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Butterworth NJ, Heffernan L, Hall MD. Is there a sicker sex? Dose relationships modify male-female differences in infection prevalence. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20232575. [PMID: 38196362 PMCID: PMC10777155 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.2575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Throughout the animal kingdom, there are striking differences in the propensity of one sex or the other to become infected. However, precisely when we should expect males or females to be the sicker sex remains unclear. A major barrier to answering this question is that very few studies have considered how the susceptibility of males and females changes across the full range of pathogen doses encountered in nature. Without quantifying this 'dose-susceptibility' relationship, we have likely underestimated the scope for sex differences to arise. Here, we use the Daphnia magnia-Pasteuria ramosa system to reveal that sex differences in susceptibility are entirely dose-dependent, with pathogens having a higher probability of successfully establishing an infection in mature males at low doses, but mature females at high doses. The scope for male-female differences to emerge is therefore much greater than previously appreciated-extending to sex differences in the upper limits to infection success, per-propagule infectivity risks and density-dependent pathogen behaviour. Applying this expanded scope across the animal kingdom will help us understand when and why a sicker sex emerges, and the implications for diseases in nature-where sex ratios, age structure and pathogen densities vary drastically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan J. Butterworth
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Lindsey Heffernan
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Matthew D. Hall
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Wellington Road, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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2
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Tolo IE, Bajer PG, Mor SK, Phelps NBD. Disease ecology and host range of Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) in CyHV-3 endemic lakes of North America. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2023; 46:679-696. [PMID: 36966383 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.13778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus-3 (CyHV-3) is an important pathogen of common carp (Cyprinus carpio, carp) causing significant economic and ecological impacts worldwide. The recent emergence of CyHV-3 in the Upper Midwest region of the United States has raised questions related to the disease ecology and host specificity of CyHV-3 in wild carp populations. To determine the prevalence of CyHV-3 in wild populations of fishes in Minnesota, we surveyed five lakes in 2019 in which the virus was known to have caused mass mortality events in carp from 2017 to 2018. A total of 28 species (n = 756 total fish) of native fishes and 730 carp were screened for the presence of CyHV-3 DNA using specific qPCR. None of the native fish tissues tested positive for CyHV-3 although the prevalence of CyHV-3 in carp was 10%-50% in the five lakes. A single lake (Lake Elysian) with a 50% DNA detection rate and evidence of ongoing transmission and CyHV-3-associated mortality was surveyed again in 2020 from April to September. During this period, none of the tissues from 24 species (n = 607 total fish) tested positive for CyHV-3 though CyHV-3 DNA and mRNA (indicating viral replication) was detected in carp tissues during the sampling period. CyHV-3 DNA was detected most often in brain samples without evidence of replication, potentially indicating that brain tissue is a site for CyHV-3 latency. Paired qPCR and ELISA testing for Lake Elysian in 2019-2020 identified young carp (especially males) to be the primary group impacted by CyHV-3-associated mortality and acute infections, but with no positive detections in juvenile carp. Seroprevalence of carp from Lake Elysian was 57% in 2019, 92% in April of 2020 and 97% in September 2020. These results further corroborate the host specificity of CyHV-3 to carp in mixed wild populations of fishes in Minnesota and provide additional insights into the ecological niche of CyHV-3 in shallow lake populations of carp in North America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaiah E Tolo
- Minnesota Aquatic Invasive Species Research Center, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, College of Food, Agriculture and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Przemyslaw G Bajer
- Minnesota Aquatic Invasive Species Research Center, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, College of Food, Agriculture and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Sunil K Mor
- Minnesota Aquatic Invasive Species Research Center, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine and Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Nicholas B D Phelps
- Minnesota Aquatic Invasive Species Research Center, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, College of Food, Agriculture and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
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3
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The influence of the host sex on parasitemia of parasite lineages belonging to Haemoproteus majoris in a natural bird community. Parasitol Res 2023; 122:895-901. [PMID: 36781472 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-07793-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
Immunological capability shows a sexual dimorphism in diverse animal species. Females are generally more immunocompetent than males, leading to the higher susceptibility of males to infection compared to females and thus greater infection-related pathology in males. These sex-differences in immunity remain understudied in birds. Here, we compared the percentage of parasitemia of three different parasite lineages belonging to the morphological species Haemoproteus majoris (namely, PARUS1, PHSIB1 and WW2) in terms of the sex of birds living in a natural community. We found that parasitemia (percentage of erythrocytes infected with parasites) of WW2 lineage, but not of the other two lineages of H. majoris, is higher in male birds compared to female birds. Similarly, we showed that the total parasitemia of these three H. majoris lineages is higher in male birds compared to female birds. Our study points out that male birds at the community level may be more susceptible to infection by certain parasites than female birds. We propose that sexual dimorphism in parasitemia of certain parasites in host birds might be more common than previously thought, similar to what is observed in other species, influencing host population dynamics in a sex-specific manner. Therefore, it can be speculated that infection by certain parasites might differentially affect male and female birds, possibly resulting in a bias in survival rates between sexes due to infections, in certain contexts.
