Ecological intensification to mitigate impacts of conventional intensive land use on pollinators and pollination

Determining the plant-pollinator network in a culturally significant food and medicine garden in the Great Lakes region

Understanding the interactions between plants and pollinators within a system can provide information about pollination requirements and the degree to which species contribute to floral reproductive success. Past research has focused largely on interactions within monocultured agricultural systems and only somewhat on wild pollination networks. This study focuses on the culturally significant Three Sisters Garden, which has been grown and tended by many Indigenous peoples for generations in the Great Lakes Region. Here, the plant-pollinator network of the traditional Three Sisters Garden with the inclusion of some additional culturally significant plants was mapped. Important visitors in this system included the common eastern bumble bee, Bombus impatiens Cresson (Hymenoptera: Apidae), and the hoary squash bee, Xenoglossa pruinosa (Say) (Hymenoptera: Apidae), as determined by their abundances and pollinator service index (PSI) values. Understanding the key pollinators in the Three Sisters Garden links biological diversity to cultural diversity through the pollination of culturally significant plants. Further, this information could be of use in supporting Indigenous food sovereignty by providing knowledge about which wild pollinators could be supported to increase fruit and seed set within the Three Sisters Garden. Our findings can also lead to more effective conservation of important wild pollinator species.

Sustainable grain production growth of farmland-A role of agricultural socialized services

The main aim of this study is to examine the evolving landscape of agricultural socialized services and their impact on the consistent growth of grain production in China. Using panel data from 2007 to 2020, we employ the Entropy Method to gauge the dynamic changes in agricultural socialized services that have contributed to the steady increase in grain production. The research methods include static panel, mediator, and threshold regression models to investigate the effects and mechanisms underpinning the improvement of agricultural socialized services on grain production growth. The empirical findings demonstrate a significantly positive correlation between enhanced agricultural socialized services, such as means of production services, sci-tech information services, and social public services, and increased grain production. This positive impact persists even with limited grain production resources. A mediating effect was identified, whereby agricultural socialized services indirectly stimulate grain production growth by encouraging large-scale agricultural land management. Furthermore, threshold analysis indicates the presence of a single threshold effect linked to the level of agricultural socialization services. This threshold effect plays a pivotal role in the relationship between large-scale agricultural management and steady grain production growth. The study suggests an enhancement of agricultural socialized services can promote sustained growth in grain production.

Land degradation neutrality assessment and factors influencing it in China's arid and semiarid regions

The ecosystems in China's arid and semiarid regions are notably fragile and experiencing dramatic land degradation. At the 12th Conference of the Parties (COP12) to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in October 2015, a definition for land degradation neutrality (LDN) was proposed and subsequently integrated into the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Research on LDN has developed in terms of conceptual framework constructions, quantitative assessments, and empirical studies. However, LDN and its drivers must be clarified in China's arid and semiarid regions since some representative processes have yet to be fully considered in the assessment. Here, we develop an LDN indicator system specialised for the area, assess their LDN status, and determine the impacts of human activities and climate change on LDN. Our research aims to refine the LDN indicator system tailored for China's arid and semiarid regions by incorporating the trends of wind and water erosion. We also identify the influence of human activity and climate change on LDN, which provides insightful strategies for ecological restoration and sustainable development in drylands with climate-sensitive ecosystems. The results show that: (1) In 2020, more than half of areas of China's arid and semiarid regions achieved LDN, with more pronounced success in the southeastern areas compared to the central regions. (2) For LDN drivers, elevation shows negligible influence on LDN, whereas increased temperature promotes LDN achievement. Conversely, factors like vapour pressure deficit and v-direction wind speed hinder it. In conclusion, China's arid and semiarid regions achieved LDN, and the dominant factor that substantially influences LDN varies across geographical zones, with higher wind speeds and elevated GDP levels generally obstructing LDN in most areas.

Fruit quality in organic and conventional farming: advantages and limitations

Fruit quality is essential for nutrition and human health and needs urgent attention in current agricultural practices. Organic farming is not as productive as conventional agriculture, but it can provide higher quality in some fruit crops, thanks to the absence of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, enhanced pollination, and the reduction of protection treatments, hence boosting antioxidant compound production. Although organic farming does not always provide healthier food than conventional farming, some lessons from organic farming can be extrapolated to new sustainable production models. Exploiting natural resources and an adequate knowledge transfer will undoubtedly help improve the quality of climacteric and nonclimacteric fruits in new agricultural systems.

Differentiating spillover: an examination of cross-habitat movement in ecology spillover in ecology

Organisms that immigrate into a recipient habitat generate a movement pattern that affects local population dynamics and the environment. Spillover is the pattern of unidirectional movement from a donor habitat to a different, adjacent recipient habitat. However, ecological definitions are often generalized to include any cross-habitat movement, which limits within- and cross-discipline collaboration. To assess spillover nomenclature, we reviewed 337 studies within the agriculture, disease, fisheries and habitat fragmentation disciplines. Each study's definition of spillover and the methods used were analysed. We identified four descriptors (movement, habitat type and arrangement, and effect) used that differentiate spillover from other cross-habitat movement patterns (dispersal, foray loops and edge movement). Studies often define spillover as movement (45%) but rarely measure it as such (4%), particularly in disease and habitat fragmentation disciplines. Consequently, 98% of studies could not distinguish linear from returning movement out of a donor habitat, which can overestimate movement distance. Overall, few studies (12%) included methods that matched their own definition, revealing a distinct mismatch. Because theory shows that long-term impacts of the different movement patterns can vary, differentiating spillover from other movement patterns is necessary for effective long-term and inter-disciplinary management of organisms that use heterogeneous landscapes.

Impact of cucurbit crop management techniques on the foraging behavior of honeybees and hoverflies in Morogoro, Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Poor agricultural practices have drastically threatened insect pollinators' biodiversity. Little is known in Tanzania about how different agricultural practices affect pollinators' foraging behavior. This study investigated the effects of the agroecological zone, season, cucurbit species and management practices on visitation frequency, visitation rate and time spent on cucurbit flowers by five pollinator species viz. Apis mellifera, Eristalinus megacephalus, Mesembrius caffer, Paragus borbonicus and Toxomerus floralis. The experiment was designed as a 5 × 3 × 3 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with four replications. GAMOUR-Agroecology was tested against conventional practices and untreated control.

