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Corral-Lopez A, Bloch NI, van der Bijl W, Cortazar-Chinarro M, Szorkovszky A, Kotrschal A, Darolti I, Buechel SD, Romenskyy M, Kolm N, Mank JE. Functional convergence of genomic and transcriptomic architecture underlies schooling behaviour in a live-bearing fish. Nat Ecol Evol 2024; 8:98-110. [PMID: 37985898 PMCID: PMC10781616 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-023-02249-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
The organization and coordination of fish schools provide a valuable model to investigate the genetic architecture of affiliative behaviours and dissect the mechanisms underlying social behaviours and personalities. Here we used replicate guppy selection lines that vary in schooling propensity and combine quantitative genetics with genomic and transcriptomic analyses to investigate the genetic basis of sociability phenotypes. We show that consistent with findings in collective motion patterns, experimental evolution of schooling propensity increased the sociability of female, but not male, guppies when swimming with unfamiliar conspecifics. This finding highlights a relevant link between coordinated motion and sociability for species forming fission-fusion societies in which both group size and the type of social interactions are dynamic across space and time. We further show that alignment and attraction, the two major traits forming the sociability personality axis in this species, showed heritability estimates at the upper end of the range previously described for social behaviours, with important variation across sexes. The results from both Pool-seq and RNA-seq data indicated that genes involved in neuron migration and synaptic function were instrumental in the evolution of sociability, highlighting a crucial role of glutamatergic synaptic function and calcium-dependent signalling processes in the evolution of schooling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Corral-Lopez
- Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
- Department of Zoology/Ethology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
- Division of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Natasha I Bloch
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Los Andes, Bogota, Colombia
| | - Wouter van der Bijl
- Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Maria Cortazar-Chinarro
- Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- MEMEG Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Alexander Szorkovszky
- RITMO Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in Rhythm, Time and Motion, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Alexander Kotrschal
- Behavioural Ecology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Iulia Darolti
- Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Severine D Buechel
- Behavioural Ecology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Maksym Romenskyy
- Department of Zoology/Ethology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Niclas Kolm
- Department of Zoology/Ethology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Judith E Mank
- Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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2
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Babicola L, Mancini C, Riccelli C, Di Segni M, Passeri A, Municchi D, D'Addario SL, Andolina D, Cifani C, Cabib S, Ventura R. A mouse model of the 3-hit effects of stress: Genotype controls the effects of life adversities in females. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2023; 127:110842. [PMID: 37611651 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2023.110842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
Helplessness is a dysfunctional coping response to stressors associated with different psychiatric conditions. The present study tested the hypothesis that early and adult adversities cumulate to produce helplessness depending on the genotype (3-hit hypothesis of psychopathology). To this aim, we evaluated whether Chronic Unpredictable Stress (CUS) differently affected coping and mesoaccumbens dopamine (DA) responses to stress challenge by adult mice of the C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (D2) inbred strains depending on early life experience (Repeated Cross Fostering, RCF). Three weeks of CUS increased the helplessness expressed in the Forced Swimming Test (FST) and the Tail Suspension Test by RCF-exposed female mice of the D2 strain. Moreover, female D2 mice with both RCF and CUS experiences showed inhibition of the stress-induced extracellular DA outflow in the Nucleus Accumbens, as measured by in vivo microdialysis, during and after FST. RCF-exposed B6 mice, instead, showed reduced helplessness and increased mesoaccumbens DA release. The present results support genotype-dependent additive effects of early experiences and adult adversities on behavioral and neural responses to stress by female mice. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a 3-hit effect in an animal model. Finally, the comparative analyses of behavioral and neural phenotypes expressed by B6 and D2 mice suggest some translationally relevant hypotheses of genetic risk factors for psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Babicola
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Dept. of Psychology and Center "Daniel Bovet", Sapienza University, Rome 00184, Italy
| | - Camilla Mancini
- University of Camerino, School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, Camerino, Italy
| | - Cristina Riccelli
- Dept. of Psychology and Center "Daniel Bovet", Sapienza University, Rome 00184, Italy
| | - Matteo Di Segni
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Dept. of Psychology and Center "Daniel Bovet", Sapienza University, Rome 00184, Italy
| | - Alice Passeri
- Dept. of Psychology and Center "Daniel Bovet", Sapienza University, Rome 00184, Italy
| | - Diana Municchi
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Dept. of Psychology and Center "Daniel Bovet", Sapienza University, Rome 00184, Italy
| | | | - Diego Andolina
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Dept. of Psychology and Center "Daniel Bovet", Sapienza University, Rome 00184, Italy
| | - Carlo Cifani
- University of Camerino, School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, Camerino, Italy
| | - Simona Cabib
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Dept. of Psychology and Center "Daniel Bovet", Sapienza University, Rome 00184, Italy.
