Association between vitamin B12 deficiency and long-term use of acid-lowering agents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Peptic ulcer disease

Annual prevalence estimates of peptic ulcer disease range between 0·12% and 1·5%. Peptic ulcer disease is usually attributable to Helicobacter pylori infection, intake of some medications (such as aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications), or being critically ill (stress-related), or it can be idiopathic. The clinical presentation is usually uncomplicated, with peptic ulcer disease management based on eradicating H pylori if present, the use of acid-suppressing medications-most often proton pump inhibitors (PPIs)-or addressing complications, such as with early endoscopy and high-dose PPIs for peptic ulcer bleeding. Special considerations apply to patients on antiplatelet and antithrombotic agents. H pylori treatment has evolved, with the choice of regimen dictated by local antibiotic resistance patterns. Indications for primary and secondary prophylaxis vary across societies; most suggest PPIs for patients at highest risk of developing a peptic ulcer, its complications, or its recurrence. Additional research areas include the use of potassium-competitive acid blockers and H pylori vaccination; the optimal approach for patients at risk of stress ulcer bleeding requires more robust determinations of optimal patient selection and treatment selection, if any. Appropriate continuation of PPI use outweighs most possible side-effects if given for approved indications, while de-prescribing should be trialled when a definitive indication is no longer present.

Long-Term Proton Pump Inhibitor-Acid Suppressive Treatment Can Cause Vitamin B12 Deficiency in Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome (ZES) Patients

Whether the long-term treatment of patients with proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) with different diseases [GERD, Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (ZES), etc.] can result in vitamin B12 (VB12) deficiency is controversial. In this study, in 175 patients undergoing long-term ZES treatment with anti-acid therapies, drug-induced control acid secretory rates were correlated with the presence/absence of VB12 deficiency, determined by assessing serum VB12 levels, measurements of VB12 body stores (blood methylmalonic acid (MMA) and total homocysteine[tHYC]), and other features of ZES. After a mean of 10.2 yrs. of any acid treatment (5.6 yrs. with PPIs), 21% had VB12 deficiency with significantly lower serum and body VB12 levels (p < 0.0001). The presence of VB12 deficiency did not correlate with any feature of ZES but was associated with a 12-fold lower acid control rate, a 2-fold higher acid control pH (6.4 vs. 3.7), and acid control secretory rates below those required for the activation of pepsin (pH > 3.5). Over a 5-yr period, the patients with VB12 deficiency had a higher rate of achlorhydria (73% vs. 24%) and a lower rate of normal acid secretion (0% vs. 49%). In conclusion, in ZES patients, chronic long-term PPI treatment results in marked acid hyposecretion, resulting in decreased serum VB12 levels and decreased VB12-body stores, which can result in VB12 deficiency.

How could proton pump inhibitors de-prescription be managed in geriatric long-term care?

BACKGROUND

Evaluate the misuse of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) in geriatric long-term care (LTC) patients and improve caregiving by de-prescribing non-relevant PPIs in this population.

AIM

This study was conducted in the long-term care department of the geriatric hospital Pierre-Garraud in Lyon. All patients receiving PPI for more than 8 weeks were included. A reassessment form was filled to evaluate the treatment benefit/risk ratio during a collegial consultation between the patient's referring physicians and pharmacists. During these consultations, the following possible decisions were taken: continuation, dose adjustment or gradual discontinuation of treatment. Patients' monitoring were performed one month and three months after discontinuation to detect any relapses and causes.

RESULTS

Among the 113 patients included, 97 patients had their treatment re-evaluated by collegial consultation. Forty-four (45.4%) patients were treated in accordance with recommendations. For 24 of them, the indication was symptomatic recurrent gastroesophageal reflux disease. The treatment of more than half of the re-evaluated patients (54.6%) was gradually stopped. After the 3-month follow-up post-discontinuation, excluding patients who died during this period, 80.9% of the discontinuations were well-tolerated and only nine were resumed (19.1%).

CONCLUSION

This study allowed a re-evaluation of PPI treatments in a high-risk population and offered a decision support tool focused on the benefit/risk balance of PPIs; 55% of treatments were considered irrelevant and could be stopped with 80% of good tolerance.

Low-value chronic prescription of acid reducing medication among Dutch general practitioners: impact of a patient education intervention

BACKGROUND

Dyspepsia is a commonly encountered clinical condition in Dutch general practice, which is often treated through the prescription of acid-reducing medication (ARM). However, recent studies indicate that the majority of chronic ARM users lack an indication for their use and that their long-term use is associated with adverse outcomes. We developed a patient-focussed educational intervention aiming to reduce low-value (chronic) use of ARM.