RESULTS

This study revealed significant effects of agroecological zone × season × cucurbit species × management practice on pollinators' visitation frequency (p = 0.007) and time spent on flowers (p = 0.005). Also, agroecological zone × season × cucurbit species × pollinator species significantly (p < 0.0001) affected pollinators' visitation frequency. Agroecological zones × season × cucurbit species × cucurbits management practices × pollinators significantly (p = 0.001) affected pollinators' visitation rate. Apis mellifera was the most frequent visitor in Cucurbita moschata plots treated with GAMOUR- Agroecology in the plateau zone, also, visited higher number of Cucumis sativus plots under GAMOUR-Agroecology practices in the mountainous zone during the October-November season. Furthermore, it has been found that pollinators spent much in cucurbit flowers on plots with GAMOUR-Agroecology practices and control.

CONCLUSIONS

Pollinators' foraging behavior were enhanced by GAMOUR-Agroecology practices. Therefore, this study recommended that cucurbit growers should consider management practices that positively influence pollinator foraging activities for sustainable cucurbit production.

Review on flower-visiting behaviour of orthopterans and setting priorities for further studies

The importance of pollination and pollinators is easy to underestimate and impossible to overstate, since its importance goes far beyond the crop production and even the maintenance of plant populations. Most terrestrial ecosystems ultimately depend on the plant-pollinator interactions formed by million years coevolution. This is essential for both the daily functioning of the ecosystems and the long-term development of biodiversity. At the same time, the loss of biodiversity caused by climate change and human activities will soon lead to an ecological crisis, a catastrophe, which could endanger our life: For example, through the decline and loss of various ecosystem services. Such may be the pollination crisis, resulted from a significant loss of pollinating insects' diversity and abundance. The discovery of a pollinator Orthoptera species has encouraged researchers in the densely populated region of Indo-Malaysia to explore the potential role of orthopterans as pollinators. Although the flower visitation of some species has been already known, the role of orthopterans in pollination is scarcely revealed. Here, we collected and reviewed the available data in order to point out some factors of their importance and set priorities that may serve as a basis for further investigations regarding ecological, evolutionary and practical points of view.

DNA metabarcoding unveils the effects of habitat fragmentation on pollinator diversity, plant-pollinator interactions, and pollination efficiency in Maldive islands

Habitat fragmentation affects biodiversity, but with unclear effects on pollinators and their interactions with plants in anthropized landscapes. Islands could serve as open air laboratories, suitable to disentangle how land-use alteration impacts pollination ecology. In Maldive islands we investigated how pollinator richness, plant-pollinator interactions and pollination efficiency are influenced by the green area fragmentation (i.e., gardens and semi-natural patches). Moreover, we considered the mediating role of pollinator body size and the plant trait of being invasive in shaping interactions. To do this, we surveyed pollinator insects from 11 islands representing a gradient of green area fragmentation. A DNA metabarcoding approach was adopted to identify the pollen transported by pollinators and characterize the plant-pollinator interactions. We found that intermediate levels of green area fragmentation characterized pollinator communities and increased their species richness, while decreasing interaction network complexity. Invasive plants were more frequently found on pollinator bodies than native or exotic noninvasive ones, indicating a concerningly higher potential for pollen dispersal and reproduction of the former ones. Intriguingly, pollinator body size mediated the effect of landscape alteration on interactions, as only the largest bees expanded the foraging diet in terms of plant richness in the transported pollen at increasing fragmentation. In parallel, the pollination efficiency increased with pollinator species richness in two sentinel plants. This study shows that moderate landscape fragmentation of green areas shapes many aspects of the pollination ecosystem service, where despite interactions being less complex and mediated by pollinator body size, pollinator insect biodiversity and potential plant reproduction are supported.

Bringing Fundamental Insights of Induced Resistance to Agricultural Management of Herbivore Pests

In response to herbivory, most plant species adjust their chemical and morphological phenotype to acquire induced resistance to the attacking herbivore. Induced resistance may be an optimal defence strategy that allows plants to reduce metabolic costs of resistance in the absence of herbivores, allocate resistance to the most valuable plant tissues and tailor its response to the pattern of attack by multiple herbivore species. Moreover, plasticity in resistance decreases the potential that herbivores adapt to specific plant resistance traits and need to deal with a moving target of variable plant quality. Induced resistance additionally allows plants to provide information to other community members to attract natural enemies of its herbivore attacker or inform related neighbouring plants of pending herbivore attack. Despite the clear evolutionary benefits of induced resistance in plants, crop protection strategies to herbivore pests have not exploited the full potential of induced resistance for agriculture. Here, we present evidence that induced resistance offers strong potential to enhance resistance and resilience of crops to (multi-) herbivore attack. Specifically, induced resistance promotes plant plasticity to cope with multiple herbivore species by plasticity in growth and resistance, maximizes biological control by attracting natural enemies and, enhances associational resistance of the plant stand in favour of yield. Induced resistance may be further harnessed by soil quality, microbial communities and associational resistance offered by crop mixtures. In the transition to more sustainable ecology-based cropping systems that have strongly reduced pesticide and fertilizer input, induced resistance may prove to be an invaluable trait in breeding for crop resilience.

Evolutionarily inspired solutions to the crop pollination crisis

The global decline in insect diversity threatens pollination services, potentially impacting crop production and food security. Here, we argue that this looming pollination crisis is generally approached from an ecological standpoint, and that consideration of evolutionary principles offers a novel perspective. First, we outline that wild plant species have overcome 'pollination crises' throughout evolutionary history, and show how associated principles can be applied to crop pollination. We then highlight technological advances that can be used to adapt crop flowers for optimal pollination by local wild pollinators, especially by increasing generalization in pollination systems. Thus, synergies among fundamental evolutionary research, genetic engineering, and agro-ecological science provide a promising template for addressing a potential pollination crisis, complementing much-needed strategies focused on pollinator conservation.