| | - Rossella Ventura
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; IRCCS San Raffaele, Rome, Italy.
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3
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Tabbaa M, Knoll A, Levitt P. Mouse population genetics phenocopies heterogeneity of human Chd8 haploinsufficiency. Neuron 2023; 111:539-556.e5. [PMID: 36738737 PMCID: PMC9960295 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Preclinical models of neurodevelopmental disorders typically use single inbred mouse strains, which fail to capture the genetic diversity and symptom heterogeneity that is common clinically. We tested whether modeling genetic background diversity in mouse genetic reference panels would recapitulate population and individual differences in responses to a syndromic mutation in the high-confidence autism risk gene, CHD8. We measured clinically relevant phenotypes in >1,000 mice from 33 strains, including brain and body weights and cognition, activity, anxiety, and social behaviors, using 5 behavioral assays: cued fear conditioning, open field tests in dark and bright light, direct social interaction, and social dominance. Trait disruptions mimicked those seen clinically, with robust strain and sex differences. Some strains exhibited large effect-size trait disruptions, sometimes in opposite directions, and-remarkably-others expressed resilience. Therefore, systematically introducing genetic diversity into models of neurodevelopmental disorders provides a better framework for discovering individual differences in symptom etiologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manal Tabbaa
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles, The Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Allison Knoll
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles, The Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Pat Levitt
- Children's Hospital Los Angeles, The Saban Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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4
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Fisher DN. Direct and indirect phenotypic effects on sociability indicate potential to evolve. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:209-220. [PMID: 36263954 PMCID: PMC10092521 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The decision to leave or join a group is important as group size influences many aspects of organisms' lives and their fitness. This tendency to socialise with others, sociability, should be influenced by genes carried by focal individuals (direct genetic effects) and by genes in partner individuals (indirect genetic effects), indicating the trait's evolution could be slower or faster than expected. However, estimating these genetic parameters is difficult. Here, in a laboratory population of the cockroach Blaptica dubia, I estimate phenotypic parameters for sociability: repeatability (R) and repeatable influence (RI), that indicate whether direct and indirect genetic effects respectively are likely. I also estimate the interaction coefficient (Ψ), which quantifies how strongly a partner's trait influences the phenotype of the focal individual and is key in models for the evolution of interacting phenotypes. Focal individuals were somewhat repeatable for sociability across a 3-week period (R = 0.080), and partners also had marginally consistent effects on focal sociability (RI = 0.053). The interaction coefficient was non-zero, although in opposite sign for the sexes; males preferred to associate with larger individuals (Ψmale = -0.129), while females preferred to associate with smaller individuals (Ψfemale = 0.071). Individual sociability was consistent between dyadic trials and in social networks of groups. These results provide phenotypic evidence that direct and indirect genetic effects have limited influence on sociability, with perhaps most evolutionary potential stemming from heritable effects of the body mass of partners. Sex-specific interaction coefficients may produce sexual conflict and the evolution of sexual dimorphism in social behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- David N Fisher
- School of Biological Sciences, King's College, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
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New Insights on Gene by Environmental Effects of Drugs of Abuse in Animal Models Using GeneNetwork. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13040614. [PMID: 35456420 PMCID: PMC9024903 DOI: 10.3390/genes13040614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene-by-environment interactions are important for all facets of biology, especially behaviour. Families of isogenic strains of mice, such as the BXD strains, are excellently placed to study these interactions, as the same genome can be tested in multiple environments. BXD strains are recombinant inbred mouse strains derived from crossing two inbred strains—C57BL/6J and DBA/2J mice. Many reproducible genometypes can be leveraged, and old data can be reanalysed with new tools to produce novel insights. We obtained drug and behavioural phenotypes from Philip et al. Genes, Brain and Behaviour 2010, and reanalysed their data with new genotypes from sequencing, as well as new models (Genome-wide Efficient Mixed Model Association (GEMMA) and R/qtl2). We discovered QTLs on chromosomes 3, 5, 9, 11, and 14, not found in the original study. We reduced the candidate genes based on their ability to alter gene expression or protein function. Candidate genes included Slitrk6 and Cdk14. Slitrk6, in a Chromosome14 QTL for locomotion, was found to be part of a co-expression network involved in voluntary movement and associated with neuropsychiatric phenotypes. Cdk14, one of only three genes in a Chromosome5 QTL, is associated with handling induced convulsions after ethanol treatment, that is regulated by the anticonvulsant drug valproic acid. By using families of isogenic strains, we can reanalyse data to discover novel candidate genes involved in response to drugs of abuse.