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4
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Aulsebrook LC, Wong BBM, Hall MD. Can pharmaceutical pollution alter the spread of infectious disease? A case study using fluoxetine. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220010. [PMID: 36744558 PMCID: PMC9900710 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Human activity is changing global environments at an unprecedented rate, imposing new ecological and evolutionary ramifications on wildlife dynamics, including host-parasite interactions. Here we investigate how an emerging concern of modern human activity, pharmaceutical pollution, influences the spread of disease in a population, using the water flea Daphnia magna and the bacterial pathogen Pasteuria ramosa as a model system. We found that exposure to different concentrations of fluoxetine-a widely prescribed psychoactive drug and widespread contaminant of aquatic ecosystems-affected the severity of disease experienced by an individual in a non-monotonic manner. The direction and magnitude of any effect, however, varied with both the infection outcome measured and the genotype of the pathogen. By contrast, the characteristics of unexposed animals, and thus the growth and density of susceptible hosts, were robust to fluoxetine. Using our data to parameterize an epidemiological model, we show that fluoxetine is unlikely to lead to a net increase or decrease in the likelihood of an infectious disease outbreak, as measured by a pathogen's transmission rate or basic reproductive number. Instead, any given pathogen genotype may experience a twofold change in likely fitness, but often in opposing directions. Our study demonstrates that changes in pharmaceutical pollution give rise to complex genotype-by-environment interactions in its influence of disease dynamics, with repercussions on pathogen genetic diversity and evolution. This article is part of the theme issue 'Infectious disease ecology and evolution in a changing world'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucinda C. Aulsebrook
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Bob B. M. Wong
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Matthew D. Hall
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne Victoria 3800, Australia
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5
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Gal-Oz ST, Shay T. Genetics of Sex Differences in Immunity. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2023; 441:1-19. [PMID: 37695423 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-35139-6_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Women have a stronger immune response and a higher frequency of most autoimmune diseases than men. While much of the difference between men and women is due to the effect of gonadal hormones, genetic differences play a major role in the difference between the immune response and disease frequencies in women and men. Here, we focus on the immune differences between the sexes that are not downstream of the gonadal hormones. These differences include the gene content of the sex chromosomes, the inactivation of chromosome X in women, the consequences of non-random X inactivation and escape from inactivation, and the states that are uniquely met by the immune system of women-pregnancy, birth, and breast feeding. While these female-specific states are temporary and involve gonadal hormonal changes, they may leave a long-lasting footprint on the health of women, for example, by fetal cells that remain in the mother's body for decades. We also briefly discuss the immune phenotype of congenital sex chromosomal aberrations and experimental models that enable hormonal and the non-hormonal effects of the sex chromosomes to be disentangled. The increasing human life expectancy lengthens the period during which gonadal hormones levels are reduced in both sexes. A better understanding of the non-hormonal effects of sex chromosomes thus becomes more important for improving the life quality during that period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shani T Gal-Oz
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be'er Sheva, Israel
- Division of Rheumatology, Inflammation, and Immunity, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tal Shay
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Be'er Sheva, Israel.
