 and highlights the importance for monitoring and evaluation to be data-informed, adaptive, and culturally appropriate. In Study 2, the SBG research team conducted cognitive interviews and group discussions with stakeholders to assess the content and comprehensibility of the Attitudes Towards Corporal Punishment Scale (ACP). This yielded insights into the measurement of attitudes towards corporal punishment and related parenting behavior, and prompted several revisions to the ACP. To accurately evaluate the intervention's theory of change and its goal to reduce violence against children, reliable and appropriate measures of attitudes towards corporal punishment and punishment behaviors are needed. Together, these two studies emphasize the value of continuous monitoring, evaluation, and learning in the implementation, adaptation, evaluation, and scaling of SBG and similar early childhood development interventions.

Negative versus withdrawn maternal behavior: Differential associations with infant gray and white matter during the first 2 years of life

Distinct neural effects of threat versus deprivation emerge by childhood, but little data are available in infancy. Withdrawn versus negative parenting may represent dimensionalized indices of early deprivation versus early threat, but no studies have assessed neural correlates of withdrawn versus negative parenting in infancy. The objective of this study was to separately assess the links of maternal withdrawal and maternal negative/inappropriate interaction with infant gray matter volume (GMV), white matter volume (WMV), amygdala, and hippocampal volume. Participants included 57 mother-infant dyads. Withdrawn and negative/inappropriate aspects of maternal behavior were coded from the Still-Face Paradigm at four months infant age. Between 4 and 24 months (M age = 12.28 months, SD = 5.99), during natural sleep, infants completed an MRI using a 3.0 T Siemens scanner. GMV, WMV, amygdala, and hippocampal volumes were extracted via automated segmentation. Diffusion weighted imaging volumetric data were also generated for major white matter tracts. Maternal withdrawal was associated with lower infant GMV. Negative/inappropriate interaction was associated with lower overall WMV. Age did not moderate these effects. Maternal withdrawal was further associated with reduced right hippocampal volume at older ages. Exploratory analyses of white matter tracts found that negative/inappropriate maternal behavior was specifically associated with reduced volume in the ventral language network. Results suggest that quality of day-to-day parenting is related to infant brain volumes during the first two years of life, with distinct aspects of interaction associated with distinct neural effects.

Corporal punishment of children in Australia: The evidence-based case for legislative reform

OBJECTIVE

Across all of Australia's states and territories, it is legal for a parent or carer to hit their child. In this paper, we outline the legal context for corporal punishment in Australia and the argument for its reform.

METHODS

We review the laws that allow corporal punishment, the international agreements on children's rights, the evidence on the effects of corporal punishment, and outcomes of legislative reform in countries that have changed their laws to prohibit corporal punishment.

RESULTS

Legislative reform typically precedes attitude changes and reductions in the use of corporal punishment. Countries with the most ideal outcomes have instigated public health campaigns educating the population about law reform while also providing access to alternative non-violent discipline strategies.

CONCLUSIONS

Extensive evidence exists demonstrating the adverse effects of corporal punishment. When countries change legislation, educate the public about these effects, and provide alternative strategies for parents, rates of corporal punishment decrease.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH

We recommend law reform in Australia to prohibit corporal punishment, a public health campaign to increase awareness of corporal punishment and its effects, provision of access for parents to alternative evidence-based strategies to assist in parenting, and a national parenting survey to monitor outcomes.

Corporal Punishment Is Uniquely Associated With a Greater Neural Response to Errors and Blunted Neural Response to Rewards in Adolescence

BACKGROUND

Although corporal punishment is a common form of punishment with known negative impacts on health and behavior, how such punishment affects neurocognitive systems is relatively unknown.

METHODS

To address this issue, we examined how corporal punishment affected neural measures of error and reward processing in 149 adolescent boys and girls of ages 11 to 14 years (mean age [SD] = 11.02 [1.16]). Corporal punishment experienced over the lifetime was assessed using the Stress and Adversity Inventory. In addition, participants completed a flankers task and a reward task to measure the error-related negativity and reward positivity, respectively, as well as measures of anxiety and depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

As hypothesized, participants who experienced lifetime corporal punishment reported more anxiety and depressive symptoms. Experiencing corporal punishment was also related to a larger error-related negativity and blunted reward positivity. Importantly, corporal punishment was independently related to a larger error-related negativity and a more blunted reward positivity beyond the impact of harsh parenting and lifetime stressors.

CONCLUSIONS

Corporal punishment appears to potentiate neural response to errors and decrease neural response to rewards, which could increase risk for anxiety and depressive symptoms.