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Gartland LA, Firth JA, Laskowski KL, Jeanson R, Ioannou CC. Sociability as a personality trait in animals: methods, causes and consequences. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 97:802-816. [PMID: 34894041 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 11/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Within animal populations there is variation among individuals in their tendency to be social, where more sociable individuals associate more with other individuals. Consistent inter-individual variation in 'sociability' is considered one of the major axes of personality variation in animals along with aggressiveness, activity, exploration and boldness. Not only is variation in sociability important in terms of animal personalities, but it holds particular significance for, and can be informed by, two other topics of major interest: social networks and collective behaviour. Further, knowledge of what generates inter-individual variation in social behaviour also holds applied implications, such as understanding disorders of social behaviour in humans. In turn, research using non-human animals in the genetics, neuroscience and physiology of these disorders can inform our understanding of sociability. For the first time, this review brings together insights across these areas of research, across animal taxa from primates to invertebrates, and across studies from both the laboratory and field. We show there are mixed results in whether and how sociability correlates with other major behavioural traits. Whether and in what direction these correlations are observed may differ with individual traits such as sex and body condition, as well as ecological conditions. A large body of evidence provides the proximate mechanisms for why individuals vary in their social tendency. Evidence exists for the importance of genes and their expression, chemical messengers, social interactions and the environment in determining an individual's social tendency, although the specifics vary with species and other variables such as age, and interactions amongst these proximate factors. Less well understood is how evolution can maintain consistent variation in social tendencies within populations. Shifts in the benefits and costs of social tendencies over time, as well as the social niche hypothesis, are currently the best supported theories for how variation in sociability can evolve and be maintained in populations. Increased exposure to infectious diseases is the best documented cost of a greater social tendency, and benefits include greater access to socially transmitted information. We also highlight that direct evidence for more sociable individuals being safer from predators is lacking. Variation in sociability is likely to have broad ecological consequences, but beyond its importance in the spread of infectious diseases, direct evidence is limited to a few examples related to dispersal and invasive species biology. Overall, our knowledge of inter-individual variation in sociability is highly skewed towards the proximate mechanisms. Our review also demonstrates, however, that considering research from social networks and collective behaviour greatly enriches our understanding of sociability, highlighting the need for greater integration of these approaches into future animal personality research to address the imbalance in our understanding of sociability as a personality trait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lizzy A Gartland
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, U.K
| | - Josh A Firth
- Edward Grey Institute, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3SZ, U.K
| | - Kate L Laskowski
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, U.S.A
| | - Raphael Jeanson
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition Animale (UMR5169), Centre de Biologie Intégrative, CNRS, UPS, Université de Toulouse, 31062, Toulouse, France
| | - Christos C Ioannou
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, U.K
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7
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Parks C, Rogers CM, Prins P, Williams RW, Chen H, Jones BC, Moore BM, Mulligan MK. Genetic Modulation of Initial Sensitivity to Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) Among the BXD Family of Mice. Front Genet 2021; 12:659012. [PMID: 34367237 PMCID: PMC8343140 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.659012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabinoid receptor 1 activation by the major psychoactive component in cannabis, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), produces motor impairments, hypothermia, and analgesia upon acute exposure. In previous work, we demonstrated significant sex and strain differences in acute responses to THC following administration of a single dose (10 mg/kg, i.p.) in C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (D2) inbred mice. To determine the extent to which these differences are heritable, we quantified acute responses to a single dose of THC (10 mg/kg, i.p.) in males and females from 20 members of the BXD family of inbred strains derived by crossing and inbreeding B6 and D2 mice. Acute THC responses (initial sensitivity) were quantified as changes from baseline for: 1. spontaneous activity in the open field (mobility), 2. body temperature (hypothermia), and 3. tail withdrawal latency to a thermal stimulus (antinociception). Initial sensitivity to the immobilizing, hypothermic, and antinociceptive effects of THC varied substantially across the BXD family. Heritability was highest for mobility and hypothermia traits, indicating that segregating genetic variants modulate initial sensitivity to THC. We identified genomic loci and candidate genes, including Ndufs2, Scp2, Rps6kb1 or P70S6K, Pde4d, and Pten, that may control variation in THC initial sensitivity. We also detected strong correlations between initial responses to THC and legacy phenotypes related to intake or response to other drugs of abuse (cocaine, ethanol, and morphine). Our study demonstrates the feasibility of mapping genes and variants modulating THC responses in the BXDs to systematically define biological processes and liabilities associated with drug use and abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cory Parks
