Cortisol promotes the cognitive regulation of high intensive emotions independent of timing

Emotion recognition and regulation in males: Role of sex and stress steroids

Understanding emotions in males is crucial given their higher susceptibility to substance use, interpersonal violence, and suicide compared to females. Steroid hormones are assumed to be critical biological factors that affect and modulate emotion-related behaviors, together with psychological and social factors. This review explores whether males' abilities to recognize emotions of others and regulate their own emotions are associated with testosterone, cortisol, and their interaction. Higher levels of testosterone were associated with improved recognition and heightened sensitivity to threatening faces. In contrast, higher cortisol levels positively impacted emotion regulation ability. Indirect evidence from neuroimaging research suggested a link between higher testosterone levels and difficulties in cognitive emotion regulation. However, this notion must be investigated in future studies using different emotion regulation strategies and considering social status. The present review contributes to the understanding of how testosterone and cortisol affect psychological well-being and emotional behavior in males.

Exploring the influence of stress on aggressive behavior and sexual function: Role of neuromodulator pathways and epigenetics

Stress is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that can significantly influence both aggressive behavior and sexual function. This review explores the intricate relationship between stress, neuromodulator pathways, and epigenetics, shedding light on the various mechanisms that underlie these connections. While the role of stress in both aggression and sexual behavior is well-documented, the mechanisms through which it exerts its effects are multifarious and not yet fully understood. The review begins by delving into the potential influence of stress on the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis, glucocorticoids, and the neuromodulators involved in the stress response. The intricate interplay between these systems, which encompasses the regulation of stress hormones, is central to understanding how stress may contribute to aggressive behavior and sexual function. Several neuromodulator pathways are implicated in both stress and behavior regulation. We explore the roles of norepinephrine, serotonin, oxytocin, and androgens in mediating the effects of stress on aggression and sexual function. It is important to distinguish between general sexual behavior, sexual motivation, and the distinct category of "sexual aggression" as separate constructs, each necessitating specific examination. Additionally, epigenetic mechanisms emerge as crucial factors that link stress to changes in gene expression patterns and, subsequently, to behavior. We then discuss how epigenetic modifications can occur in response to stress exposure, altering the regulation of genes associated with stress, aggression, and sexual function. While numerous studies support the association between epigenetic changes and stress-induced behavior, more research is necessary to establish definitive links. Throughout this exploration, it becomes increasingly clear that the relationship between stress, neuromodulator pathways, and epigenetics is intricate and multifaceted. The review emphasizes the need for further research, particularly in the context of human studies, to provide clinical significance and to validate the existing findings from animal models. By better understanding how stress influences aggressive behavior and sexual function through neuromodulator pathways and epigenetic modifications, this research aims to contribute to the development of innovative protocols of precision medicine and more effective strategies for managing the consequences of stress on human behavior. This may also pave way for further research into risk factors and underlying mechanisms that may associate stress with sexual aggression which finds application not only in neuroscience, but also law, ethics, and the humanities in general.

The HPA and SAM axis mediate the impairment of creativity under stress

With the ever-changing social environment, individual creativity is facing a severe challenge induced by stress. However, little is known regarding the underlying mechanisms by which acute stress affects creative cognitive processing. The current research explored the impacts of the neuroendocrine response on creativity under stress and its underlying cognitive flexibility mechanisms. The enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay was employed to assess salivary cortisol, which acted as a marker of stress-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Eye blink rate (EBR) and pupil diameter were measured as respective indicators of dopamine and noradrenaline released by the activation of the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) axis. The Wisconsin card task (WCST) measured cognitive flexibility, while the alternative uses task (AUT) and the remote association task (RAT) measured separately divergent and convergent thinking in creativity. Results showed higher cortisol increments following acute stress induction in the stress group than control group. Ocular results showed that the stress manipulation significantly increased EBR and pupil diameter compared to controls, reflecting increased SAM activity. Further analysis revealed that stress-released cortisol impaired the originality component of the AUT, reducing cognitive flexibility as measured by perseverative errors on the WCST task. Serial mediation analyses showed that both EBR and pupil diameter were also associated with increased perseverative errors leading to poor originality on the AUT. These findings confirm that physiological arousal under stress can impair divergent thinking through the regulation of different neuroendocrine pathways, in which the deterioration of flexible switching plays an important mediating role.

