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Cuartas J. Corporal Punishment and Child Development in Low- and- Middle-Income Countries: Progress, Challenges, and Directions. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2023; 54:1607-1623. [PMID: 35482219 DOI: 10.1007/s10578-022-01362-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Most studies and reviews of studies on the developmental consequences of corporal punishment have focused on samples from the U.S. and other high-income countries. This study conducted a rapid review of the literature on the associations between corporal punishment and children's cognitive and social-emotional development in low- and- middle-income countries (LMICs). Information from more than 42 studies of children younger than 18 years living in 64 LMICs was reviewed. Overall, the reviewed studies show associations between corporal punishment and negative cognitive and social-emotional outcomes, and there is no evidence that corporal punishment may relate to any positive developmental outcome in LMICs. Yet, issues of internal and external validity are common in the literature. The current evidence indicates that corporal punishment might increase the risk of detrimental child outcomes in LMICs, but further research with stronger methodological designs including samples from multiple settings is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Cuartas
- Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Psychology, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia.
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2
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Tall J, Biel M. The Effects of Social Determinants of Health on Child and Family Mental Health: Implications of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Beyond. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2023; 25:387-394. [PMID: 37470927 DOI: 10.1007/s11920-023-01436-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review aims to expand understanding of the effect of SDOH on youth and family mental health outcomes. The review highlights significant findings from recent literature across SDOH categories (Economic Stability, Education Access/Quality, Health Care Access/Quality, Neighborhood/Built Environment, and Social/Community Context). This review also aims to demonstrate how the COVID-19 pandemic influences these effects. RECENT FINDINGS Economic instability (i.e., poverty, food insecurity) is associated with poorer MH outcomes. The COVID-19 pandemic limited access to mental health resources, including reduced opportunities for school-based mental health services and insurance barriers. Systemic factors, such as community violence and racism, exacerbate MH disparities. Policy decisions, especially those addressing poverty, can help youth and family exposures to SDOH, ACEs, and TS, which can help improve youth mental health outcomes at the population level. Findings on negative consequences of SDOH factors should be balanced with reporting findings of resiliency and other associated protective factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine Tall
- The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, 901 15th St NW, 20005, Washington, DC, USA.
| | - Matthew Biel
- Georgetown University Medical Center, MedStar Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
- Early Childhood Innovation Network, Washington, DC, USA
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3
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Cuartas J, Bhatia A, Carter D, Cluver L, Coll C, Donger E, Draper CE, Gardner F, Herbert B, Kelly O, Lachman J, M'jid NM, Seidel F. Climate change is a threat multiplier for violence against children. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 2023:106430. [PMID: 37648573 DOI: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The climate crisis is the biggest threat to the health, development, and wellbeing of the current and future generations. While there is extensive evidence on the direct impacts of climate change on human livelihood, there is little evidence on how children and young people are affected, and even less discussion and evidence on how the climate crisis could affect violence against children. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING In this commentary, we review selected research to assess the links between the climate crisis and violence against children. METHODS We employ a social-ecological perspective as an overarching framework to organize findings from the literature and call attention to increased violence against children as a specific, yet under-examined, direct and indirect consequence of the climate crisis. RESULTS Using such a perspective, we examine how the climate crisis exacerbates the risk of violence against children at the continually intersecting and interacting levels of society, community, family, and the individual levels. We propose increased risk of armed conflict, forced displacement, poverty, income inequality, disruptions in critical health and social services, and mental health problems as key mechanisms linking the climate crisis and heightened risk of violence against children. Furthermore, we posit that the climate crisis serves as a threat multiplier, compounding existing vulnerabilities and inequities within populations and having harsher consequences in settings, communities, households, and for children already experiencing adversities. CONCLUSIONS We conclude with a call for urgent efforts from researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to further investigate the specific empirical links between the climate crisis and violence against children and to design, test, implement, fund, and scale evidence-based, rights-based, and child friendly prevention, support, and response strategies to address violence against children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Cuartas
- Harvard Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, USA; Centro de Estudios sobre Seguridad y Drogas (CESED), Universidad de los Andes, Colombia.