Physical punishment and child, adolescent, and adult outcomes in low- and middle-income countries: protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Physical punishment at home and in schools is widespread around the world. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have synthesized evidence, mostly from high-income countries (HICs), showing that physical punishment relates to multiple detrimental individual outcomes. Yet, less work has been done to synthesize the evidence on the association between physical punishment at home and schools and child, adolescent, and adult outcomes in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where more than 90% of children live and physical punishment is most socially normative and prevalent. In this manuscript, we present a protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis on the characteristics of the research, associations, and variation in associations, between physical punishment at home and in schools and child, adolescent, and adult outcomes in LMICs.

METHODS

We will conduct a review of studies published in peer-reviewed journals using quantitative methods to assess the association between physical punishment in childhood and/or adolescence and individual outcomes in LMICs. We will search for studies in 10 different databases using keywords in English, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic, and Chinese related to physical punishment. We will extract qualitative data from the studies and the statistics needed to transform all study-level effect sizes into standardized mean difference effect sizes. For the analyses, we will employ multi-level meta-analyses to use multiple effect sizes per study and leverage within-study variation as well as between study variation using moderation analysis. Besides the meta-analyses, we will also conduct a narrative synthesis of the findings.

DISCUSSION

The proposed systematic review and meta-analysis will provide timely evidence to inform global research, policy, and practice on the links between physical punishment and lifelong individual outcomes.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42022347346.

Childhood trauma, earlier pubertal timing, and psychopathology in adolescence: The role of corticolimbic development

Earlier pubertal development appears to be one pathway through which childhood trauma contributes to psychopathology in adolescence. Puberty-related changes in neural networks involved in emotion processing, namely the amygdala-medial prefrontal (mPFC) circuit, may be a potential mechanism linking trauma and adolescent psychopathology. Our participants were 227 youth between 10 and 13 years of age who completed assessments of threat and deprivation-related experiences of adversity, pubertal stage, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms. A subset (n = 149) also underwent a functional MRI scan while passively viewing fearful and calm faces. Potential mechanisms linking childhood trauma with psychopathology, encompassing earlier pubertal timing and neural response to aversive stimuli were explored. Earlier pubertal development was associated with childhood trauma as well as increased externalizing symptoms in boys only. Earlier pubertal timing in males and females was negatively associated with activation in bilateral amygdala, hippocampal, and fusiform regions when comparing fearful and calm faces. However, amygdala-mPFC connectivity showed no association with pubertal timing or psychopathology symptoms. These findings do not support accelerated amygdala-mPFC development as a mechanism linking childhood trauma and psychopathology, but instead provide support for the role of pubertal development in normative decreases in limbic activation across development.

Child exposure to violence and self-regulation in South African preschool-age children from low-income settings

Biological and psychosocial stressors that have been associated with income include family dynamics such as household chaos, family conflict, maternal depression, harsh parenting, lower parental responsiveness, and exposure to violence. Research from high income countries has shown that exposure to violence may have detrimental effects on children's self-regulation, with possible flow-on implications for broad later-life outcomes, but less is known about such links in low- and- middle income countries, where many children live in violent communities and households and where physical punishment remains the norm. This study aimed to investigate exposure to violence, in addition to coercive parenting, and its associations with self-regulation among 243 3- to 5-year-olds (M = 4.7 ± 0.6; 51.9 % female) from low-income settings in Cape Town and who were not attending Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE). Results showed that self-regulation was not associated with child exposure to community violence, but it was positively associated with coercive parenting (β = 0.17; p = 0.03). The null concurrent associations between exposure to violence and self-regulation suggest the need for additional research aimed at understanding later potential developmental sequelae. It is important that findings regarding coercive parenting are contextualised within local social norms around parenting styles, as well as the influence of living in dangerous communities on parenting practices.

The association between spanking and physical abuse of young children in 56 low- and middle-income countries

BACKGROUND

Nearly one third of children under five in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) experience spanking. Studies from North America suggest that spanking is associated with heightened risk of physical abuse. However, the link between spanking and physical abuse in the international context remains understudied.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between caregivers' spanking and physical abuse of young children in LMICs, and to estimate the extent to which physical abuse might be reduced if spanking were eliminated.

PARTICIPANTS

We used nationally representative data from 156,166 1- to 4-year-old children in 56 LMICs from the fourth and fifth rounds of UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys.

METHODS

A nationally weighted multilevel logistic regression model examined the association between spanking and physical abuse. We calculated predicted probabilities of physical abuse, which we present using natural frequencies.

RESULTS

Spanking was associated with higher odds of physical abuse (OR = 5.74, p < .001). The predicted probability of physical abuse decreased by 14% comparing children who were spanked (22%) and who were not spanked (8%). When our estimates were translated to a hypothetical sample of 100 children using a natural frequency approach, 32 children were spanked; of those, seven experienced physical abuse. The elimination of spanking would result in four fewer children who were exposed to physical abuse. In relation to the population of abused children, estimates suggest that physical abuse could reduce by up to 33% if spanking were eliminated.