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
- Department of Agriculture, Biology and Health Sciences, Cameron University, Lawton, OK, United States
| | - Chris M. Rogers
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Pjotr Prins
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Robert W. Williams
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Hao Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science and Toxicology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Byron C. Jones
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Bob M. Moore
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Megan K. Mulligan
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
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8
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Levitt P. Progressions on the Coexistence of Neuronal and Glial Precursor Cells in the Cerebral Ventricular Zone. J Neurosci 2021; 41:3301-3306. [PMID: 33597270 PMCID: PMC8051679 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3190-20.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Heterogeneity is defined as the quality or state of being diverse in character or content. This article summarizes the natural progression from my studies, reported in the first issue of the Journal of Neuroscience, that identified molecular heterogeneity in precursor cells of the developing primate cerebral cortex to the current state in which differences defined at the molecular, cellular, circuit, and systems levels are building data encyclopedias. The emphasis on heterogeneity has impacted many contributors in the field of developmental neuroscience, who have led a quest to determine the extent to which there is diversity, when it appears developmentally, and what heritable and nonheritable factors mediate nervous system assembly and function. Since the appearance of the article on progenitor cell heterogeneity in the inaugural issue of the Journal of Neuroscience, there have been continuous advances in technologies and data analytics that are contributing to a much better understanding of the origins of neurobiological and behavioral heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pat Levitt
- Program in Developmental Neuroscience and Neurogenetics, The Saban Research Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90027
- Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine of University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90027
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9
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Ashbrook DG, Arends D, Prins P, Mulligan MK, Roy S, Williams EG, Lutz CM, Valenzuela A, Bohl CJ, Ingels JF, McCarty MS, Centeno AG, Hager R, Auwerx J, Lu L, Williams RW. A platform for experimental precision medicine: The extended BXD mouse family. Cell Syst 2021; 12:235-247.e9. [PMID: 33472028 PMCID: PMC7979527 DOI: 10.1016/j.cels.2020.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The challenge of precision medicine is to model complex interactions among DNA variants, phenotypes, development, environments, and treatments. We address this challenge by expanding the BXD family of mice to 140 fully isogenic strains, creating a uniquely powerful model for precision medicine. This family segregates for 6 million common DNA variants-a level that exceeds many human populations. Because each member can be replicated, heritable traits can be mapped with high power and precision. Current BXD phenomes are unsurpassed in coverage and include much omics data and thousands of quantitative traits. BXDs can be extended by a single-generation cross to as many as 19,460 isogenic F1 progeny, and this extended BXD family is an effective platform for testing causal modeling and for predictive validation. BXDs are a unique core resource for the field of experimental precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G Ashbrook
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
| | - Danny Arends
- Lebenswissenschaftliche Fakultät, Albrecht Daniel Thaer-Institut, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstraße 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Pjotr Prins
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Megan K Mulligan
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Suheeta Roy
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Evan G Williams
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, Université du Luxembourg, L-4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Cathleen M Lutz
- Mouse Repository and the Rare and Orphan Disease Center, the Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA
| | - Alicia Valenzuela
- Mouse Repository and the Rare and Orphan Disease Center, the Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, USA
| | - Casey J Bohl
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Jesse F Ingels
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Melinda S McCarty
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Arthur G Centeno
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Reinmar Hager