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6
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On maternity and the stronger immune response in women. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4858. [PMID: 35982048 PMCID: PMC9386672 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32569-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Medical research reports that women often exhibit stronger immune responses than men, while pathogens tend to be more virulent in men. Current explanations cannot account for this pattern, creating an obstacle for our understanding of infectious-disease outcomes and the incidence of autoimmune diseases. We offer an alternative explanation that relies on a fundamental difference between the sexes: maternity and the opportunities it creates for transmission of pathogens from mother to child (vertical transmission). Our explanation relies on a mathematical model of the co-evolution of host immunocompetence and pathogen virulence. Here, we show that when there is sufficient vertical transmission co-evolution leads women to defend strongly against temperate pathogens and men to defend weakly against aggressive pathogens, in keeping with medical observations. From a more applied perspective, we argue that limiting vertical transmission of infections would alleviate the disproportionate incidence of autoimmune diseases in women over evolutionary time. Women generally mount a stronger immune response to infections than men do, resulting in a higher impact of autoimmune diseases. Here, the authors show that pathogen transmission from mother-to-child during pregnancy drives the co-evolution of a stout defence against harmless pathogens in women.
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7
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Pandolfi F, Guillemot D, Watier L, Brun-Buisson C. Trends in bacterial sepsis incidence and mortality in France between 2015 and 2019 based on National Health Data System (Système National des données de Santé (SNDS)): a retrospective observational study. BMJ Open 2022; 12:e058205. [PMID: 35613798 PMCID: PMC9125708 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-058205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aims to provide a case definition of sepsis of presumed bacterial aetiology based on 10th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) codes, to assess trends in sepsis incidence and mortality between 2015 and 2019 in France, and to describe the characteristics of affected patients and hospital stays. DESIGN Nationwide, population-based, retrospective observational study. SETTING Metropolitan France between 2015 and 2019. PARTICIPANTS Between 2015 and 2019, 1 224 433 patients with sepsis of presumed bacterial aetiology were selected from the French National Hospital Discharge Database (Programme de Médicalisation des Systèmes d'Information) and were identified from corresponding ICD-10 codes for explicit sepsis or implicit sepsis. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES Annual overall and age-specific and gender-specific incidence and 95% CI, as well as trends in sepsis incidence and mortality, were estimated. Comorbidities, length of hospital stay and outcomes were described. RESULTS The sex-standardised and age-standardised incidence per 100 000 (95% CI) increased from 357 (356.0 to 359.0) in 2015 to 403 (401.9 to 405.0) in 2019 and remained higher for males compared with females. Children under 1 year and patients over 75 years consistently had the highest incidence. The most common comorbidities were cancer and chronic heart failure. The median hospital length of stay was 12 days. Most patients came from home, but only half returned home after their hospital stay and approximately 15% were discharged to long-term care. In-hospital mortality was about 25% and declined along the study period. CONCLUSIONS Medico-administrative databases can be used to provide nationwide estimates of the in-hospital burden of bacterial sepsis. The results confirm the high burden of sepsis in France. These data should be complemented by estimating the additional burden associated with fungal and viral infections during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Pandolfi
- Epidemiology and Modeling of bacterial Evasion to Antibacterials Unit (EMEA), Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Centre de recherche en Epidémiologie et Santé des Populations (CESP), INSERM, Paris, France
| | - Didier Guillemot
- Epidemiology and Modeling of bacterial Evasion to Antibacterials Unit (EMEA), Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Centre de recherche en Epidémiologie et Santé des Populations (CESP), INSERM, Paris, France
- Hôpital Raymond-Poincaré, APHP, Paris, France
| | - Laurence Watier
- Epidemiology and Modeling of bacterial Evasion to Antibacterials Unit (EMEA), Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Centre de recherche en Epidémiologie et Santé des Populations (CESP), INSERM, Paris, France
| | - Christian Brun-Buisson
- Epidemiology and Modeling of bacterial Evasion to Antibacterials Unit (EMEA), Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- Centre de recherche en Epidémiologie et Santé des Populations (CESP), INSERM, Paris, France
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8
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Gipson SAY, Pettersen AK, Heffernan L, Hall MD. Host sex modulates the energetics of pathogen proliferation and its dependence on environmental resources. Am Nat 2022; 199:E186-E196. [DOI: 10.1086/718717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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9