CONCLUSIONS

Results support the UN Sustainable Development Goals Target 16.2 that calls for eliminating all forms of violence against children. Child welfare advocates should discourage caregivers from using spanking, in order to prevent physical abuse.

Is It Time for "Time-In"?: A Pilot Test of the Child-Rearing Technique

Time-out, a mainstay of non-punitive discipline for over 60 years, has been criticized for isolating and distancing children from others. An alternative technique, one promoted by advocates of positive parenting practices, is labeled "time-in". This procedure is intended to help the child connect to the parent, communicate their feelings, and learn how to self-regulate. Although the technique has been advocated in the positive parenting literature since at least the 1990s, there are few empirical studies evaluating it. This pilot mixed-models study was designed as an initial test to determine whether mothers, following a brief training, would use the procedure over a two-week period, and how they would view it. Based on the daily reports as well as post-intervention interview of a small sample of mothers, the technique was evaluated as easy to use and effective. This study provides initial information about mothers' use of the technique and sets the stage for a comprehensive set of studies to rigorously test and evaluate the technique.

A Community-based Responsive Caregiving Program Improves Neurodevelopment in Two-year Old Children in a Middle-Income Country, Grenada, West Indies

Many young children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are at risk of developmental delays. Early child development (ECD) interventions have been shown to improve outcomes, but few interventions have targeted culturally normative violence such as corporal punishment (CP). We partnered with an existing community-based ECD organization in the LMIC of Grenada to implement a parallel controlled-trial single-blind responsive caregiving intervention that educates parents about the developing brain and teaches alternatives to corporal punishment while building parental self-regulation skills and strengthening social-emotional connections between parent and child. Parents and primary caregivers with children under age two were eligible. Allocation to the intervention and waitlist control arms was unblinded and determined by recruitment into the program. Neurodevelopment was assessed by blinded testers when each child turned age two. Primary comparison consisted of neurodevelopmental scores between the intervention and waitlist control groups (Clinicaltrials.gov registration # NCT04697134). Secondary comparison consisted of changes in maternal mental health, home environment, and attitudes towards CP. Children in the intervention group (n = 153) had significantly higher scores than children in the control group (n = 151) on measures of cognition (p = .022), fine motor (p < .0001), gross motor (p = .015), and language development (p = .013). No difference in secondary outcomes, including CP, was detected.

Developmental costs associated with early maternal withdrawal

Neglect is the most prevalent form of maltreatment, but it has been understudied relative to abuse. Additionally, developmental outcomes associated with early maternal withdrawal have been understudied relative to outcomes associated with harsh treatment. However, a large body of studies on rodents has documented the causal effect of low maternal care on altered stress responses in offspring. Other evidence from human studies links early maternal withdrawal to clinical levels of neglect. Studies of both rodents and humans suggest that, rather than the aversive responses (e.g., fight, flight, freeze) modeled in relation to threat of attack or harsh treatment, early maternal withdrawal is associated with increased calling and contact seeking to mothers. Moreover, two longitudinal studies indicate that early maternal withdrawal, but not negative-intrusive interaction, contributes to adolescent borderline psychopathology. The field needs prospective studies with well-operationalized constructs of maternal withdrawal to delineate the distinct developmental pathways that may be associated with neglect.

Parental Discipline and Early Childhood Development in Rural China

Children who are under the age of five in underdeveloped and developing countries, including China, exhibit developmental delays due to their exposure to risks such as impoverishment, deprived health conditions, parental punishment, neglect, and poor psychosocial stimulation. Adverse experiences during the formative years of life, such as harsh parental discipline, may put them at risk for poor physical and mental well-being. The aim of this research is to explore the pervasiveness and developmental outcomes of different forms of discipline practices in the underdeveloped rural areas of China. To do this, we used cross-sectional data on child–caregiver dyads from a large survey held in 22 poor counties in the QinBa Mountain Region. The sample included 1622 children aged 12–36 months. Partakers were requested to respond to a general survey on parenting which included basic demographic questions, the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social-Emotional (ASQ-SE), the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III), and questions on exposure of children to different discipline practices. Our findings from OLS estimates reveal that aversive discipline methods adversely affect cognitive, language, and socio-emotional development, whereas, non-aversive discipline practices have constructive effects on cognitive, language, and motor development of children.