Individual flowering phenology shapes plant-pollinator interactions across ecological scales affecting plant reproduction

The balance of pollination competition and facilitation among co-flowering plants and abiotic resource availability can modify plant species and individual reproduction. Floral resource succession and spatial heterogeneity modulate plant-pollinator interactions across ecological scales (individual plant, local assemblage, and interaction network of agroecological infrastructure across the farm). Intraspecific variation in flowering phenology can modulate the precise level of spatio-temporal heterogeneity in floral resources, pollen donor density, and pollinator interactions that a plant individual is exposed to, thereby affecting reproduction. We tested how abiotic resources and multi-scale plant-pollinator interactions affected individual plant seed set modulated by intraspecific variation in flowering phenology and spatio-temporal floral heterogeneity arising from agroecological infrastructure. We transplanted two focal insect-pollinated plant species (Cyanus segetum and Centaurea jacea, n = 288) into agroecological infrastructure (10 sown wildflower and six legume-grass strips) across a farm-scale experiment (125 ha). We applied an individual-based phenologically explicit approach to match precisely the flowering period of plant individuals to the concomitant level of spatio-temporal heterogeneity in plant-pollinator interactions, potential pollen donors, floral resources, and abiotic conditions (temperature, water, and nitrogen). Individual plant attractiveness, assemblage floral density, and conspecific pollen donor density (C. jacea) improved seed set. Network linkage density increased focal species seed set and modified the effect of local assemblage richness and abundance on C. segetum. Mutual dependence on pollinators in networks increased C. segetum seed set, while C. jacea seed set was greatest where both specialization on pollinators and mutual dependence was high. Abiotic conditions were of little or no importance to seed set. Intra- and interspecific plant-pollinator interactions respond to spatio-temporal heterogeneity arising from agroecological management affecting wild plant species reproduction. The interplay of pollinator interactions within and between ecological scales affecting seed set implies a co-occurrence of pollinator-mediated facilitative and competitive interactions among plant species and individuals.

Biology, Genetic Diversity, and Conservation of Wild Bees in Tree Fruit Orchards

Different species of bees provide essential ecosystem services by pollinating various agricultural crops, including tree fruits. Many fruits and nuts depend on insect pollination, primarily by wild and managed bees. In different geographical regions where orchard crops are grown, fruit growers rely on wild bees in the farmscape and use orchard bees as alternative pollinators. Orchard crops such as apples, pears, plums, apricots, etc., are mass-flowering crops and attract many different bee species during their bloom period. Many bee species found in orchards emerge from overwintering as the fruit trees start flowering in spring, and the active duration of these bees aligns very closely with the blooming time of fruit trees. In addition, most of the bees in orchards are short-range foragers and tend to stay close to the fruit crops. However, the importance of orchard bee communities is not well understood, and many challenges in maintaining their populations remain. This comprehensive review paper summarizes the different types of bees commonly found in tree fruit orchards in the fruit-growing regions of the United States, their bio-ecology, and genetic diversity. Additionally, recommendations for the management of orchard bees, different strategies for protecting them from multiple stressors, and providing suitable on-farm nesting and floral resource habitats for propagation and conservation are discussed.

Non-target effects of agri-environmental schemes on solitary bees and fungi in the United Kingdom

Agri-environmental schemes (AES) are used to enhance pollinator diversity on agricultural farms within the UK. Though the impacts of these schemes on archetypal pollinator species such as the bumblebee (Bombus) and honeybee (Apis) are well-studied, the effects on non-target bee species like solitary bees, in the same environment, are generally lacking. One goal of AES is to alter floral provision and taxonomic composition of plant communities to provide better forage for pollinators, however, this may potentially impact other ecological communities such as fungal diversity associated with plant-bee communities. Fungi are integral in these bee communities as they can impact bee species both beneficially and detrimentally. We test the hypothesis that alteration of the environment through provision of novel plant communities has non-target effects on the fungi associated with solitary bee communities. We analyse fungal diversity and ecological networks formed between fungi and solitary bees present on 15 agricultural farms in the UK using samples from brood cells. The farms were allocated to two categories, low and high management, which differ in the number of agri-environmental measures implemented. Using internal transcribed spacer metabarcoding, we identified 456 fungal taxa that interact with solitary bees. Of these, 202 (approximately 44%) could be assigned to functional groups, the majority being pathotrophic and saprotrophic species. A large proportion was Ascosphaeraceae, a family of bee-specialist fungi. We considered the connectance, nestedness, modularity, nestedness overlap and decreasing fill, linkage density and fungal generality of the farms' bee-fungi ecological networks. We found no difference in the structure of bee-fungi ecological networks between low and high management farms, suggesting floral provision by AES has no significant impact on interactions between these two taxonomic groups. However, bee emergence was lower on the low management farms compared to high management, suggesting some limited non-target effects of AES. This study characterizes the fungal community associated with solitary bees and provides evidence that floral provision through AES does not impact fungal interactions.

A Flashforward Look into Solutions for Fruit and Vegetable Production

One of the most important challenges facing current and future generations is how climate change and continuous population growth adversely affect food security. To address this, the food system needs a complete transformation where more is produced in non-optimal and space-limited areas while reducing negative environmental impacts. Fruits and vegetables, essential for human health, are high-value-added crops, which are grown in both greenhouses and open field environments. Here, we review potential practices to reduce the impact of climate variation and ecosystem damages on fruit and vegetable crop yield, as well as highlight current bottlenecks for indoor and outdoor agrosystems. To obtain sustainability, high-tech greenhouses are increasingly important and biotechnological means are becoming instrumental in designing the crops of tomorrow. We discuss key traits that need to be studied to improve agrosystem sustainability and fruit yield.

Dynamic Evaluation of Intensive Land Use Based on Objective Empowerment by Entropy Method and Neural Network Algorithm

In the past, the extreme value standardization of indicators, the traditional weighting method, and the multifactor comprehensive model of land intensive use inevitably linearly correlate the evaluation indicators with the evaluation objects, ignoring the direction differences of different indicators in different intervals. At the same time, these methods are also difficult to meet the change of evaluation index weight value with land use type, and cannot adapt to the actual situation of land use environment level and dynamic change. Considering the objectivity of nonlinear correlation moderate index and weight assignment, based on the standardization of quadratic function index and entropy assignment, this paper studies the intensive and dynamic use of land in development zones by different regions to improve the realistic fit of the evaluation model. The results show that the overall level of land intensive use in Chongqing center district and western Chongqing is better than that in northeast Chongqing and southeast Chongqing, roughly showing the state of "high in west and low in east."