| | - Amiya Bhatia
- Department of Global Health and Development, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, UK
| | - Daniel Carter
- Department of Global Health and Development, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, UK
| | - Lucie Cluver
- Centre for Evidence-Based Intervention, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford, UK; Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Carolina Coll
- Human Development and Violence Research Centre, Postgraduate Program in Epidemiology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Elizabeth Donger
- New York University School of Law, Center for Human Rights and Global Justice, USA
| | - Catherine E Draper
- SAMRC Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
| | - Frances Gardner
- Centre for Evidence-Based Intervention, Department of Social Policy & Intervention, University of Oxford, UK
| | - Bess Herbert
- Global Partnership to End Violence Against Children, USA
| | - Orla Kelly
- UCD School of Social Policy, Social Work and Social Justice, University College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jamie Lachman
- Centre for Evidence-Based Intervention, Department of Social Policy & Intervention, University of Oxford, UK; Centre for Social Science Research, University of Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Najat Maalla M'jid
- United Nations Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence Against Children, USA
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Raub A, Heymann J. Assessing national action through emergency paid leave to mitigate the impact of COVID-19-related school closures on working families in 182 countries. GLOBAL SOCIAL POLICY 2023; 23:247-267. [PMID: 38603401 PMCID: PMC9468866 DOI: 10.1177/14680181221123800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
In April 2020, nearly 1.6 billion learners were out of school. While a growing body of literature has documented the detrimental impact of these closures on children, less attention has been devoted to the steps countries took to mitigate the impact of these closures on working families. Paid leave is recognized as an important policy tool to enable working parents the time they need to respond to family needs without risking job or income loss. This article uses a novel data set to assess whether countries had policies in place prior to the pandemic to respond to increased care needs and the extent to which policies were introduced or expanded during the pandemic to fill the gap. Only 48 countries had policies in place prior to the pandemic that could be used to respond to the care needs created by school and childcare center closures. In the vast majority of these countries, the duration of leave in these policies was too short to meet the care needs of the pandemic or relied on parents reserving extended parental leave options. Only 36 countries passed new legislation during the pandemic, but the majority of those that did covered the full duration of closures. As countries continue to face COVID-19 and consider how to better prepare for the next pandemic, emergency childcare paid leave policies should be part of pandemic preparedness frameworks to prevent further exacerbating inequalities. The policies introduced during the pandemic offer a wide range of approaches for countries to identify feasible solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Raub
- University of California, Los Angeles, USA; The University of Melbourne, Australia
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Dong S, Rao N. Associations between parental well-being and early learning at home before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: observations from the China Family Panel Studies. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1163009. [PMID: 37303899 PMCID: PMC10252564 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1163009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background COVID-19-related lockdowns and preschool closures resulted in many young children spending all their time at home. Some parents had to manage child care while working from home, and increased demands may have led them to experience considerable stress. Evidence indicates that among parents with young children, those who had pre-existing mental and physical conditions adapted less well than other parents. We considered associations between parental well-being and the home learning environment for young children. Method We leveraged data from the nationally representative China Family Panel Studies. We analyzed longitudinal data collected before (2018) and during (2020) the pandemic. Participants were parents of 1,155 preschoolers (aged 3-5 years in 2020). Moderated mediation models were conducted. Maternal and paternal psychological well-being, depression, physical health, and physical illness in 2018 and 2020 were predictors. The frequency of marital and intergenerational conflicts in 2020 were mediators. Primary caregiver-reported engagement in home learning activities and family educational expenditure and parent-reported time spent on child care in 2020 were outcome variables. The number of COVID-19 cases in each province 3 months before the 2020 assessment was the moderator. Child, parental, and household characteristics and urbanicity were covariates. Results Controlling for covariates, improvements in parental psychological well-being predicted more home learning activities and increases in paternal depression predicted less time spent by fathers on child care. Negative changes in maternal physical health predicted less family educational expenditure and mothers spending more time on child care. Family conflicts mediated the association between maternal physical illness in 2018 and family educational expenditure. The number of COVID-19 cases in a province (i) was positively associated with mothers spending more time on child care, (ii) moderated the association of improvements in maternal physical health and mothers spending less time on child care, and (iii) moderated the association of family conflicts and more family educational expenditure. Conclusion The findings indicate that decreased parental psychological and physical well-being foretells reductions in monetary and non-monetary investment in early learning and care at home. Regional pandemic risk undermines maternal investment in early learning and care, especially for those with pre-existing physical conditions.