Physical punishment, physical abuse, and child behavior problems in South Korea

BACKGROUND

Prior literature has demonstrated the associations of parental physical punishment with child behavior problems and increased risk of physical abuse. In South Korea, physical punishment is a common parenting practice. In 2021, legislative reforms eliminated legal grounds for parental physical punishment in South Korea. However, research on physical punishment, physical abuse, and child behavior problems in the Korean context is scarce.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined whether physical punishment and physical abuse have unique associations with child behavior problems and whether physical punishment is associated with increased exposure to physical abuse.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Data came from the 2010 Korean Child and Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS), a nationally representative sample of South Korean children who attended 1st grade in 2010. Our analyses were based on three waves of the KCYPS (N = 2,180).

METHODS

We employed fixed-effects regression to examine the associations of physical punishment and physical abuse with child behavior problems and the association of physical punishment with physical abuse after controlling for time-invariant characteristics.

RESULTS

Exposure to physical punishment and physical abuse was associated with higher levels of aggression, depression, and lower levels of academic behavior regulation. Physical punishment was associated with increased risk of physical abuse.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that physical punishment is a risk for child behavior problems and physical abuse in South Korea. Child maltreatment prevention efforts should focus on shifting favorable social norms around physical punishment and promoting non-physical disciplinary practices.

Corporal punishment and early childhood development in 49 low- and middle-income countries

OBJECTIVE

To systematically assess the association between corporal punishment and young children's development in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

METHOD

Data for 69 population-based surveys from the Multiple Indicators Cluster Survey (MICS) were combined. The sample included 131,164 children aged 36-59 months living in 49 LMICs. The surveys included information about children's developmental status and exposure to corporal punishment in the prior month. Logistic models, random-effects meta-analysis, and moderation analysis were used to obtain pooled estimates and assess the extent to which the association between corporal punishment and child developmental outcomes varied across countries.

RESULTS

On average, children exposed to corporal punishment were about 24% (β = 0.76, 95% CI 0.72-0.80) less likely to be developmentally on track than children who were not exposed to corporal punishment. Challenges in social-emotional development may drive the association between child development and corporal punishment. Corporal punishment was not associated with any positive developmental outcome in any country. There was minor heterogeneity in the estimated associations, which was not explained by the extent to which corporal punishment was normative within countries.

CONCLUSIONS

All forms of corporal punishment - including spanking - are likely to be harmful to young children's development and wellbeing. Public education, legal prohibition of corporal punishment, and other efforts are needed to protect children from corporal punishment and promote their wellbeing, health, and development.

The effect of spanking on early social-emotional skills

Whether spanking is detrimental for social-emotional (SE) development remains controversial, mostly due to disputes around the internal and external validity of existing evidence. This study examined the effect of spanking on the SE development of Bhutanese children, using a national, longitudinal sample (N = 1377; M_age  = 50.5 months old; 50% girls). Following best-practice recommendations for mitigating issues of selection bias in observational developmental research, the study employed conservative methods (i.e., child fixed-effects and lagged-dependent variables) and robustness checks to assess the internal validity of estimates. Across approaches, spanking predicted reductions in SE skills of .09-.17 SD, even after controlling for all time-invariant confounders and baseline levels of SE skills. These findings strengthen the argument that spanking might be harmful to young children's SE development.

Contributions of Emotion Regulation and Brain Structure and Function to Adolescent Internalizing Problems and Stress Vulnerability During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Study

BACKGROUND

Adolescence is a period of increased vulnerability for internalizing problems, particularly following stressful life events. We examined how emotion regulation and brain structure and function were associated with internalizing problems during the COVID-19 pandemic and moderated the association between pandemic-related stressors and internalizing problems.

METHODS

Data are from a longitudinal sample (N = 145, age range, 10-15 years) strategically assessed at 3 crucial time points: before the COVID-19 pandemic, early during the stay-at-home order period, and again 6 months later. We examined associations of amygdala and hippocampal volume and amygdala activation during an emotional processing task before the pandemic, examined use of emotion regulation strategies before and during the pandemic, and examined pandemic-related stressors with internalizing problems.

RESULTS

Greater exposure to pandemic-related stressors was associated with higher internalizing problems both early and later in the COVID-19 pandemic. Youths who reported more frequent use of rumination before the pandemic and higher use of expressive suppression and lower use of cognitive reappraisal early in the pandemic had higher internalizing problems early in the pandemic. Higher left amygdala activation to neutral relative to fearful faces before the pandemic was associated with greater internalizing problems and a stronger link between pandemic-related stressors and internalizing problems early in the pandemic.

CONCLUSIONS

Stressors related to the COVID-19 pandemic are strongly associated with adolescent internalizing problems, as are individual differences in emotional reactivity and regulation and their underlying neural mechanisms. Interventions that reduce pandemic-related stressors and foster adaptive emotion regulation skills may protect against adolescent psychopathology during this period of heightened exposure to stress.