Bacterial inoculants as effective agents in minimizing the non-target impact of azadirachtin pesticide and promoting plant growth of Vigna radiata

Microbes regulate soil health by negating ecological disturbances, and improve plant productivity in a sustainable manner. Indiscriminate application of pesticides creates a detrimental impact on the rhizospheric microbiota, thereby affecting soil health. Azadirachtin, earlier believed to be an environment-friendly alternative to chemical pesticides, exhibits a non-target impact on microbial communities. This study aimed to employ potent bacteria to promote the growth of mungbean plant (Vigna radiata), and mitigate the non-target impact of azadirachtin. Bacterial strains were isolated by enrichment from mungbean rhizosphere. A plant growth experiment was performed with mungbean, amended with azadirachtin to assess the impact of bacterial bioinoculants on the rhizospheric microbiota. The impact of azadirachtin on rhizospheric bacterial community was analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively by 16S rRNA PCR-DGGE and qPCR of various markers, respectively. Residual concentration of azadirachtin in the soil was estimated by HPLC. The bacterial inoculants used in combination significantly promoted plant growth and enhanced the diversity and abundance of total bacterial community in the presence of azadirachtin. Further, the abundance of specific bacterial groups (α-Proteobacteria, β-Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Firmicutes) were significantly boosted. Compared to the control, the isolates significantly facilitated the reduction in residual concentration of azadirachtin in the mungbean rhizosphere. Bacterial inoculants can serve a tripartite role in reducing the stress imparted by botanical pesticides, together with promoting plant growth and enriching the rhizospheric bacterial community structure.

The potential consequences of 'bee washing' on wild bee health and conservation

Concern around declining bee populations globally has become an environmental issue of mainstream importance. Policymakers, scientists, environmental non-government organizations, media outlets and the public have displayed great interest in conservation actions to support pollinators. As with many environmental causes, green washing, or in this case ‘bee washing’, has become rampant. Bee washing can lead to multiple negative consequences, including misinformation, misallocation of resources, increasing threats and steering public understanding and environmental policy away from evidence-based decision-making. Here I will discuss the multiple potential consequences of bee washing on efforts to conserve declining wild bees and promote wild bee health.

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Concern around declining bee populations globally has become an environmental issue of mainstream importance.

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Policymakers, scientists, environmental non-government organizations, media outlets and the public have displayed interest in conservation action to support pollinators.

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‘Bee washing’, has become rampant.

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Narratives and actions tend to focus on low-hanging fruit, actions which are easy to address and/or the selling of commercial items where industry benefits but the species of concern do not.

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Negative consequences include misinformation, misallocation of resources, increasing threats and steering environmental policy away from evidence-based decision-making.

Pesticide exposure of wild bees and honey bees foraging from field border flowers in intensively managed agriculture areas

Bees are critical for food crop pollination, yet their populations are declining as agricultural practices intensify. Pollinator-attractive field border plantings (e.g. hedgerows and forb strips) can increase bee diversity and abundance in agricultural areas; however, recent studies suggest these plants may contain pesticides. Pesticide exposure for wild bees remains largely unknown; however, this information is needed to inform agricultural practices and pesticide regulations meant to protect bees. It is important to determine whether border plantings that attract and support pollinators may also deliver pesticides to them. In this study, we collected various samples for pesticide residue analysis, including: multiple species of wild bees, honey bees, flowers from four types of bee-attractive field border plants, and soil. Silicone bands were also utilized as passive aerial samplers of pesticide residues. The five pesticides detected most frequently across all samples were the insecticide bifenthrin, the herbicides thiobencarb, metolaclor, and propanil, and the fungicide fluopyram. We detected the greatest number of parent pesticides in bands (24), followed by soil (21). Pesticides were also detected in field border plant flowers (16), which do not receive direct pesticide applications, and included many products which were not applied to adjacent field crops. Pesticide concentrations were lower in bees than in flowers but higher in bees than in soils. Pesticide residue per bee (ng/bee) increased with increasing wild bee size, though pesticide concentration (ng/g) did not increase. While honey bees and wild bees contained a similar number and concentration of pesticides overall, pesticide mixtures varied by bee type, and included some mixtures known to cause sublethal effects. The results from this study highlight the benefits of measuring more sample types to capture the total exposome of bees, including a greater range of bee species, as well as the need to consider exposure to pesticides at the landscape level.

Exploring connections between pollinator health and human health

Despite recent advances in understanding the role of biodiversity in ecosystem-service provision, the links between the health of ecosystem-service providers and human health remain more uncertain. During the past decade, an increasing number of studies have argued for the positive impacts of healthy pollinator communities (defined as functionally and genetically diverse species assemblages that are sustained over time) on human health. Here, we begin with a systematic review of these impacts, finding only two studies that concomitantly quantified aspects of pollinator health and human health. Next, we identify relevant research relating to four pathways linking pollinator health and human health: nutrition, medicine provisioning, mental health and environmental quality. These benefits are obtained through improved pollination of nutritious crops and an estimated approximately 28 000 animal-pollinated medicinal plants; the provisioning of pollinator-derived products such as honey; the maintenance of green spaces and biocultural landscapes that improve mental health; and cleaner air, water and food resulting from pollinator-centred initiatives to reduce agrochemical use. We suggest that pollinator diversity could be a proxy for the benefits that landscapes provide to human health. This article is part of the theme issue 'Natural processes influencing pollinator health: from chemistry to landscapes'.

Differences in the Pollen Content of Varieties of Polish Honey from Urban and Rural Apiaries

The value of honey as a natural food product is influenced by its pollen content, with the dominant type of pollen conferring specific medicinal properties. The present study examines the pollen spectra of 31 honeys from urban (linden, acacia, polyfloral, honeydew) and rural (rape, acacia, polyfloral, honeydew) apiaries in Poland. The pollen in content in honey ranged from 0.2 to 88 %. In total, 76 plant taxa were identified, 21 of which were assigned to forms A, B and C. Higher pollen grain content and a greater diversity of honey plant taxa were found in the urban honey, particularly polyfloral honey; this could be attributed to the rich variety of plants found in urban green areas compared to rural areas ones.