- Division of Evolution & Genomic Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Johan Auwerx
- Laboratory of Integrative Systems Physiology, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lu Lu
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
| | - Robert W Williams
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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10
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Genetic Variation in CNS Myelination and Functional Brain Connectivity in Recombinant Inbred Mice. Cells 2020; 9:cells9092119. [PMID: 32961889 PMCID: PMC7564997 DOI: 10.3390/cells9092119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Myelination greatly increases the speed of action potential propagation of neurons, thereby enhancing the efficacy of inter-neuronal communication and hence, potentially, optimizing the brain’s signal processing capability. The impact of genetic variation on the extent of axonal myelination and its consequences for brain functioning remain to be determined. Here we investigated this question using a genetic reference panel (GRP) of mouse BXD recombinant inbred (RI) strains, which partly model genetic diversity as observed in human populations, and which show substantial genetic differences in a variety of behaviors, including learning, memory and anxiety. We found coherent differences in the expression of myelin genes in brain tissue of RI strains of the BXD panel, with the largest differences in the hippocampus. The parental C57BL/6J (C57) and DBA/2J (DBA) strains were on opposite ends of the expression spectrum, with C57 showing higher myelin transcript expression compared with DBA. Our experiments showed accompanying differences between C57 and DBA in myelin protein composition, total myelin content, and white matter conduction velocity. Finally, the hippocampal myelin gene expression of the BXD strains correlated significantly with behavioral traits involving anxiety and/or activity. Taken together, our data indicate that genetic variation in myelin gene expression translates to differences observed in myelination, axonal conduction speed, and possibly in anxiety/activity related behaviors.
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11
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Kopp N, McCullough K, Maloney SE, Dougherty JD. Gtf2i and Gtf2ird1 mutation do not account for the full phenotypic effect of the Williams syndrome critical region in mouse models. Hum Mol Genet 2020; 28:3443-3465. [PMID: 31418010 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddz176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Williams syndrome (WS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by a 1.5-1.8 Mbp deletion on chromosome 7q11.23, affecting the copy number of 26-28 genes. Phenotypes of WS include cardiovascular problems, craniofacial dysmorphology, deficits in visual-spatial cognition and a characteristic hypersocial personality. There are still no genes in the region that have been consistently linked to the cognitive and behavioral phenotypes, although human studies and mouse models have led to the current hypothesis that the general transcription factor 2 I family of genes, GTF2I and GTF2IRD1, are responsible. Here we test the hypothesis that these two transcription factors are sufficient to reproduce the phenotypes that are caused by deletion of the WS critical region (WSCR). We compare a new mouse model with loss of function mutations in both Gtf2i and Gtf2ird1 to an established mouse model lacking the complete WSCR. We show that the complete deletion (CD) model has deficits across several behavioral domains including social communication, motor functioning and conditioned fear that are not explained by loss of function mutations in Gtf2i and Gtf2ird1. Furthermore, transcriptome profiling of the hippocampus shows changes in synaptic genes in the CD model that are not seen in the double mutants. Thus, we have thoroughly defined a set of molecular and behavioral consequences of complete WSCR deletion and shown that genes or combinations of genes beyond Gtf2i and Gtf2ird1 are necessary to produce these phenotypic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Kopp
- Department of Genetics.,Department of Psychiatry
| | | | - Susan E Maloney
- Department of Psychiatry.,Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Joseph D Dougherty
- Department of Genetics.,Department of Psychiatry.,Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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12
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Gill KK, Rajan JRS, Goldowitz D, Zwicker JG. Using a mouse model to gain insights into developmental coordination disorder. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2020; 19:e12647. [PMID: 32096334 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Motor impairments are a common feature of many neurodevelopmental disorders; in fact, over 50% of children with Attentional Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or Autism Spectrum Disorder may have a co-occurring diagnosis of developmental coordination disorder (DCD). DCD is a neurodevelopmental disorder of unknown etiology that affects motor coordination and learning, significantly impacting a child's ability to carry out everyday activities. Animal models play an important role in scientific investigation of behaviour and the mechanisms and processes that are involved in control of motor actions. The purpose of this paper is to present an approach in the mouse directed to gain behavioral and genetic insights into DCD that is designed with high face validity, construct validity and predictive validity. Pre-clinical and clinical expertise is used to establish a set of scientific criteria that the model will meet in order to investigate the potential underlying causes of DCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamaldeep K Gill