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Lombardi J, McCoy D, Boo FL, Huang T, Matlhape G, Mishra S, Moussié R, Wadende P, Yoshikawa H. Unfolding Opportunity: Advancing Childcare to Support Children, Families, and Societies. Pediatrics 2023; 151:191215. [PMID: 37125882 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2023-060221o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Joan Lombardi
- Center for Child and Human Development, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Dana McCoy
- Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Wiltshire CA. Early Childhood Education Teacher Workforce: Stress in Relation to Identity and Choices. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION JOURNAL 2023:1-14. [PMID: 37360603 PMCID: PMC10024290 DOI: 10.1007/s10643-023-01468-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
The early childhood education teacher workforce is consistently relied upon to bolster children's academic and socioemotional development in preparation for kindergarten and long-term outcomes. This is especially true of children who, historically overlooked and marginalized, are labeled "at risk." While research has focused on pervasive stressors as obstacles to these classroom professionals (e.g., teacher/teaching stress, curricular mandates, quality assessments, COVID-19), there is less research on stress in relation to the formation of teacher identity; specifically, how stress contributes to and detracts from the formation of a teacher's micro-identity, and how negative impacts of stress to the micro-identity may contribute to teachers' decisions to leave the field. Although once considered to be one of the fastest growing industries, The Great Resignation, as it has come to be known, estimates up to 25-30% of the workforce leave annually. To better understand the choices teachers make to leave the profession, the current study examined the influence of stress on teachers' microidentity by centering the voices of six Head Start teachers. Implementing a qualitative design, this investigation asked (a) Who are the Head Start teachers in the workforce today? (b) What are the particular stressors with which they contend? (c) How does the micro-identity of these teachers change as a result of stress, and what are the potential choices that follow? Results and findings indicated that Head Start teachers experience (1) stress as reality, (2) stress-shaped identities, and (3) identity-mediated choice. Implications and insights are discussed. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10643-023-01468-w.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia A. Wiltshire
- Department of Teacher Education, College of Education, The University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W. University Ave, El Paso, TX 79968 USA
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Raikes A, Rao N, Yoshikawa H, Cohrssen C, Behrman J, Cappa C, Devercelli A, Lopez Boo F, McCoy D, Richter L. Global tracking of access and quality in early childhood care and education. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CHILD CARE AND EDUCATION POLICY 2023; 17:14. [PMID: 37153856 PMCID: PMC10151214 DOI: 10.1186/s40723-023-00116-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Investments in early childhood care and education (ECCE) have contributed to a growing demand for internationally comparable data. Yet data on access to quality ECCE are not routinely collected in many countries, leading to limited information on equitable access to ECCE, quality of provision, and the impact on learning and wellbeing outcomes. This paper outlines the current status of global measurement of access to quality ECCE and identifies issues with definitions, availability, and accuracy of ECCE data across countries and outlines paths forward. We argue that estimates of access to ECCE should be based on children's participation in quality ECCE across multiple program types, rather than enrollment or attendance alone, given the critical importance of dosage and participation for ensuring positive benefits from ECCE. Governments, international organizations, and researchers all have roles to play in setting standards to define and monitor ECCE, generating workable tools for measuring nationally, and globally investing in national monitoring systems and routine household surveys to obtain accurate estimates of access to quality ECCE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbie Raikes
- College of Public Health, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, USA
| | - Nirmala Rao
- Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Linda Richter
- University of Witswatersand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Piccolo LR, Oliveira JBA, Hirata G, Canfield CF, Roby E, Mendelsohn AL. Pre-pandemic support for shared reading buffers adverse parenting impacts: an RCT in Brazil. Pediatr Res 2022:10.1038/s41390-022-02419-8. [PMID: 36522551 PMCID: PMC9753875 DOI: 10.1038/s41390-022-02419-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To examine whether (1) a parent-child reading program (Universidade do Bebê [UBB]), conducted in Brazil pre-pandemic can support parenting and parent-child reading 6 months into the pandemic, (2) cognitive stimulation at pandemic onset mediates effects of UBB on these outcomes, and (3) UBB pre-pandemic buffers associations between COVID-19-related distress and parenting/parent-child reading 6 months into the pandemic. METHODS 400 women, either pregnant or with children 0-24 months, were randomized to UBB (n = 200) or control groups. UBB consisted of monthly parent workshops focusing on parent-child reading and a book-lending library. Assessments pre-pandemic (June-2019) and at pandemic onset (April-2020) included cognitive stimulation. Assessments 6 months into the pandemic (October-2020) included COVID-19 exposure/impact/distress, as well as parenting and parent-child reading. RESULTS 133 families (n = 69 UBB) contributed data 6 months into the pandemic. Participation in UBB pre-pandemic was associated with parent-child reading but not parenting 6 months into the pandemic. Indirect effects of UBB through cognitive stimulation at pandemic onset were observed for both outcomes. Increased COVID-19-related distress was significantly associated with reduced parenting/parent-child reading 6 months into the pandemic in the control group only. CONCLUSION Promotion of cognitive stimulation pre-pandemic may have reduced risk for effects of the pandemic on parenting/parent-child reading. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION The trial has been registered with the Brazilian Clinical Trials Registry RBR-29RZDH on 05/28/2018. IMPACT This is the first study showing sustained impacts of a reading aloud intervention beginning in pregnancy and early infancy implemented pre-pandemic. Findings suggest that participation in a reading-aloud intervention buffered associations between COVID-19 distress and parenting/parent-child reading 6 months into the pandemic. Novel empirical evidence suggests that promotion of cognitive stimulation prior to the pandemic may buffer its impacts on parenting and parent-child book reading following onset in low- and middle-income countries. Findings provide important new support for implementation of parent-child reading aloud programs and likely have implications for early childhood development beyond the COVID-19 pandemic for disasters generally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciane R. Piccolo