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De Lisle SP, Bolnick DI. Male and female reproductive fitness costs of an immune response in natural populations . Evolution 2021; 75:2509-2523. [PMID: 33991339 PMCID: PMC8488946 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Parasites can mediate host fitness both directly, via effects on survival and reproduction, or indirectly by inducing host immune defense with costly side-effects. The evolution of immune defense is determined by a complex interplay of costs and benefits of parasite infection and immune response, all of which may differ for male and female hosts in sexual lineages. Here, we examine fitness costs associated with an inducible immune defense in a fish-cestode host-parasite system. Cestode infection induces peritoneal fibrosis in threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), constraining cestode growth and sometimes encasing and killing the parasite. Surveying two wild populations of stickleback, we confirm that the presence of fibrosis scar tissue is associated with reduced parasite burden in both male and female fish. However, fibrotic fish had lower foraging success and reproductive fitness (reduced female egg production and male nesting success), indicating strong costs of the lingering immunopathology. Consistent with substantial sexually concordant fitness effects of immune response, we find alignment of multivariate selection across the sexes despite sexual antagonism over morphological shape. Although both sexes experienced costs of fibrosis, the net impacts are unequal because in the two study populations females had higher cestode exposure. To evaluate whether this difference in risk should drive sex-specific immune strategies, we analyze a quantitative genetic model of host immune response to a trophically transmitted parasite. The model and empirical data illustrate how shared costs and benefits of immune response lead to shared evolutionary interests of male and female hosts, despite unequal infection risks across the sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P. De Lisle
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology University of Connecticut Storrs, CT 06269
- Department of Biology, Evolutionary Ecology Unit, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Daniel I. Bolnick
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology University of Connecticut Storrs, CT 06269
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10
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Seal S, Dharmarajan G, Khan I. Evolution of pathogen tolerance and emerging infections: A missing experimental paradigm. eLife 2021; 10:e68874. [PMID: 34544548 PMCID: PMC8455132 DOI: 10.7554/elife.68874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Researchers worldwide are repeatedly warning us against future zoonotic diseases resulting from humankind's insurgence into natural ecosystems. The same zoonotic pathogens that cause severe infections in a human host frequently fail to produce any disease outcome in their natural hosts. What precise features of the immune system enable natural reservoirs to carry these pathogens so efficiently? To understand these effects, we highlight the importance of tracing the evolutionary basis of pathogen tolerance in reservoir hosts, while drawing implications from their diverse physiological and life-history traits, and ecological contexts of host-pathogen interactions. Long-term co-evolution might allow reservoir hosts to modulate immunity and evolve tolerance to zoonotic pathogens, increasing their circulation and infectious period. Such processes can also create a genetically diverse pathogen pool by allowing more mutations and genetic exchanges between circulating strains, thereby harboring rare alive-on-arrival variants with extended infectivity to new hosts (i.e., spillover). Finally, we end by underscoring the indispensability of a large multidisciplinary empirical framework to explore the proposed link between evolved tolerance, pathogen prevalence, and spillover in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Guha Dharmarajan
- Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of GeorgiaAikenUnited States
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11
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How healthy is your mate? Sex-specific consequences of parasite infections in the moth Helicoverpa armigera. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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12
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Bagchi B, Corbel Q, Khan I, Payne E, Banerji D, Liljestrand-Rönn J, Martinossi-Allibert I, Baur J, Sayadi A, Immonen E, Arnqvist G, Söderhäll I, Berger D. Sexual conflict drives micro- and macroevolution of sexual dimorphism in immunity. BMC Biol 2021; 19:114. [PMID: 34078377 PMCID: PMC8170964 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01049-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sexual dimorphism in immunity is believed to reflect sex differences in reproductive strategies and trade-offs between competing life history demands. Sexual selection can have major effects on mating rates and sex-specific costs of mating and may thereby influence sex differences in immunity as well as associated host-pathogen dynamics. Yet, experimental evidence linking the mating system to evolved sexual dimorphism in immunity are scarce and the direct effects of mating rate on immunity are not well established. Here, we use transcriptomic analyses, experimental evolution and phylogenetic comparative methods to study the association between the mating system and sexual dimorphism in immunity in seed beetles, where mating causes internal injuries in females. RESULTS We demonstrate that female phenoloxidase (PO) activity, involved in wound healing and defence against parasitic infections, is elevated relative to males. This difference is accompanied by concomitant sex differences in the expression of genes in the prophenoloxidase activating cascade. We document substantial phenotypic plasticity in female PO activity in response to mating and show that experimental evolution under enforced monogamy (resulting in low remating rates and reduced sexual conflict relative to natural polygamy) rapidly decreases female (but not male) PO activity. Moreover, monogamous females had evolved increased tolerance to bacterial infection unrelated to mating, implying that female responses to costly mating may trade off with other aspects of immune defence, an hypothesis which broadly accords with the documented sex differences in gene expression. Finally, female (but not male) PO activity shows correlated evolution with the perceived harmfulness of male genitalia across 12 species of seed beetles, suggesting that sexual conflict has a significant influence on sexual dimorphisms in immunity in this group of insects. CONCLUSIONS Our study provides insights into the links between sexual conflict and sexual dimorphism in immunity and suggests that selection pressures moulded by mating interactions can lead to a sex-specific mosaic of immune responses with important implications for host-pathogen dynamics in sexually reproducing organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basabi Bagchi