Relationships Among Number of Stressors, Perceived Stress, and Salivary Cortisol Levels During the Third Trimester of Pregnancy

OBJECTIVE

To examine relationships among the number of stressors, perceived stress, and salivary cortisol levels during the third trimester of pregnancy.

DESIGN

Secondary analysis of cross-sectional data.

SETTING

Participants' homes.

PARTICIPANTS

Women during the third trimester of pregnancy (N = 73).

METHODS

Participants provided saliva samples at four time points over 2 days for cortisol assay and completed questionnaires to assess stressors and perceived stress. We computed multiple linear regression models to examine the relationships among the number of stressors and perceived stress to cortisol awakening response, diurnal slope, and overall cortisol secretion. We also computed a multiple linear regression model to examine the relationship between perceived stress and the number of stressors.

RESULTS

Greater perceived stress was associated with reduced overall cortisol secretion across the day (β = -0.41, p = .01). The number of stressors was associated with perceived stress (β = 0.48, p = .002) but not salivary cortisol measures.

CONCLUSION

Elevated perceived stress and the related cortisol alterations that we identified could represent salient targets for enhancing hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function during the third trimester. Perceived stress may shape the relationship between exposure to stressors and cortisol response during pregnancy. Future research is warranted to confirm study results and to understand the implications for parturition and fetal development.

Activities of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and autonomic nervous system following a strong earthquake

This study aimed to investigate the effects of post-traumatic stress, caused by a strong earthquake, on the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and autonomous nervous system activity (ANS). Activities of the HPA (as salivary cortisol) and ANS (as heart-rate variability [HRV]) were measured following the 2020 Elazig (Türkiye) earthquake (6.8 Richter Scale, classified as strong). A total of 227 participants (103 men (45%) and 124 women (%55)) provided saliva samples twice, namely, 1 week and 6 weeks after the earthquake. Of these participants, HRV was measured in 51 participants by 5 min continuous electrocardiogram (ECG) recording. Frequency- and time-domain parameters of the HRV were calculated to assess the activity of ANS and low/high frequency (LF/HF) ratio was used as surrogate for sympathovagal balance. Salivary cortisol levels decreased from week 1 towards week 6 (17.40 ± 1.48 and 15.32 ± 1.37 ng/mL, respectively, p < 0.05). There were no gender differences (17.99 ± 2.63 and 16.90 ± 1.60 ng/mL, respectively for females and males, p > 0.05) for salivary cortisol levels. There were no differences in time- and frequency domain parameters of the HRV including LF/HF ratio (2.95 ± 0.38 ms2 and 3.60 ± 0.70 ms2 , respectively for week 1 and 6, p > 0.05). The data show that HPA axis activity, but not that of the ANS, remains higher 1 week after the earthquake but decreases afterwards towards the sixth week, suggesting that the HPA axis might be responsible for the long-term effects of a traumatic event like a strong earthquake.

Examination-related anticipatory levels of dehydroepiandrosterone and cortisol predict positive affect, examination marks and support-seeking in college students

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and cortisol release appear to have contrasting effects on stress perception during stressful tasks. This study aimed to investigate anticipatory examination stress in college students by considering DHEA, cortisol, psycho-emotional aspects and examination performance. Seventy-six students (66 females, 10 males; age range 18-25 years) provided saliva samples and completed questionnaires in two sessions 48 hours apart. During the second session, the students performed the examination. The questionnaires used were the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Positive and Negative Affect Scale, and the Brief-Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced Inventory. DHEA, cortisol, anxiety and negative affect showed an anticipatory rise before the examination (all ps < 0.001). This rise of DHEA and cortisol was associated with lower positive affect (p = 0.001 and p = 0.043, respectively). However, only the DHEA anticipatory levels were linked to poorer examination marks (p = 0.020). Higher levels of the DHEA/cortisol ratio in anticipation of the examination were related to lower scores on the support-seeking strategy (p = 0.022). There was no association between DHEA and cortisol levels and anxiety, negative affect, active and avoidant coping strategies, or academic record. These results suggest that how DHEA and cortisol respond in anticipation of examination stress significantly impacts students' emotional well-being during examination periods and how they cope with stress. They also suggest that levels of DHEA in anticipation of an academic stressor have detrimental effects on stress management.