- grid.137628.90000 0004 1936 8753Department of Pediatrics, Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, 462 First Ave—Bellevue Hospital, New York, NY 10016 USA
| | - João B. A. Oliveira
- Instituto Alfa e Beto, 538 Lineu Anterino Mariano st, Uberlândia, MG 38402-346 Brazil
| | - Guilherme Hirata
- IDados, 470 Visconde de Pirajá st., Rio de Janeiro, RJ 22410-002 Brazil
| | - Caitlin F. Canfield
- grid.137628.90000 0004 1936 8753Department of Pediatrics, Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, 462 First Ave—Bellevue Hospital, New York, NY 10016 USA
| | - Erin Roby
- grid.137628.90000 0004 1936 8753Department of Pediatrics, Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, 462 First Ave—Bellevue Hospital, New York, NY 10016 USA
| | - Alan L. Mendelsohn
- grid.137628.90000 0004 1936 8753Department of Pediatrics, Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, 462 First Ave—Bellevue Hospital, New York, NY 10016 USA
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Miller LC, Neupane S, Joshi N, Lohani M, Shrestha B. Trajectories of child growth, child development, and home child-rearing quality during the Covid pandemic in rural Nepal. Child Care Health Dev 2022:10.1111/cch.13078. [PMID: 36355606 PMCID: PMC9877676 DOI: 10.1111/cch.13078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Children, especially disadvantaged children in poor countries, were expected to be among the "biggest victims" of the Covid pandemic. Economic burdens, decreased nutritious foods, reduced medical care, school closures, and ill-health or death of family members were predicted to increase child undernutrition and developmental delays, and diminish home child-rearing quality. METHODS A planned nutrition intervention could not be implemented due to Covid restrictions. However, three surveys (pre-Covid [December 2019], July 2021, and September 2021) in 280 Nepali households (309 parent-dyads, 368 children, 6-66 months old) collected demographics, child anthropometry and development (Ages and Stages Questionnaire-3 [ASQ-3]), and home child-rearing quality (caregiver engagement, learning resources, adult supervision [UNICEF's Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey]). Mixed-effect regression models adjusted for household (wealth, maternal education) and child factors (age, gender) and survey round. RESULTS Height, mid-upper-arm circumference, and head circumference measurements improved over time. The total ASQ-3 score did not change: Communication scores increased while fine motor and personal-social scores declined. Girls' growth and development worsened more than boys. Caregiver engagement (especially mothers') generally declined, but learning resource availability increased. More children were left unsupervised at Round 2 than Round 1 or 3. CONCLUSIONS In this sample, some aspects of child growth, development, and home child-rearing quality improved while others declined. Better understanding of these changes in child well-being and the family environment during the pandemic could provide insight on how to protect children during future crises.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie C. Miller
- Tufts University School of MedicineBostonMassachusettsUSA,Friedman School of Nutrition Science and PolicyTufts UniversityBostonMassachusettsUSA,Eliot‐Pearson Department of Child Study & Human DevelopmentTufts UniversityBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Sumanta Neupane
- Division of Poverty, Health, and NutritionInternational Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), New DelhiNew DelhiIndia
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Zhang Q, Sauval M, Jenkins JM. Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the child care sector: Evidence from North Carolina. EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY 2022; 62:17-30. [PMID: 35999900 PMCID: PMC9389921 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
This study provides a comprehensive, census-level evaluation of the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the county child care market in a large and diverse state, North Carolina, and the disproportionate impacts of the pandemic on different types of providers and communities. We use county-level panel data from 2016 to 2020 and a difference-in-differences design to isolate the effects of the pandemic from unobservable seasonal trends in enrollments and closures. We found that the COVID-19 pandemic reduced county-level child care enrollment by 40% and the number of providers by 2% as of December 2020. Heterogeneity analyses revealed that the family child care sector experienced not only less severe reductions in enrollment and closure than center providers, but also a small growth in the number of family providers. Declines in enrollment were most substantial for preschool-aged children. There was a significant drop in the number of 5-star providers and an increase in the number of lower-quality providers. Provider closures were more concentrated in communities with a higher percentage of Hispanic residents. Higher-SES communities experienced larger drops in enrollment as well as provider closures. Implications for child development and future research and policies are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Zhang
- School of Education, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, United States
| | - Maria Sauval
- School of Education, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, United States
| | - Jade Marcus Jenkins
- School of Education, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, United States