- Department of Biology, Ashoka University, Sonipat, India
| | - Quentin Corbel
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Imroze Khan
- Department of Biology, Ashoka University, Sonipat, India
| | - Ellen Payne
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Johanna Liljestrand-Rönn
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ivain Martinossi-Allibert
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Julian Baur
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ahmed Sayadi
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Elina Immonen
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Evolutionary Biology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Göran Arnqvist
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Irene Söderhäll
- Department of Organismal Biology, Program of Comparative Physiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - David Berger
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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13
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Laidlaw T, Hector TE, Sgrò CM, Hall MD. Pathogen exposure reduces sexual dimorphism in a host's upper thermal limits. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:12851-12859. [PMID: 33304498 PMCID: PMC7713950 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The climate is warming at an unprecedented rate, pushing many species toward and beyond the upper temperatures at which they can survive. Global change is also leading to dramatic shifts in the distribution of pathogens. As a result, upper thermal limits and susceptibility to infection should be key determinants of whether populations continue to persist, or instead go extinct. Within a population, however, individuals vary in both their resistance to both heat stress and infection, and their contributions to vital growth rates. No more so is this true than for males and females. Each sex often varies in their response to pathogen exposure, thermal tolerances, and particularly their influence on population growth, owing to the higher parental investment that females typically make in their offspring. To date, the interplay between host sex, infection, and upper thermal limits has been neglected. Here, we explore the response of male and female Daphnia to bacterial infection and static heat stress. We find that female Daphnia, when uninfected, are much more resistant to static heat stress than males, but that infection negates any advantage that females are afforded. We discuss how the capacity of a population to cope with multiple stressors may be underestimated unless both sexes are considered simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tess Laidlaw
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric BiologyMonash UniversityMelbourneVic.Australia
| | - Tobias E. Hector
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric BiologyMonash UniversityMelbourneVic.Australia
| | - Carla M. Sgrò
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric BiologyMonash UniversityMelbourneVic.Australia
| | - Matthew D. Hall
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric BiologyMonash UniversityMelbourneVic.Australia
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14
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Hector TE, Sgrò CM, Hall MD. The influence of immune activation on thermal tolerance along a latitudinal cline. J Evol Biol 2020; 33:1224-1234. [PMID: 32506574 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Global change is shifting both temperature patterns and the geographic distribution of pathogens, and infection has already been shown to substantially reduce host thermal performance, potentially placing populations at greater risk that previously thought. But what about individuals that are able to successfully clear an infection? Whilst the direct damage a pathogen causes will likely lead to reductions in host's thermal tolerance, the response to infection often shares many underlying pathways with the general stress response, potentially acting as a buffer against subsequent thermal stress. Here, by exposing Drosophila melanogaster to heat-killed bacterial pathogens, we investigate how activation of a host's immune system can modify any response to both heat and cold temperature stress. In a single focal population, we find that immune activation can improve a host's knockdown times during heat shock, potentially offsetting some of the damage that would subsequently arise as an infection progresses. Conversely, immune activation had a detrimental effect on CTmax and did not influence lower thermal tolerance as measured by chill-coma recovery time. However, we also find that the influence of immune activation on heat knockdown times is not generalizable across an entire cline of locally adapted populations. Instead, immune activation led to signals of local adaptation to temperature being lost, erasing the previous advantage that populations in warmer regions had when challenged with heat stress. Our results suggest that activation of the immune system may help buffer individuals against the detrimental impact of infection on thermal tolerance; however, any response will be population specific and potentially not easily predicted across larger geographic scales, and dependent on the form of thermal stress faced by a host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias E Hector
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Carla M Sgrò
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Matthew D Hall
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
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15
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Keiser CN, Rudolf VH, Luksik MC, Saltz JB. Sex differences in disease avoidance behavior vary across modes of pathogen exposure. Ethology 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carl N. Keiser