- Rehabilitation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.,British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jeffy Rajan Soundara Rajan
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.,Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Daniel Goldowitz
- British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, Canada.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.,Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jill G Zwicker
- British Columbia Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, Canada.,Department of Occupational Science & Occupational Therapy, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.,Department of Pediatrics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.,Sunny Hill Health Centre for Children, Vancouver, Canada
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13
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Individual variation in the attribution of incentive salience to social cues. Sci Rep 2020; 10:2583. [PMID: 32054901 PMCID: PMC7018846 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-59378-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on the attribution of incentive salience to drug cues has furthered our understanding of drug self-administration in animals and addiction in humans. The influence of social cues on drug-seeking behavior has garnered attention recently, but few studies have investigated how social cues gain incentive-motivational value. In the present study, a Pavlovian conditioned approach (PCA) procedure was used to identify rats that are more (sign-trackers; STs) or less (goal-trackers; GTs) prone to attribute incentive salience to food reward cues. In Experiment 1, a novel procedure employed social ‘peers’ to compare the tendency of STs and GTs to attribute incentive salience to social reward cues as well as form a social-conditioned place preference. In Experiment 2, social behavior of STs and GTs was compared using social interaction and choice tests. Finally, in Experiment 3, levels of plasma oxytocin were measured in STs and GTs seven days after the last PCA training session, because oxytocin is known to modulate the mesolimbic reward system and social behavior. Compared to GTs, STs attributed more incentive salience to social-related cues and exhibited prosocial behaviors (e.g., social-conditioned place preference, increased social interaction, and social novelty-seeking). No group differences were observed in plasma oxytocin levels. Taken together, these experiments demonstrate individual variation in the attribution of incentive salience to both food- and social-related cues, which has important implications for the pathophysiology of addiction.
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14
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Friedrich J, Strandberg E, Arvelius P, Sánchez-Molano E, Pong-Wong R, Hickey JM, Haskell MJ, Wiener P. Genetic dissection of complex behaviour traits in German Shepherd dogs. Heredity (Edinb) 2019; 123:746-758. [PMID: 31611599 PMCID: PMC6834583 DOI: 10.1038/s41437-019-0275-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A favourable genetic structure and diversity of behavioural features highlights the potential of dogs for studying the genetic architecture of behaviour traits. However, behaviours are complex traits, which have been shown to be influenced by numerous genetic and non-genetic factors, complicating their analysis. In this study, the genetic contribution to behaviour variation in German Shepherd dogs (GSDs) was analysed using genomic approaches. GSDs were phenotyped for behaviour traits using the established Canine Behavioural Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). Genome-wide association study (GWAS) and regional heritability mapping (RHM) approaches were employed to identify associations between behaviour traits and genetic variants, while accounting for relevant non-genetic factors. By combining these complementary methods we endeavoured to increase the power to detect loci with small effects. Several behavioural traits exhibited moderate heritabilities, with the highest identified for Human-directed playfulness, a trait characterised by positive interactions with humans. We identified several genomic regions associated with one or more of the analysed behaviour traits. Some candidate genes located in these regions were previously linked to behavioural disorders in humans, suggesting a new context for their influence on behaviour characteristics. Overall, the results support dogs as a valuable resource to dissect the genetic architecture of behaviour traits and also highlight the value of focusing on a single breed in order to control for background genetic effects and thus avoid limitations of between-breed analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Friedrich
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Erling Strandberg
- Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, PO Box 7023, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Per Arvelius
- Swedish Armed Forces Dog Training Centre, PO Box 194, 195 24, Märsta, Sweden
| | - E Sánchez-Molano
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Ricardo Pong-Wong
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - John M Hickey
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Marie J Haskell
- Animal and Veterinary Sciences Group, Scotland's Rural College, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - Pamela Wiener
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK.