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Wolf S, Aurino E, Suntheimer NM, Avornyo EA, Tsinigo E, Behrman JR, Aber JL. Medium-term protective effects of quality early childhood education during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana. Child Dev 2022; 93:1912-1920. [PMID: 35818839 PMCID: PMC9349592 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The COVID‐19 pandemic led to extended school closures globally. Access to remote learning opportunities during this time was vastly unequal within and across countries. Higher‐quality early childhood education (ECE) can improve later academic outcomes, but longer‐term effects during crises are unknown. This study provides the first experimental evidence of how previously attending a higher‐quality ECE program affected child engagement in remote learning and academic scores during pandemic‐related school closures in Ghana. Children (N = 1668; 50.1% male; Mage = 10.1 years; all Ghanaian nationals) who attended higher‐quality ECE at age 4 or 5 years had greater engagement in remote learning (d = .14) in October 2020, but not better language and literacy and math scores. Previous exposure to higher‐quality ECE may support educational engagement during crises.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Wolf
- Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Noelle M Suntheimer
- Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | | | - Jere R Behrman
- Department of Economics and Sociology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - J Lawrence Aber
- Global TIES for Children, New York University, New York City, New York, USA
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Glasper EA. The Covid-19 Pandemic’s Forgotten Children. Compr Child Adolesc Nurs 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/24694193.2022.2095863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Edward Alan Glasper
- Emeritus Professor, Children's and Young People's Nursing, University ofSouthampton, Southampton, UK
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14
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Partington LC, Mashash M, Hastings PD. Family Thriving During COVID-19 and the Benefits for Children's Well-Being. Front Psychol 2022; 13:879195. [PMID: 35645847 PMCID: PMC9135131 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.879195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the COVID-19 pandemic has raised deserved concern regarding adverse impacts on parents' and children's mental health, regulations like "sheltering-in-place" may have afforded parents novel opportunities to foster positive family connections, thereby bolstering well-being. Using latent profile analysis (LPA), we (a) distinguished family thriving during shelter-in-place (May-June 2020) from other patterns of family functioning, (b) tested potential predictors of family functioning profiles, and (c) examined if family thriving predicted subsequent child adjustment (September-October 2020). 449 parents in two-parent U.S. families with children aged 2-18 years completed online surveys assessing (a) parent-child relationship quality, parents' positive psychological adjustment, children's emotional well-being, and parenting efficacy and satisfaction as family functioning indicators, (b) financial, marital, parental psychosocial assets, and child (age, gender, and temperament) predictors of family functioning, and (c) child adjustment. LPA identified four family functioning profiles: Thriving, Managing, Struggling, and Distressed. Thriving families evinced higher scores on all functioning indicators. Logistic regressions revealed that parents in Thriving families reported significantly lower financial anxiety, less dissatisfaction with partner's help, less child emotionality, and greater use of cognitive reappraisal, as well as more positive child adjustment in Fall 2020. These findings underscore the multidimensional nature of coping and well-being during COVID-19. Utilizing these levers to promote mental health in families languishing during comparable future crises could promote resilience, thereby protecting children's well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsey C. Partington
- Department of Human Ecology, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- Center for Mind and Brain, College of Letters and Science, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Meital Mashash
- Center for Mind and Brain, College of Letters and Science, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- Osher Center for Integrative Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Paul D. Hastings
- Center for Mind and Brain, College of Letters and Science, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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Baum F, Paremoer L, Flavel J, Musolino C, Labonte R. Can the world become a place where the planet and all people flourish after the pandemic? BMJ 2022; 377:e067872. [PMID: 35504651 PMCID: PMC9062701 DOI: 10.1136/bmj-2021-067872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Covid-19 has impeded achievement of the sustainable development goals and a radical rethink of the global economy is required to meet them argue Fran Baum and colleagues
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Affiliation(s)
- Fran Baum
- Stretton Health Equity, Stretton Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Lauren Paremoer
- Department of Political Studies, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Joanne Flavel
- Stretton Health Equity, Stretton Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Connie Musolino
- Stretton Health Equity, Stretton Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
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16
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Goldfeld S, O'Connor E, Sung V, Roberts G, Wake M, West S, Hiscock H. Potential indirect impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on children: a narrative review using a community child health lens. Med J Aust 2022; 216:364-372. [PMID: 35066868 DOI: 10.5694/mja2.51368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