- Department of Biology University of Florida Gainesville Florida
- Department of BioSciences Rice University Houston Texas
| | | | - Matthew C. Luksik
- School of Engineering and Applied Science University of Virginia Charlottesville Virginia
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16
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Connallon T, Débarre F, Li XY. Linking local adaptation with the evolution of sex differences. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 373:rstb.2017.0414. [PMID: 30150215 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Many conspicuous forms of evolutionary diversity occur within species. Two prominent examples include evolutionary divergence between populations differentially adapted to their local environments (local adaptation), and divergence between females and males in response to sex differences in selection (sexual dimorphism sensu lato). These two forms of diversity have inspired vibrant research programmes, yet these fields have largely developed in isolation from one another. Nevertheless, conceptual parallels between these research traditions are striking. Opportunities for local adaptation strike a balance between local selection, which promotes divergence, and gene flow-via dispersal and interbreeding between populations-which constrains it. Sex differences are similarly constrained by fundamental features of inheritance that mimic gene flow. Offspring of each sex inherit genes from same-sex and opposite-sex parents, leading to gene flow between each differentially selected half of the population, and raising the question of how sex differences arise and are maintained. This special issue synthesizes and extends emerging research at the interface between the research traditions of local adaptation and sex differences. Each field can promote understanding of the other, and interactions between local adaptation and sex differences can generate new empirical predictions about the evolutionary consequences of selection that varies across space, time, and between the sexes.This article is part of the theme issue 'Linking local adaptation with the evolution of sex differences'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Connallon
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Florence Débarre
- CNRS, UMR 7241 Centre Interdisciplinaire de Recherche en Biologie (CIRB), Collège de France, Paris, France
| | - Xiang-Yi Li
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
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17
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Hall MD, Mideo N. Linking sex differences to the evolution of infectious disease life-histories. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 373:rstb.2017.0431. [PMID: 30150228 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in the prevalence, course and severity of infection are widespread, yet the evolutionary consequences of these differences remain unclear. Understanding how male-female differences affect the trajectory of infectious disease requires connecting the contrasting dynamics that pathogens might experience within each sex to the number of susceptible and infected individuals that are circulating in a population. In this study, we build on theory using genetic covariance functions to link the growth of a pathogen within a host to the evolution and spread of disease between individuals. Using the Daphnia-Pasteuria system as a test case, we show that on the basis of within-host dynamics alone, females seem to be more evolutionarily liable for the pathogen, with higher spore loads and greater divergence among pathogen genotypes as infection progresses. Between-host transmission, however, appears to offset the lower performance of a pathogen within a male host, making even subtle differences between the sexes evolutionarily relevant, as long as the selection generated by the between-host dynamics is sufficiently strong. Our model suggests that relatively simple differences in within-host processes occurring in males and females can lead to complex patterns of genetic constraint on pathogen evolution, particularly during an expanding epidemic.This article is part of the theme issue 'Linking local adaptation with the evolution of sex differences'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Hall
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Nicole Mideo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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18
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Selmoni OM, Maitre D, Roux J, Wilkins LGE, Marques da Cunha L, Vermeirssen ELM, Knörr S, Robinson-Rechavi M, Wedekind C. Sex-specific changes in gene expression in response to estrogen pollution around the onset of sex differentiation in grayling (Salmonidae). BMC Genomics 2019; 20:583. [PMID: 31307399 PMCID: PMC6631537 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5955-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The synthetic 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) is a common estrogenic pollutant that has been suspected to affect the demography of river-dwelling salmonids. One possibility is that exposure to EE2 tips the balance during initial steps of sex differentiation, so that male genotypes show female-specific gene expression and gonad formation. Here we study EE2 effects on gene expression around the onset of sex differentiation in a population of European grayling (Thymallus thymallus) that suffers from sex ratio distortions. We exposed singly-raised embryos to one dose of 1 ng/L EE2, studied gene expression 10 days before hatching, at the day of hatching, and around the end of the yolk-sac stage, and related it to genetic sex (sdY genotype). We found that exposure to EE2 affects expression of a large number of genes, especially around hatching. These effects were strongly sex-dependent. We then raised fish for several months after hatching and found no evidence of sex reversal in the EE2-exposed fish. We conclude that ecologically relevant (i.e. low) levels of EE2 pollution do not cause sex reversal by simply tipping the balance at early stages of sex differentiation, but that they interfere with sex-specific gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver M Selmoni