The influence of acute stress exposure on cognitive reappraisal: a psychophysiological study

Successful and efficient emotion regulation (ER) is a key mechanism for mental health. However, acute stress may impact the ability to cognitively regulate negative emotions due to its immediate effects on executive functioning. Based on previous studies, we expected that the time at which ER is tested after a stressor might have a decisive influence, with impairments in ER being more pronounced immediately after stress as compared to a later post-stress phase. To investigate such a time-dependent effect of stress on ER, we investigated 50 healthy adults (26 female) who were exposed to either the Trier Social Stress Test (n = 25) or a control condition (n = 25). Afterwards subjects conducted a cognitive ER task during which they were instructed to either regulate (cognitive reappraisal) or passively view neutral and negative visual stimuli. The ER task was divided into an early (0-20 minutes) and a late post-stress phase (20-40 minutes). Salivary cortisol and α-amylase were assessed as markers of the neuroendocrine stress response. Self-reported emotional state, the mean activity of the late positive potential measured via electroencephalogram (EEG), and corrugator electromyographic activity (EMG) were used as indices of ER. While the groups did not differ in the early post-stress phase, our results suggest a stress-related impairment in ER in the late post-stress phase. This effect was evident in all ER outcome variables (subjective rating, EEG, and EMG data). These results suggest a time-specific stress effect on cognitive reappraisal, which would have implications for reappraisal as a possible stress management technique.

What a difference timing makes: Cortisol effects on neural underpinnings of emotion regulation

The ability of emotion regulation under stress is of crucial importance to psychosocial health. Yet, the dynamic function of stress hormones for the cognitive control of emotions over time via non-genomic and genomic cortisol effects remains to be elucidated. In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled neuroimaging experiment, 105 participants (54 men, 51 women) received 20 mg hydrocortisone (cortisol) or a placebo either 30min (rapid, non-genomic cortisol effects) or 90min (slow, genomic cortisol effects) prior to a cognitive reappraisal task including different regulatory goals (i.e., downregulate vs. upregulate negative emotions). On the behavioral level, cortisol rapidly reduced and slowly enhanced emotional responsivity to negative pictures. However, only slow cortisol effects improved downregulation of negative emotions. On the neural level, cortisol rapidly enhanced, but slowly reduced amygdala and dorsolateral prefrontal activation as well as functional connectivity between both structures in the down- minus upregulate contrast. This interaction speaks for an effortful but ineffective regulation of negative emotions during rapid cortisol effects and improved emotion regulation capacities during slow cortisol effects. Taken together, these results indicate a functional shift of cortisol effects on emotion regulation processes over time which may foster successful adaptation to and recovery from stressful life events.

Rapid effects of acute stress on cognitive emotion regulation

Acute stress has been shown to either enhance or impair emotion regulation (ER) performances. Besides sex, strategy use and stimulus intensity, another moderating factor appears to be timing of the ER task relative to stress exposure. Whereas somewhat delayed increases in the stress hormone cortisol have been shown to improve ER performances, rapid sympathetic nervous system (SNS) actions might oppose such effects via cognitive regulatory impairments. Here, we thus investigated rapid effects of acute stress on two ER strategies: reappraisal and distraction. N = 80 healthy participants (40 men & 40 women) were exposed to the Socially Evaluated Cold-Pressor Test or a control condition immediately prior to an ER paradigm which required them to deliberately downregulate emotional responses towards high intensity negative pictures. Subjective ratings and pupil dilation served as ER outcomes measures. Increases in salivary cortisol and cardiovascular activity (index of SNS activation) verified successful induction of acute stress. Unexpectedly, stress reduced subjective emotional arousal when distracting from negative pictures in men indicating regulatory improvements. However, this beneficial effect was particularly pronounced in the second half of the ER paradigm and fully mediated by already rising cortisol levels. In contrast, cardiovascular responses to stress were linked to decreased subjective regulatory performances of reappraisal and distraction in women. However, no detrimental effects of stress on ER occurred at the group level. Yet, our findings provide initial evidence for rapid, opposing effects of the two stress systems on the cognitive control of negative emotions that are critically moderated by sex.

The process of emotion identification: Considerations for psychiatric disorders

Emotional regulation is important for mental health and behavioral regulation. A relevant precursor to emotional regulation may involve identification of one's emotions. Here, we propose a model of seven components that may provide a foundation for emotion identification. These factors include baseline mood, monitoring, physiological responses, interoception, past personal experiences regarding emotions/metacognition, context, and labeling. We additionally examine how deficits in different components may contribute to the concept of alexithymia, which is defined by difficulty identifying and describing one's own emotions. Ultimately, we explore how the model may support a relationship between specific psychiatric disorders and alexithymia. The proposed model may help explain emotional identification impairment in multiple psychiatric disorders and guide future research and treatment development efforts.