Remote Sensing of Floral Resources for Pollinators – New Horizons From Satellites to Drones

Insect pollinators are affected by the spatio-temporal distribution of floral resources, which are dynamic across time and space, and also influenced heavily by anthropogenic activities. There is a need for spatial data describing the time-varying spatial distribution of flowers, which can be used within behavioral and ecological studies. However, this information is challenging to obtain. Traditional field techniques for mapping flowers are often laborious and limited to relatively small areas, making it difficult to assess how floral resources are perceived by pollinators to guide their behaviors. Conversely, remote sensing of plant traits is a relatively mature technique now, and such technologies have delivered valuable data for identifying and measuring non-floral dynamics in plant systems, particularly leaves, stems and woody biomass in a wide range of ecosystems from local to global scales. However, monitoring the spatial and temporal dynamics of plant floral resources has been notably scarce in remote sensing studies. Recently, lightweight drone technology has been adopted by the ecological community, offering a capability for flexible deployment in the field, and delivery of centimetric resolution data, providing a clear opportunity for capturing fine-grained information on floral resources at key times of the flowering season. In this review, we answer three key questions of relevance to pollination science – can remote sensing deliver information on (a) how isolated are floral resources? (b) What resources are available within a flower patch? And (c) how do floral patches change over time? We explain how such information has potential to deepen ecological understanding of the distribution of floral resources that feed pollinators and the parameters that determine their navigational and foraging choices based on the sensory information they extract at different spatial scales. We provide examples of how such data can be used to generate new insights into pollinator behaviors in distinct landscape types and their resilience to environmental change.

Effects of temporal floral resource availability and non-crop habitats on broad bean pollination

CONTEXT

Flowering plants can enhance wild insect populations and their pollination services to crops in agricultural landscapes, especially when they flower before the focal crop. However, characterizing the temporal availability of specific floral resources is a challenge.

OBJECTIVES

Developing an index for the availability of floral resources at the landscape scale according to the specific use by a pollinator. Investigating whether detailed and temporally-resolved floral resource maps predict pollination success of broad bean better than land cover maps.

METHODS

We mapped plant species used as pollen source by bumblebees in 24 agricultural landscapes and developed an index of floral resource availability for different times of the flowering season. To measure pollination success, patches of broad bean (Vicia faba), a plant typically pollinated by bumblebees, were exposed in the center of selected landscapes.

RESULTS

Higher floral resource availability before bean flowering led to enhanced seed set. Floral resource availability synchronous to broad bean flowering had no effect. Seed set was somewhat better explained by land cover maps than by floral resource availability, increasing with urban area and declining with the cover of arable land.

CONCLUSIONS

The timing of alternative floral resource availability is important for crop pollination. The higher explanation of pollination success by land cover maps than by floral resource availability indicates that additional factors such as habitat disturbance and nesting sites play a role in pollination. Enhancing non-crop woody plants in agricultural landscapes as pollen sources may ensure higher levels of crop pollination by wild pollinators such as bumblebees.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10980-022-01448-2.

Biomonitoring via DNA metabarcoding and light microscopy of bee pollen in rainforest transformation landscapes of Sumatra

BACKGROUND

Intense conversion of tropical forests into agricultural systems contributes to habitat loss and the decline of ecosystem functions. Plant-pollinator interactions buffer the process of forest fragmentation, ensuring gene flow across isolated patches of forests by pollen transfer. In this study, we identified the composition of pollen grains stored in pot-pollen of stingless bees, Tetragonula laeviceps, via dual-locus DNA metabarcoding (ITS2 and rbcL) and light microscopy, and compared the taxonomic coverage of pollen sampled in distinct land-use systems categorized in four levels of management intensity (forest, shrub, rubber, and oil palm) for landscape characterization.

RESULTS

Plant composition differed significantly between DNA metabarcoding and light microscopy. The overlap in the plant families identified via light microscopy and DNA metabarcoding techniques was low and ranged from 22.6 to 27.8%. Taxonomic assignments showed a dominance of pollen from bee-pollinated plants, including oil-bearing crops such as the introduced species Elaeis guineensis (Arecaceae) as one of the predominant taxa in the pollen samples across all four land-use types. Native plant families Moraceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Cannabaceae appeared in high proportion in the analyzed pollen material. One-way ANOVA (p > 0.05), PERMANOVA (R² values range from 0.14003 to 0.17684, for all tests p-value > 0.5), and NMDS (stress values ranging from 0.1515 to 0.1859) indicated a lack of differentiation between the species composition and diversity of pollen type in the four distinct land-use types, supporting the influx of pollen from adjacent areas.

CONCLUSIONS

Stingless bees collected pollen from a variety of agricultural crops, weeds, and wild plants. Plant composition detected at the family level from the pollen samples likely reflects the plant composition at the landscape level rather than the plot level. In our study, the plant diversity in pollen from colonies installed in land-use systems with distinct levels of forest transformation was highly homogeneous, reflecting a large influx of pollen transported by stingless bees through distinct land-use types. Dual-locus approach applied in metabarcoding studies and visual pollen identification showed great differences in the detection of the plant community, therefore a combination of both methods is recommended for performing biodiversity assessments via pollen identification.

Agricultural buffer zone thresholds to safeguard functional bee diversity: Insights from a community modeling approach

Wild bee species are important pollinators in agricultural landscapes. However, population decline was reported over the last decades and is still ongoing. While agricultural intensification is a major driver of the rapid loss of pollinating species, transition zones between arable fields and forest or grassland patches, i.e., agricultural buffer zones, are frequently mentioned as suitable mitigation measures to support wild bee populations and other pollinator species. Despite the reported general positive effect, it remains unclear which amount of buffer zones is needed to ensure a sustainable and permanent impact for enhancing bee diversity and abundance. To address this question at a pollinator community level, we implemented a process‐based, spatially explicit simulation model of functional bee diversity dynamics in an agricultural landscape. More specifically, we introduced a variable amount of agricultural buffer zones (ABZs) at the transition of arable to grassland, or arable to forest patches to analyze the impact on bee functional diversity and functional richness. We focused our study on solitary bees in a typical agricultural area in the Northeast of Germany. Our results showed positive effects with at least 25% of virtually implemented agricultural buffer zones. However, higher amounts of ABZs of at least 75% should be considered to ensure a sufficient increase in Shannon diversity and decrease in quasi‐extinction risks. These high amounts of ABZs represent effective conservation measures to safeguard the stability of pollination services provided by solitary bee species. As the model structure can be easily adapted to other mobile species in agricultural landscapes, our community approach offers the chance to compare the effectiveness of conservation measures also for other pollinator communities in future.