- Department of Ecology and Evolution Biophore, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Present Address: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Diane Maitre
- Department of Ecology and Evolution Biophore, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Julien Roux
- Department of Ecology and Evolution Biophore, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Present Address: Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Laetitia G E Wilkins
- Department of Ecology and Evolution Biophore, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Present Address: Department of Environmental Sciences, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Lucas Marques da Cunha
- Department of Ecology and Evolution Biophore, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Susanne Knörr
- Aquatic Ecology and Toxicology Group Center of Organismic Studies, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marc Robinson-Rechavi
- Department of Ecology and Evolution Biophore, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Claus Wedekind
- Department of Ecology and Evolution Biophore, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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19
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Nørgaard LS, Phillips BL, Hall MD. Can pathogens optimize both transmission and dispersal by exploiting sexual dimorphism in their hosts? Biol Lett 2019; 15:20190180. [PMID: 31213141 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogens often rely on their host for dispersal. Yet, maximizing fitness via replication can cause damage to the host and an associated reduction in host movement, incurring a trade-off between transmission and dispersal. Here, we test the idea that pathogens might mitigate this trade-off between reproductive fitness and dispersal by taking advantage of sexual dimorphism in their host, tailoring responses separately to males and females. Using experimental populations of Daphnia magna and its bacterial pathogen Pasteuria ramosa as a test-case, we find evidence that this pathogen can use male hosts as a dispersal vector, and the larger females as high-quality resource patches for optimized production of transmission spores. As sexual dimorphism in dispersal and body size is widespread across the animal kingdom, this differential exploitation of the sexes by a pathogen might be an unappreciated phenomenon, possibly evolved in various systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Solveig Nørgaard
- 1 School of Biological Sciences, Centre for Geometric Biology, Monash University , Melbourne 3800 , Australia
| | - Ben L Phillips
- 2 Department of Biosciences, University of Melbourne , 3010 Parkville, Victoria , Australia
| | - Matthew D Hall
- 1 School of Biological Sciences, Centre for Geometric Biology, Monash University , Melbourne 3800 , Australia
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20
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Gipson SA, Jimenez L, Hall MD. Host sexual dimorphism affects the outcome of within‐host pathogen competition. Evolution 2019; 73:1443-1455. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen A.Y. Gipson
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric Biology Monash University Melbourne Victoria 3800 Australia
| | - Luis Jimenez
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric Biology Monash University Melbourne Victoria 3800 Australia
| | - Matthew D. Hall
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric Biology Monash University Melbourne Victoria 3800 Australia
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21
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Males can evolve lower resistance to sexually transmitted infections to infect their mates and thereby increase their own fitness. Evol Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-019-09976-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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22
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Keiser CN, Rudolf VHW, Sartain E, Every ER, Saltz JB. Social context alters host behavior and infection risk. Behav Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ary060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Carl N Keiser
- Rice University Academy of Fellows, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | | - Emma R Every
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Julia B Saltz
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
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23
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Gipson SAY, Hall MD. Interactions between host sex and age of exposure modify the virulence-transmission trade-off. J Evol Biol 2018; 31:428-437. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S. A. Y. Gipson
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric Biology; Monash University; Melbourne Vic. Australia
| | - M. D. Hall
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Geometric Biology; Monash University; Melbourne Vic. Australia
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24
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Szentiványi T, Vincze O, Estók P. Density-dependent sex ratio and sex-specific preference for host traits in parasitic bat flies. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:405. [PMID: 28851414 PMCID: PMC5576251 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2340-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Deviation of sex ratios from unity in wild animal populations has recently been demonstrated to be far more prevalent than previously thought. Ectoparasites are prominent examples of this bias, given that their sex ratios vary from strongly female- to strongly male-biased both among hosts and at the metapopulation level. To date our knowledge is very limited on how and why these biased sex ratios develop. It was suggested that sex ratio and sex-specific aggregation of ectoparasites might be shaped by the ecology, behaviour and physiology of both hosts and their parasites. Here we investigate a highly specialised, hematophagous bat fly species with strong potential to move between hosts, arguably limited inbreeding effects, off-host developmental stages and extended parental care. Results We collected a total of 796 Nycteribia kolenatii bat flies from 147 individual bats using fumigation and subsequently determined their sex. We report a balanced sex ratio at the metapopulation level and a highly variable sex ratio among infrapopulations ranging from 100% male to 100% female. We show that infrapopulation sex ratio is not random and is highly correlated with infrapopulation size. Sex ratio is highly male biased in small and highly female biased in large infrapopulations. We show that this pattern is most probably the result of sex-specific preference in bat flies for host traits, most likely combined with a higher mobility of males. We demonstrate that female bat flies exert a strong preference for high host body condition and female hosts, while the distribution of males is more even. Conclusions Our results suggest that locally biased sex ratios can develop due to sex-specific habitat preference of parasites. Moreover, it is apparent that the sex of both hosts and parasites need to be accounted for when a better understanding of host-parasite systems is targeted. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2340-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Szentiványi
- Department of Evolutionary Zoology and Human Biology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, H-4032, Debrecen, H-4032, Hungary. .,Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Biophore, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland. .,Museum of Zoology, Palais de Rumine, Place de la Riponne 6, CH-1014, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Orsolya Vincze
- Department of Evolutionary Zoology and Human Biology, MTA-DE "Lendület" Behavioural Ecology Research Group, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, H-4032, Hungary.,Hungarian Department of Biology and Ecology, Evolutionary Ecology Group, Babeş-Bolyai University, RO-400006, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Péter Estók
- Department of Zoology, Eszterházy Károly University, Eger, H-3300, Hungary
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25
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Thompson O, Gipson SAY, Hall MD. The impact of host sex on the outcome of co-infection. Sci Rep 2017; 7:910. [PMID: 28424526 PMCID: PMC5430432 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-00835-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Males and females vary in many characteristics that typically underlie how well a host is able to fight infection, such as body-size, immune capacity, or energy availability. Although well studied in the context of sexual signalling, there is now growing recognition that these differences can influence aspects of pathogen evolution as well. Here we consider how co-infection between multiple pathogen strains is shaped by male-female differences. In natural populations, infections by more than one pathogen strain or species are believed to be a widespread occurrence. Using the water flea, Daphnia magna, we exposed genetically identical males and females to replicated bacterial co-infections. We found that pathogen transmission and virulence were much higher in females. However, males did not simply lower average pathogen fitness, but rather the influence of co-infection was more varied and less defined than in females. We discuss how pathogens may have more fitness benefits to gain, and consequently to lose, when infecting one sex over the other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Thompson
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Stephen A Y Gipson
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Matthew D Hall
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3800, Australia.
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26
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Willink B, Svensson EI. Intra- and intersexual differences in parasite resistance and female fitness tolerance in a polymorphic insect. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:20162407. [PMID: 28123090 PMCID: PMC5310041 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.2407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand host-parasite interactions, it is necessary to quantify variation and covariation in defence traits. We quantified parasite resistance and fitness tolerance of a polymorphic damselfly (Ischnura elegans), an insect with three discrete female colour morphs but with monomorphic males. We quantified sex and morph differences in parasite resistance (prevalence and intensity of water mite infections) and morph-specific fitness tolerance in the females in natural populations for over a decade. There was no evidence for higher parasite susceptibility in males as a cost of sexual selection, whereas differences in defence mechanisms between female morphs are consistent with correlational selection operating on combinations of parasite resistance and tolerance. We suggest that tolerance differences between female morphs interact with frequency-dependent sexual conflict, which maintains the polymorphism locally. Host-parasite interactions can therefore shape intra- and intersexual phenotypic divergence and interfere with sexual selection and sexual conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Willink
- Department of Biology, Evolutionary Ecology Unit, Lund University, Ecology Building, Lund 223-62, Sweden
| | - Erik I Svensson
- Department of Biology, Evolutionary Ecology Unit, Lund University, Ecology Building, Lund 223-62, Sweden
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27
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Connallon T, Hall MD. Genetic correlations and sex‐specific adaptation in changing environments. Evolution 2016; 70:2186-2198. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tim Connallon
- School of Biological Sciences Monash University Clayton Victoria 3800 Australia
| | - Matthew D. Hall
- School of Biological Sciences Monash University Clayton Victoria 3800 Australia
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