Physiological stress in response to multitasking and work interruptions: Study protocol

BACKGROUND

The biopsychological response patterns to digital stress have been sparsely investigated so far. Important potential stressors in modern working environments due to increased digitalization are multitasking and work interruptions. In this study protocol, we present a protocol for a laboratory experiment, in which we will investigate the biopsychological stress response patterns to multitasking and work interruptions.

METHODS

In total, N = 192 healthy, adult participants will be assigned to six experimental conditions in a randomized order (one single-task, three dual-task (two in parallel and one as interruption), one multitasking, and one passive control condition). Salivary alpha-amylase as well as heart rate as markers for Sympathetic Nervous System Activity, heart rate variability as measure for Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) activity, and cortisol as measure for activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis will be assessed at six time points throughout the experimental session. Furthermore, inflammatory markers (i.e., IL-6, C-reactive protein (CRP), and secretory immunoglobulin-A) will be assessed before and after the task as well as 24 hours after it (IL-6 and CRP only). Main outcomes will be the time course of these physiological stress markers. Reactivity of these measures will be compared between the experimental conditions (dual-tasking, work interruptions, and multitasking) with the control conditions (single-tasking and passive control).

DISCUSSION

With this study protocol, we present a comprehensive experiment, which will enable an extensive investigation of physiological stress-responses to multitasking and work interruptions. Our planned study will contribute to a better understanding of physiological response patterns to modern (digital) stressors. Potential risks and limitations are discussed. The findings will have important implications, especially in the context of digital health in modern working and living environments.

Hormonal abnormalities in alexithymia

Alexithymia is a personality trait characterized by difficulties in emotion recognition and regulation that is associated with deficits in social cognition. High alexithymia levels are considered a transdiagnostic risk factor for a range of psychiatric and medical conditions, including depression, anxiety, and autism. Hormones are known to affect social-emotional cognition and behavior in humans, including the neuropeptides oxytocin and vasopressin, the steroid hormones testosterone and estradiol, the stress hormone cortisol as well as thyroid hormones. However, few studies have investigated hormonal effects on alexithymia and on alexithymia-related impairments in emotion regulation and reactivity, stress response, and social cognition. Here, we provide a brief overview of the evidence linking alexithymia to abnormalities in hormone levels, particularly with regard to cortisol and oxytocin, for which most evidence exists, and to thyroid hormones. We address the current lack of research on the influence of sex hormones on alexithymia and alexithymia-related deficits, and lastly provide future directions for research on associations between hormonal abnormalities and deficits in emotion regulation and social cognition associated with alexithymia.

Dichotic listening performance and interhemispheric integration after administration of hydrocortisone

Chronic stress has been shown to have long-term effects on functional hemispheric asymmetries in both humans and non-human species. The short-term effects of acute stress exposure on functional hemispheric asymmetries are less well investigated. It has been suggested that acute stress can affect functional hemispheric asymmetries by modulating inhibitory function of the corpus callosum, the white matter pathway that connects the two hemispheres. On the molecular level, this modulation may be caused by a stress-related increase in cortisol, a major stress hormone. Therefore, it was the aim of the present study to investigate the acute effects of cortisol on functional hemispheric asymmetries. Overall, 60 participants were tested after administration of 20 mg hydrocortisone or a placebo tablet in a cross-over design. Both times, a verbal and an emotional dichotic listening task to assess language and emotional lateralization, as well as a Banich-Belger task to assess interhemispheric integration were applied. Lateralization quotients were determined for both reaction times and correctly identified syllables in both dichotic listening tasks. In the Banich-Belger task, across-field advantages were determined to quantify interhemispheric integration. While we could replicate previously reported findings for these tasks in the placebo session, we could not detect any differences in asymmetry between hydrocortisone and placebo treatment. This partially corroborates the results of a previous study we performed using social stress to induce cortisol increases. This suggests that an increase in cortisol does not influence dichotic listening performance on a behavioral level. As other studies reported an effect of stress hormones on functional hemispheric asymmetries on a neuro-functional level, future research using neuronal imaging methods would be helpful in the characterization of the relation of hemispheric asymmetries and stress hormones.