▪In this narrative review, we summarise the vast and burgeoning research on the potential and established indirect impacts on children of the COVID-19 pandemic. We used a community child health lens to organise our findings and to consider how Australia might best respond to the needs of children (aged 0-12 years). ▪We synthesised the literature on previous pandemics, epidemics and natural disasters, and the current COVID-19 pandemic. We found clear evidence of adverse impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on children that either repeated or extended the findings from previous pandemics. ▪We identified 11 impact areas, under three broad categories: child-level factors (poorer mental health, poorer child health and development, poorer academic achievement); family-level factors that affect children (poorer parent mental health, reduced family income and job losses, increased household stress, increased abuse and neglect, poorer maternal and newborn health); and service-level factors that affect children (school closures, reduced access to health care, increased use of technology for learning, connection and health care). ▪There is increasing global concern about the likely disproportionate impact of the current pandemic on children experiencing adversity, widening existing disparities in child health and developmental outcomes. ▪We suggest five potential strategy areas that could begin to address these inequities: addressing financial instability through parent financial supplements; expanding the role of schools to address learning gaps and wellbeing; rethinking health care delivery to address reduced access; focusing on prevention and early intervention for mental health; and using digital solutions to address inequitable service delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Goldfeld
- Centre for Community Child Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC.,University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC
| | - Elodie O'Connor
- Centre for Community Child Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC
| | - Valerie Sung
- Centre for Community Child Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC.,University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC
| | - Gehan Roberts
- Centre for Community Child Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC.,University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC
| | - Melissa Wake
- Centre for Community Child Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC.,University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC
| | - Sue West
- Centre for Community Child Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC
| | - Harriet Hiscock
- Centre for Community Child Health, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC.,University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC
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Hanno EC, Fritz LS, Jones SM, Lesaux NK. School Learning Format and Children's Behavioral Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA Pediatr 2022; 176:410-411. [PMID: 35006261 PMCID: PMC8749689 DOI: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.5698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
This cohort study investigates the association between US children’s behavioral health and the school learning format used during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily C. Hanno
- Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Lily S. Fritz
- Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Stephanie M. Jones
- Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Nonie K. Lesaux
- Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
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18
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Pattnaik J, Nath N, Nath S. Challenges to Remote Instruction During the Pandemic: A Qualitative Study with Primary Grade Teachers in India. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION JOURNAL 2022; 51:675-684. [PMID: 35287284 PMCID: PMC8907896 DOI: 10.1007/s10643-022-01331-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has profound implications for education of young children worldwide and especially for children in developing economies like India. This article presents a qualitative study that explored the challenges that private school teachers in low budget, mid-ranged, and high fee charging private schools faced in two cities in India. All the private schools in this study also followed the government mandate to reserve 25% of seats for children from low-income families. During the school closure, remote instruction was employed in schools where participating teachers taught. Teachers faced challenges related to parental involvement and children's participation in remote instruction. Parental involvement challenges included parental lack of access to technological devices and no or minimal access to internet for their children to participate in remote instruction activities. Parental lack of support due to their low technological literacy and literacy in general, lack of fluency in the English Language, as well as lack of time also contributed to their children's low participation in remote instruction. Teachers faced challenges in implementing remote instruction with children from different socio-economic backgrounds; however, the challenges were greater with families from low-income backgrounds. The study's findings suggest that governments around the world need to ensure children's access to digital tools and internet services which are essential elements in children's participation in remote instruction. For children in families where parents are unable to support their children's education at home, other support services may be instituted to take the pressure off of parents. Future studies may explore the 'learning loss' that may have resulted from the long school closure during the pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyotsna Pattnaik
- College of Education, California State University, Long Beach, 1250 Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA 90840 USA
| | - Nibedita Nath
- School of Anthropology, Gangadhar Meher University (GMU), Sambalpur, Odisha 768001 India
| | - Sangeeta Nath
- Oriental College of Education, University of Mumbai, Sec 2, Sanpada, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra 400705 India