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15
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Amaral DG, Anderson GM, Bailey A, Bernier R, Bishop S, Blatt G, Canal-Bedia R, Charman T, Dawson G, de Vries PJ, Dicicco-Bloom E, Dissanayake C, Kamio Y, Kana R, Khan NZ, Knoll A, Kooy F, Lainhart J, Levitt P, Loveland K, Minshew N, Mueller RA, Murphy D, Mundy P, Palencia S, Pinto-Martin J, Rattazzi A, Rogers S, Stone WL, Webb SJ, Whitehouse A. Gaps in Current Autism Research: The Thoughts of the Autism Research Editorial Board and Associate Editors. Autism Res 2019; 12:700-714. [PMID: 31025542 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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16
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Molenhuis RT, Bruining H, Brandt MJV, van Soldt PE, Abu-Toamih Atamni HJ, Burbach JPH, Iraqi FA, Mott RF, Kas MJH. Modeling the quantitative nature of neurodevelopmental disorders using Collaborative Cross mice. Mol Autism 2018; 9:63. [PMID: 30559955 PMCID: PMC6293525 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-018-0252-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Animal models for neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) generally rely on a single genetic mutation on a fixed genetic background. Recent human genetic studies however indicate that a clinical diagnosis with ASDAutism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is almost always associated with multiple genetic fore- and background changes. The translational value of animal model studies would be greatly enhanced if genetic insults could be studied in a more quantitative framework across genetic backgrounds. Methods We used the Collaborative Cross (CC), a novel mouse genetic reference population, to investigate the quantitative genetic architecture of mouse behavioral phenotypes commonly used in animal models for NDD. Results Classical tests of social recognition and grooming phenotypes appeared insufficient for quantitative studies due to genetic dilution and limited heritability. In contrast, digging, locomotor activity, and stereotyped exploratory patterns were characterized by continuous distribution across our CC sample and also mapped to quantitative trait loci containing genes associated with corresponding phenotypes in human populations. Conclusions These findings show that the CC can move animal model studies beyond comparative single gene-single background designs, and point out which type of behavioral phenotypes are most suitable to quantify the effect of developmental etiologies across multiple genetic backgrounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Remco T. Molenhuis
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hilgo Bruining
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Myrna J. V. Brandt
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Petra E. van Soldt
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hanifa J. Abu-Toamih Atamni
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - J. Peter H. Burbach
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Fuad A. Iraqi
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Richard F. Mott
- Genetics Institute, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT UK
| | - Martien J. H. Kas
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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17
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Ashbrook DG, Roy S, Clifford BG, Riede T, Scattoni ML, Heck DH, Lu L, Williams RW. Born to Cry: A Genetic Dissection of Infant Vocalization. Front Behav Neurosci 2018; 12:250. [PMID: 30420800 PMCID: PMC6216097 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Infant vocalizations are one of the most fundamental and innate forms of behavior throughout avian and mammalian orders. They have a critical role in motivating parental care and contribute significantly to fitness and reproductive success. Dysregulation of these vocalizations has been reported to predict risk of central nervous system pathologies such as hypoxia, meningitis, or autism spectrum disorder. Here, we have used the expanded BXD family of mice, and a diallel cross between DBA/2J and C57BL/6J parental strains, to begin the process of genetically dissecting the numerous facets of infant vocalizations. We calculate heritability, estimate the role of parent-of-origin effects, and identify novel quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that control ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) on postnatal days 7, 8, and 9; a stage that closely matches human infants at birth. Heritability estimates for the number and frequency of calls are low, suggesting that these traits are under high selective pressure. In contrast, duration and amplitude of calls have higher heritabilities, indicating lower selection, or their importance for kin recognition. We find suggestive evidence that amplitude of infant calls is dependent on the maternal genotype, independent of shared genetic variants. Finally, we identify two loci on Chrs 2 and 14 influencing call frequency, and a third locus on Chr 8 influencing the amplitude of vocalizations. All three loci contain strong candidate genes that merit further analysis. Understanding the genetic control of infant vocalizations is not just important for understanding the evolution of parent–offspring interactions, but also in understanding the earliest innate behaviors, the development of parent–offspring relations, and the early identification of behavioral abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- David George Ashbrook