Community structure of pollinating insects and its driving factors in different habitats of Shivapuri‐Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

Insect pollinators are important means for a stable ecosystem. The habitat types play a crucial role in the community composition, abundance, diversity, and species richness of the pollinators. The present study in Shivapuri‐Nagarjun National Park explored the species richness and abundances of insect pollinators in four different habitats and different environmental variables in determining the community composition of the pollinators. Data were collected from 1,500 m to 2,700 m using color pan traps and hand sweeping methods. Non‐Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) and Redundancy Analysis (RDA) were conducted to show the association between insect pollinators and environmental variables. The results firmly demonstrated that species richness and abundances were higher (158) in Open trail compared to other habitats. The distribution of the pollinator species was more uniform in the Open trail followed by the Grassland. Similarly, a strong positive correlation between flower resources and pollinators' abundance (R² = .63, P < .001) was found. In conclusion, the Open trail harbors rich insect pollinators in lower elevation. The community structure of the pollinators was strongly influenced by the presence of flowers in the trails.

Selection of Non-Crop Plant Mixes Informed by Arthropod-Plant Network Analyses for Multiple Ecosystem Services Delivery Towards Ecological Intensification of Agriculture

Ecological intensification (EI) of agriculture through the improvement of ecosystem service delivery has recently emerged as the alternative to the conventional intensification of agriculture that is widely considered unsustainable and has negative impacts on the environment. Although tropical agricultural landscapes are still heterogeneous, they are rapidly losing diversity due to agricultural intensification. Restoration of natural or semi-natural habitats, habitat diversity, and provision of multiple benefits have been identified as important targets for the transition to EI. Choosing the right plant mixes for the restoration of habitats that can offer multiple ecosystem service benefits is therefore crucial. The selection of candidate species for plant mixes is generally informed by studies focusing on a specific ecosystem service (e.g., pollination) and not based on the whole arthropod—non-crop plant interactions matrix. In this study, we try to identify non-crop plant mixes that would provide habitat for pollinators, act as refugia for natural pest predators, and also as a trap crop for potential crop pests by studying non-crop plants—arthropod interaction network. We have identified the non-crop plant species mixes by first identifying the connector species based on their centrality in the network and then by studying how their sequential exclusions affect the stability of the network.

Honey Bees and Industrial Agriculture: What Researchers are Missing, and Why it's a Problem

Industrial agriculture is the root cause of many health problems that honey bees (Apis mellifera Linneaus, 1758) face, but honey bee researchers seldom call attention to this fact. We often discuss the stressors that contribute to colony loss (e.g., pathogens, pesticides, poor nutrition), but we rarely talk about where those stressors come from. This is a problem because we cannot resolve honey bee health issues unless we confront the systems that cause them harm. In this forum article, I unpack the relationship between honey bee health and industrial agriculture. I propose steps we can take to reframe our research to account for the impacts of this destructive system, and I discuss the uncomfortable questions that surface when we engage in this process. The goal of this article is to encourage conversation within the honey bee research community around the impacts of industrial agriculture, so that we can fully engage in the transformative change needed to support honey bee health.

Supporting wild pollinators in agricultural landscapes through targeted legume mixtures

Insect-pollinated legumes are rich in plant-based proteins making them a vital constituent of sustainable healthy diets for people and livestock. Furthermore, they deliver or support a range of ecosystem services that underpin agricultural production and their prevalence in agricultural landscapes is likely to increase. Under typical implementation and management, the value of legumes to pollinators has, however, been questioned. Through exploring a range of legume crops, grown as monocultures and mixtures, this study aims to identify multifunctional legume cropping systems that optimise forage availability for a diversity of wild pollinators whilst delivering a wide range of agronomic and environmental benefits. This study innovatively explores legume mixtures concurrently with monocultures of the component species using replicated small-plot field trials established in two geographical locations. Observational plots assessed the richness and abundance of floral resources, and wild pollinators (i.e. bumblebees and hoverflies) throughout the peak flowering period. Densely flowering, highly profitable legumes (e.g. Trifolium incarnatum and Trifolium mixes) supported abundant and rich pollinator assemblages. The functional makeup of floral visitors was strongly influenced by flower structure and hoverflies, with their shorter proboscises, were largely constrained to legumes with shallower corolla and open weed species. Floral richness was not a key driver of pollinator assemblages; however, clear intra-specific differences were observed in flowering phenology. Combining functionally distinct legumes with respect to flower structure and phenology, will support a wider suite of pollinating insects and help stabilise the temporal availability of forage. For highly competitive legumes (e.g. Vicia faba and Vicia sativa), planting in discrete patches is recommended to reduce the risk of less competitive species failing in mixtures. Legumes can provide valuable forage for pollinators; however, they fail to meet all resource requirements. They should therefore be used in combination with agri-environmental measures targeted to promote early-season forage (e.g. hedgerows and farm woodlands), open flowers for hoverflies, saprophytic hoverfly larval resources (e.g. ditches and ponds) and nesting habitats (e.g. undisturbed field margins).