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Fink G, Tediosi F, Felder S. Burden of Covid-19 restrictions: National, regional and global estimates. EClinicalMedicine 2022; 45:101305. [PMID: 35224471 PMCID: PMC8856030 DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A growing literature has documented the high global morbidity, mortality and mental health burden associated with the current Covid-19 pandemic. In this paper, we aimed to quantify the total utility and quality of life loss resulting from Covid-19-related government restrictions imposed at the national, regional and global levels. METHODS We conducted quality of life online surveys in France, India, Italy, UK and the United States of America between June 21st and September 13th 2021, and used regression models to estimate the average quality of life loss due to light and severe restrictions in these countries. We then combined estimated disutility weights from the pooled sample with the latest data on Covid-19 restrictions exposure in each country to estimate the total disutility generated by restrictions at the national, regional and global level. We also embedded a discrete choice experiment (DCE) into the online survey to estimate average willingness to pay to avoid specific restrictions. FINDINGS A total of 947 surveys were completed. Thirty-five percent of respondents were female, and 69.5% were between 18 and 39 years old. The weighted average utility weight was 0.71 (95% CIs 0.69-0.74) for light restrictions, and 0.65 (0.63-0.68) for severe restrictions. At the global scale, this implies a total loss of 3259 million QALYs (95% 3021, 3496) as of September 6th, 2021, with the highest burden in lower and upper middle-income countries. Utility losses appear to be particularly large for closures of schools and daycares as well as restaurants and bars, and seem relatively small for wearing masks and travel restrictions. INTERPRETATION The results presented here suggest that the QALY losses due to restrictions are substantial. Future mitigation strategies should try to balance potential reductions in disease transmission achievable through specific measures against their respective impact on quality of life. Additional research is needed to determine differences in restriction-specific disutilities across countries, and to determine optimal policy responses to similar future disease threats. FUNDING No funding was received for this project.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günther Fink
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fabrizio Tediosi
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Felder
- Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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20
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Neuman MJ, Powers S. Political prioritization of early childhood education during the COVID-19 pandemic: A comparative policy analysis of low- and middle-income countries. EARLY CHILDHOOD RESEARCH QUARTERLY 2022; 60:287-297. [PMID: 35125642 PMCID: PMC8802157 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Despite strong evidence of its importance to the welfare of children and societies, early childhood education has been comparatively neglected as a policy priority both before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. This paper seeks to understand what factors have contributed to the relative lack of priority for early childhood education in distance learning and school reopening plans by applying a political prioritization framework to the pandemic context in 4 low- and middle-income countries: Ethiopia, Jamaica, Liberia, and Pakistan (Punjab Province). Some aspects of the pre-COVID-19 status quo which disfavored early childhood education have continued, including a lack of cohesive support from civil society and a greater focus by international partners on norm promotion and technical assistance than financing. In other respects, the pandemic put early childhood education at an even greater disadvantage. These include perceptions that early childhood education is less suited to distance delivery than other levels of education, concerns about young children's ability to comply with health protocols, and competition with high-stakes examinations for education ministries' attention. Previous country experience with pandemics (in Liberia) and a strong coordinating entity (in Jamaica) were mitigating factors. These results point to an urgent need to elevate priority for early childhood education in more normal times and to capture the lessons of COVID-19 to improve the resilience of early childhood education in future crises.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle J Neuman
- Results for Development, 1111 19th Street NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036
- Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, 3700 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Shawn Powers
- The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433
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21
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Spatial distribution of SARS-CoV-2 infection in schools, South Korea. Epidemiol Infect 2021; 150:e194. [PMID: 36443943 PMCID: PMC9744459 DOI: 10.1017/s095026882200173x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Identification of geographical areas with high burden of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) transmission in schools using spatial analyses has become an important tool to guide targeted interventions in educational setting. In this study, we aimed to explore the spatial distribution and determinants of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) among students aged 3-18 years in South Korea. We analysed the nationwide epidemiological data on laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases in schools and in the communities between January 2020 and October 2021 in South Korea. To explore the spatial distribution, the global Moran's I and Getis-Ord's G using incidence rates among the districts of aged 3-18 years and 30-59 years. Spatial regression analysis was performed to find sociodemographic predictors of the COVID-19 attack rate in schools and in the communities. The global spatial correlation estimated by Moran's I was 0.647 for the community population and 0.350 for the student population, suggesting that the students were spatially less correlated than the community-level outbreak of SARS-CoV-2. In schools, attack rate of adults aged 30-59 years in the community was associated with increased risk of transmission (P < 0.0001). Number of students per class (in kindergartens, primary schools, middle schools and high schools) did not show significant association with the school transmission of SARS-CoV-2. In South Korea, COVID-19 in students had spatial variations across the country. Statistically significant high hotspots of SARS-CoV-2 transmission among students were found in the capital area, with dense population level and high COVID-19 burden among adults aged 30-59 years. Our finding suggests that controlling community-level burden of COVID-19 can help in preventing SARS-CoV-2 infection in school-aged children.