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Snigdha Roy
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Brittany G Clifford
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Tobias Riede
- Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, United States
| | - Maria Luisa Scattoni
- Research Coordination and Support Service, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Detlef H Heck
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Lu Lu
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States.,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Robert W Williams
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States.,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
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18
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Toth M. The other side of the coin: Hypersociability. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2018; 18:e12512. [PMID: 30101538 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Affiliative social motivation and behavior, that is, sociability that includes attachment, prosocial behavior (sharing, caring and helping) and empathy (the ability to understand and share the feelings of others), has high variability in the human population, with a portion of people outside of the normal range. While psychiatric disorders and autism spectrum disorders are typically associated with a deficit in social behavior, the opposite trait of hypersociability and indiscriminate friendliness are exhibited by individual with specific neurodevelopmental disorders and following early adverse care. Here we discuss both genetic and environmental factors that cause or increase the risk for developing pathological hypersociability from human to rodent models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miklos Toth
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York
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19
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Knoll AT, Jiang K, Levitt P. Quantitative trait locus mapping and analysis of heritable variation in affiliative social behavior and co-occurring traits. GENES, BRAIN, AND BEHAVIOR 2018; 17:e12431. [PMID: 29052939 PMCID: PMC5910301 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Revised: 10/04/2017] [Accepted: 10/14/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Humans exhibit broad heterogeneity in affiliative social behavior. Twin and family studies show that individual differences in core dimensions of social behavior are heritable, yet there are knowledge gaps in understanding the underlying genetic and neurobiological mechanisms. Animal genetic reference panels (GRPs) provide a tractable strategy for examining the behavioral and genetic architecture of complex traits. Here, using males from 50 mouse strains from the BXD GRP, 4 domains of affiliative social behavior-social approach, social recognition, direct social interaction (DSI) (partner sniffing) and vocal communication-were examined in 2 widely used behavioral tasks-the 3-chamber and DSI tasks. There was continuous and broad variation in social and nonsocial traits, with moderate to high heritability of social approach sniff preference (0.31), ultrasonic vocalization (USV) count (0.39), partner sniffing (0.51), locomotor activity (0.54-0.66) and anxiety-like behavior (0.36). Principal component analysis shows that variation in social and nonsocial traits are attributable to 5 independent factors. Genome-wide mapping identified significant quantitative trait loci for USV count on chromosome (Chr) 18 and locomotor activity on Chr X, with suggestive loci and candidate quantitative trait genes identified for all traits with one notable exception-partner sniffing in the DSI task. The results show heritable variation in sociability, which is independent of variation in activity and anxiety-like traits. In addition, a highly heritable and ethological domain of affiliative sociability-partner sniffing-appears highly polygenic. These findings establish a basis for identifying functional natural variants, leading to a new understanding typical and atypical sociability.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. T. Knoll
- Program in Developmental NeurogeneticsInstitute for the Developing Mind, The Saban Research Institute, Children’s Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCA
- Department of PediatricsKeck School of Medicine of the University of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCA
| | - K. Jiang
- Department of PediatricsKeck School of Medicine of the University of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCA
| | - P. Levitt
- Program in Developmental NeurogeneticsInstitute for the Developing Mind, The Saban Research Institute, Children’s Hospital Los AngelesLos AngelesCA
- Department of PediatricsKeck School of Medicine of the University of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesCA
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