Optimizing Plant Disease Management in Agricultural Ecosystems Through Rational In-Crop Diversification

Biodiversity plays multifaceted roles in societal development and ecological sustainability. In agricultural ecosystems, using biodiversity to mitigate plant diseases has received renewed attention in recent years but our knowledge of the best ways of using biodiversity to control plant diseases is still incomplete. In term of in-crop diversification, it is not clear how genetic diversity per se in host populations interacts with identifiable resistance and other functional traits of component genotypes to mitigate disease epidemics and what is the best way of structuring mixture populations. In this study, we created a series of host populations by mixing different numbers of potato varieties showing different late blight resistance levels in different proportions. The amount of naturally occurring late blight disease in the mixture populations was recorded weekly during the potato growing seasons. The percentage of disease reduction (PDR) in the mixture populations was calculated by comparing their observed late blight levels relative to that expected when they were planted in pure stands. We found that PDR in the mixtures increased as the number of varieties and the difference in host resistance (DHR) between the component varieties increased. However, the level of host resistance in the potato varieties had little impact on PDR. In mixtures involving two varieties, the optimum proportion of component varieties for the best PDR depended on their DHR, with an increasing skewness to one of the component varieties as the DHR between the component varieties increased. These results indicate that mixing crop varieties can significantly reduce disease epidemics in the field. To achieve the best disease mitigation, growers should include as many varieties as possible in mixtures or, if only two component mixtures are possible, increase DHR among the component varieties.

Weeds Enhance Pollinator Diversity and Fruit Yield in Mango

Simple Summary

There is an urgent pollinator decline crisis across the globe, with fewer pollinators and yet increasing agricultural reliance on them to produce food and fiber crops for growing populations. Habitat loss and chemical eradication of unwanted plants has limited the floral resources for pollinators, and in farms with only one crop, there are limited resources solely during the flowering season. Weeds, or unwanted vegetation, are often the only remaining floral resource for pollinators, yet they are compulsively removed using chemicals. This article examines how weedy floral resources affect pollinators in a mango farm, Mangifera indica, a pollinator-dependent crop in South Florida, and how fruit yield is affected by either leaving weeds or removing them.

Abstract

Agriculture is dependent on insect pollination, yet in areas of intensive production agriculture, there is often a decline in plant and insect diversity. As native habitats and plants are replaced, often only the weeds or unwanted vegetation persist. This study compared insect diversity on mango, Mangifera indica, a tropical fruit tree dependent on insect pollination, when weeds were present in cultivation versus when they were removed mechanically. The pollinating insects on both weeds and mango trees were examined as well as fruit set and yield in both the weed-free and weedy treatment in South Florida. There were significantly more pollinators and key pollinator families on the weedy mango trees, as well as significantly greater fruit yield in the weedy treatment compared to the weed-free treatment. Utilizing weeds, especially native species, as insectary plants can help ensure sufficient pollination of mango and increase biodiversity across crop monocropping systems.

Local Actions to Tackle a Global Problem: A Multidimensional Assessment of the Pollination Crisis in Chile

In the last decades, pollinators have drastically declined as a consequence of anthropogenic activities that have local and global impacts. The food industry has been expanding intensive agriculture crops, many of them dependent on animal pollination, but simultaneously reducing native pollinator habitats. Chile is a good example of this situation. Chile is becoming an agro-alimentary powerhouse in Latin America, where intensive agriculture expansion is performed at the expense of natural lands, posing a major threat to biodiversity. Here, we discussed the drivers responsible for the decline of pollinators (including habitat loss, pesticides, invasive species, and climate change) and its synergistic effects. This is particularly critical considering that Chile is a hotspot of endemic bee species locally adapted to specific habitats (e.g., Mediterranean-type ecosystems). However, there is a lack of data and monitoring programs that can provide evidence of their conservation status and contribution to crop yields. Based on our analysis, we identified information gaps to be filled and key threats to be addressed to reconcile crop production and biodiversity conservation. Addressing the local context is fundamental to undertake management and conservation actions with global impact.

A global-scale expert assessment of drivers and risks associated with pollinator decline

Pollinator decline has attracted global attention and substantial efforts are underway to respond through national pollinator strategies and action plans. These policy responses require clarity on what is driving pollinator decline and what risks it generates for society in different parts of the world. Using a formal expert elicitation process, we evaluated the relative regional and global importance of eight drivers of pollinator decline and ten consequent risks to human well-being. Our results indicate that global policy responses should focus on reducing pressure from changes in land cover and configuration, land management and pesticides, as these were considered very important drivers in most regions. We quantify how the importance of drivers and risks from pollinator decline, differ among regions. For example, losing access to managed pollinators was considered a serious risk only for people in North America, whereas yield instability in pollinator-dependent crops was classed as a serious or high risk in four regions but only a moderate risk in Europe and North America. Overall, perceived risks were substantially higher in the Global South. Despite extensive research on pollinator decline, our analysis reveals considerable scientific uncertainty about what this means for human society.

Promoting Forage Legume–Pollinator Interactions: Integrating Crop Pollination Management, Native Beekeeping and Silvopastoral Systems in Tropical Latin America

Major declines of insect pollinators are a worldwide concern. Such losses threaten human food supplies and ecosystem functions. Monocultures of pastures used to feed cattle are among the drivers of insect pollinator declines in Tropical Latin America. Plants of the legume family (fabaceae) are mostly pollinated by insects, in particular by bees. The inclusion of legumes in pastures (grass-legume system), as forage banks or the development of silvo-pastoral systems (SPS) with tree legumes, has been widely promoted to improve livestock production and soil fertility, but not to enhance ecosystem services from pollinators. Shortages of seed for the establishment of legumes as forage banks or within pastures or SPS remain a bottleneck for the improvement of ecosystem services brought about by pollinators within these systems and beyond. In this perspective paper, we provide an overview of forage legumes, their interplay with pollinators, and the ecological and socio-economic benefits of pollinator–forage legume interactions, at different scales (farm and landscape level). We further discuss the challenges and opportunities of scaling sustainably intensified cattle production systems that integrate legume forage-seed production with principles of pollinator ecology and native beekeeping. Finally, we provide interested stakeholders, policy-and decision-makers with a perspective on how such agroecosystems may be designed and scaled into multifunctional landscapes.