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22
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Alban Conto C, Akseer S, Dreesen T, Kamei A, Mizunoya S, Rigole A. Potential effects of COVID-19 school closures on foundational skills and Country responses for mitigating learning loss. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 2021; 87:102434. [PMID: 34658500 PMCID: PMC8504478 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
This article investigates to what extent disrupted schooling and dropout affects children's acquisition of foundational skills prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using household survey data from thirteen low- and lower-middle-income countries, we find that missing or dropping out of school is associated with lower reading and numeracy outcomes. Drawing on global surveys conducted during the pandemic, we find that countries' remote learning responses are often inadequate to keep all children learning, avoid dropout, and mitigate the learning losses our findings predict, particularly for marginalized children and those at the pre-primary level.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Akito Kamei
- UNICEF Office of Research - Innocenti, Education, Italy
| | - Suguru Mizunoya
- UNICEF, Data, Analytics, Division of Data, Analytics, Planning and Monitoring, United States
| | - Annika Rigole
- UNICEF, Programme Division, Education, United States
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23
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Richter LM, Behrman JR, Britto P, Cappa C, Cohrssen C, Cuartas J, Daelmans B, Devercelli AE, Fink G, Fredman S, Heymann J, Boo FL, Lu C, Lule E, McCoy DC, Naicker SN, Rao N, Raikes A, Stein A, Vazquez C, Yoshikawa H. Measuring and forecasting progress in education: what about early childhood? NPJ SCIENCE OF LEARNING 2021; 6:27. [PMID: 34508088 PMCID: PMC8433172 DOI: 10.1038/s41539-021-00106-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
A recent Nature article modelled within-country inequalities in primary, secondary, and tertiary education and forecast progress towards Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets related to education (SDG 4). However, their paper entirely overlooks inequalities in achieving Target 4.2, which aims to achieve universal access to quality early childhood development, care and preschool education by 2030. This is an important omission because of the substantial brain, cognitive and socioemotional developments that occur in early life and because of increasing evidence of early-life learning's large impacts on subsequent education and lifetime wellbeing. We provide an overview of this evidence and use new analyses to illustrate medium- and long-term implications of early learning, first by presenting associations between pre-primary programme participation and adolescent mathematics and science test scores in 73 countries and secondly, by estimating the costs of inaction (not making pre-primary programmes universal) in terms of forgone lifetime earnings in 134 countries. We find considerable losses, comparable to or greater than current governmental expenditures on all education (as percentages of GDP), particularly in low- and lower-middle-income countries. In addition to improving primary, secondary and tertiary schooling, we conclude that to attain SDG 4 and reduce inequalities in a post-COVID era, it is essential to prioritize quality early childhood care and education, including adopting policies that support families to promote early learning and their children's education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda M Richter
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Human Development, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Jere R Behrman
- Economics Department, The Ronald O Perelman Center for Political Science and Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | - Claudia Cappa
- Data and Analytics Section, Division of Data, Analytics, Planning and Monitoring UNICEF, New York, NY, USA
| | - Caroline Cohrssen
- Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
| | - Jorge Cuartas
- Harvard Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Bernadette Daelmans
- Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Günther Fink
- Department of Epidemiology & Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Jody Heymann
- WORLD Policy Analysis Center, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | | | - Chunling Lu
- Division of Global Health Equity, Brigham and Women's Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Elizabeth Lule
- Early Childhood Development Action Network, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Dana Charles McCoy
- Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
| | - Sara N Naicker
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Human Development, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Nirmalo Rao
- Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
| | - Abbie Raikes
- University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Alan Stein
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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24
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Rao N, Fisher PA. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on child and adolescent development around the world. Child Dev 2021; 92:e738-e748. [PMID: 34569058 PMCID: PMC8652930 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nirmala Rao
- Faculty of EducationThe University of Hong KongHong Kong
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25
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan R Gunnar
- Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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