Metabarcoding Analysis of Pollen Species Foraged by Osmia excavata Alfken (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) in China

To meet the pollination need of economic crops, Osmia excavata has been successfully used to improve the pollination efficiency of Rosaceae and Brassicaceae plants. As a widely used pollinator of economic crops, a systematic study of flower-visiting species and diversities of O. excavata stocked in China was not found. To investigate the foraging pollen species and diversities of O. excavata, beebread from 20 experimental plots in China was collected by the trap-nesting method and analyzed by DNA metabarcoding technology. A total of 26 pollen plants in 14 genera and nine families were identified. A further analysis showed that the richness and abundance of the wild flowering plants in orchards and farmlands were lower than those in the nearby semi-natural habitats. The favorite pollen comes from economic crops apple and rape and wild flowering plants Juncus interior, Rosa gymnocarpa, and Rosa laevigata. Through a diversity index analysis, it was found that the Anhui region has the highest pollen plant diversity, while the Liaoning region has the lowest. Our results can provide a basis for flower-visiting species and diversities of O. excavata.

Regenerative Almond Production Systems Improve Soil Health, Biodiversity, and Profit

Regenerative agriculture aims to improve soil health and promote biodiversity while producing nutritious food profitably. Almonds are the dominant crop in California agriculture in terms of acreage and revenue generated. We examined the soil health, biodiversity, yield, and profit of regenerative and conventional almond production systems that represented farmer-derived best management practices. Regenerative practices included abandoning some or all synthetic agrichemicals, planting perennial ground covers, integrating livestock, maintaining non-crop habitat, and using composts and compost teas. Total soil carbon (TSC), soil organic matter (SOM), total soil nitrogen (TSN), total soil phosphorous, calcium, sulfur, and soil health test scores were all significantly greater in regenerative soils. Water infiltrated regenerative soils six-fold faster than conventional soils. Total microbial biomass, total bacterial biomass, Gram+ bacteria, and Actinobacteria were significantly greater in regenerative soils. There was more plant biomass, species diversity, and percent cover in regenerative orchards. Invertebrate richness and diversity, and earthworm abundance and biomass were significantly greater in regenerative orchards. Pest populations, yields, and nutrient density of the almonds were similar in the two systems. Profit was twice as high in the regenerative orchards relative to their conventional counterparts. No one practice was responsible for the success of regenerative farms; their success was the result of simultaneously combining multiple regenerative practices into a single, functional farm system. This style of farming may assist in combatting planetary scale problems (e.g., climate change, biodiversity loss, agricultural pollution, chronic human health problems, and declining rural communities) while making farms more profitable and resilient.

Building effective policies to conserve pollinators: translating knowledge into policy

Pollination management recommendations are becoming increasingly precise, context-specific and knowledge-intensive. Pollination is a service delivered across landscapes, entailing policy constructs across agricultural landscapes. Diversified farming practices effectively promote pollination services. Yet it remains difficult to secure large-scale uptake by farming communities. A strong foundation upon which to base policy formulation stems from respecting the perspective of farmers and local communities on the need to conserve pollinators, alongside scientific understanding. Ecological intensification resonates with both indigenous knowledge, local communities and scientific understanding. It emphasizes that the regulating functions of nature require both landscape-level agroecosystem design and recognition of the complexity of agricultural systems. Facilitating ecological intensification across landscapes requires collective decision-making, with institutional innovation in local structures and food system governance.

Can the growing of transgenic maize threaten protected Lepidoptera in Europe?

We evaluated whether protected European butterflies can potentially be at risk if transgenic maize is extensively grown in Central Europe. We explored potential consequences of both insect resistant (IR) and herbicide resistant (HR) transgenic maize. IR maize can produce pollen that is toxic to lepidopteran larvae, and this puts butterfly species at possible risk if the presence of young larvae coincides with maize flowering, during which large quantities of maize pollen can be deposited on vegetation. By considering the timing of maize flowering in Europe and the phenology of the protected Lepidoptera species, we found that 31 species had at least one generation where 50% of the larval stage overlapped with maize flowering, and 69 species for which first instar larvae were present during maize pollen shedding. HR maize allows high concentration herbicide treatments on fields without seasonal limitation, which can drastically reduce weed densities. In cases where such weed species are host plants for protected butterflies, reduced host plant/food availability can result, causing population decreases. By using published information, we first identified the important weed species in major maize-growing European countries. Subsequently, we checked whether the host plants of protected Lepidoptera included species that are common maize weeds. We identified 140 protected species having food plants that are common weeds in one or more of the major European maize-growing countries. If HR maize is grown in Europe, there is a potential hazard that their food plants will seriously decline, causing a subsequent decline of these protected species.

A Conflict between Traditional Flood Measures and Maintaining River Ecosystems? A Case Study Based upon the River Lærdal, Norway

Floods are among the most damaging of natural disasters, and flood events are expected to increase in magnitude and frequency with the effects of climate change and changes in land use. As a consequence, much focus has been placed on the engineering of structural flood mitigation measures in rivers. Traditional flood protection measures, such as levees and dredging of the river channel, threaten floodplains and river ecosystems, but during the last decade, sustainable reconciliation of freshwater ecosystems has increased. However, we still find many areas where these traditional measures are proposed, and it is challenging to find tools for evaluation of different measures and quantification of the possible impacts. In this paper, we focus on the river Lærdal in Norway to (i) present the dilemma between traditional flood measures and maintaining river ecosystems and (ii) quantify the efficiency and impact of different solutions based on 2D hydraulic models, remote sensing data, economics, and landscape metrics. Our results show that flood measures may be in serious conflict with environmental protection and legislation to preserve biodiversity and key nature types.

A New Approach to Inform Restoration and Management Decisions for Sustainable Apiculture

Habitat loss has reduced the available resources for apiarists and is a key driver of poor colony health, colony loss, and reduced honey yields. The biggest challenge for apiarists in the future will be meeting increasing demands for pollination services, honey, and other bee products with limited resources. Targeted landscape restoration focusing on high-value or high-yielding forage could ensure adequate floral resources are available to sustain the growing industry. Tools are currently needed to evaluate the likely productivity of potential sites for restoration and inform decisions about plant selections and arrangements and hive stocking rates, movements, and placements. We propose a new approach for designing sites for apiculture, centred on a model of honey production that predicts how changes to plant and hive decisions affect the resource supply, potential for bees to collect resources, consumption of resources by the colonies, and subsequently, amount of honey that may be produced. The proposed model is discussed with reference to existing models, and data input requirements are discussed with reference to an Australian case study area. We conclude that no existing model exactly meets the requirements of our proposed approach, but components of several existing models could be combined to achieve these needs.