METHODS

We conducted a randomized controlled study, and evaluated its effect on the low-value chronic prescription of ARM using data from a subset (n = 26) of practices from the Nivel Primary Care Database. The intervention involved distributing an educational waiting room posters and flyers informing both patients and general practitioners (GPs) regarding the appropriate indications for prescription of an ARM for dyspepsia, which also referred to an online decision aid. The interventions' effect was evaluated through calculation of the odds ratio of a patient receiving a low-value chronic ARM prescription over the second half of 2021 and 2022 (i.e. pre-intervention vs. post-intervention).

RESULTS

In both the control and intervention groups, the proportion of patients receiving chronic low-value ARM prescriptions slightly increased. In the control group, it decreased from 50.3% in 2021 to 49.7% in 2022, and in the intervention group it increased from 51.3% in 2021 to 53.1% in 2022. Subsequent statistical analysis revealed no significant difference in low-value chronic prescriptions between the control and intervention groups (Odds ratio: 1.11 [0.84-1.47], p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Our educational intervention did not result in a change in the low-value chronic prescription of ARM; approximately half of the patients of the intervention and control still received low-value chronic ARM prescriptions. The absence of effect might be explained by selection bias of participating practices, awareness on the topic of chronic AMR prescriptions and the relative low proportion of low-value chronic ARM prescribing in the intervention as well as the control group compared to an assessment conducted two years prior.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

10/31/2023 NCT06108817.

Can supplementing vitamin B12 improve mental health outcomes?: a literature review

AIM

This study reviews research into the effects of the supplementation of B12 in the prevention and recovery of mental illness, and the potentiation of psychotropic medication.

METHODOLOGY

This literature review follows a systematic approach to searching databases CINAHL, EMBASE, Medline, and PsycINFO where 287 non-duplicated articles results were received. Appropriate articles were identified through title and abstract screening and inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. Five articles were chosen to address the research question following critical appraisal. Thematic analysis was then conducted.

FINDINGS

This review identified five randomised controlled trials into the supplementation of various doses of B12 in conjunction with folic acid and B6. The supplement was measured against post-stroke depression prevention, the reduction of symptoms of depression in woman with cardiovascular disease, the effect on negative symptoms in schizophrenia, the reduction and prevention of depression in older adults, and the potentiation of psychotropic interventions. The papers reviewed showed inconclusive results, but evidence to support sub-groups and specific high-risk groups. Strong evidence showed supplementation of B12, folic acid and B6 has high rates of preventing post-stroke depression.

CONCLUSION

The findings show that this area of research is still to be developed. The effects of B12 supplementation with other B vitamins on mental health have shown to be inconclusive. There is a case for its use to be considered within certain patient groups to aid recovery of mental health or in some high-risk patient groups. Recommendations are made for further research into high-risk groups of people that may have symptoms or symptoms that could be improved through the supplementation of B12.

Primary and Specialty Care Trainees' Perceptions About Proton Pump Inhibitor Use

OBJECTIVE

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are widely prescribed with proven efficacy in many indications, yet longstanding controversy about potential adverse events persists. We aimed to acquire knowledge about perceptions of outpatient PPI long-term prescribing (≥8 wk) among primary and specialty care trainees at 2 Canadian Universities.

METHODS

Family medicine, internal medicine, and gastroenterology trainees completed a web-based survey that included 20 clinical scenarios assessing trainee knowledge about PPI efficacy. Contextual PPI prescribing decisions were also elicited, balancing possible PPI indications versus side effects. Management strategies were compared between junior and senior trainees, as well as across training programs.

RESULTS

Over a 4-month period,163 trainees (age <26 y: 12%; age 26 to 45: 88%; 59% females) participated in the survey (family medicine: 51%, internal medicine: 44%, and gastroenterology: 5%); 83% were considered junior residents. Only 42% had received formal education on prescribing PPI long-term. Overall, 93% believed they would benefit from such teaching, with 98% stating they would follow related guidelines. No between-group differences were noted in knowledge of appropriate PPI indications nor possible side effects when comparing juniors to seniors, or among different specialties. Across different management scenarios, inappropriate PPI discontinuation was chosen by 14.3% to 67.2%, whereas inappropriate PPI continuation was reported in up to 57%. Trainee seniority and specialty did not differ in appropriate deprescribing rates.

CONCLUSIONS

Training level and primary versus specialty care settings are associated with frequent inappropriate PPI prescribing and deprescribing. These findings highlight the need for and may inform future educational programs on PPI usage.

Timely Cessation of Proton Pump Inhibitors in Critically Ill Patients Impacts Morbidity and Mortality: A Propensity Score-Matched Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are among the drugs most commonly used in critically ill patients. Although mainly applied temporarily for stress ulcer prophylaxis, their application is frequently not terminated. Potential adverse effects of PPI treatment could impact the outcome in case of unnecessary and, therefore, avoidable long-term continuation. We tested the hypotheses that nonindicated PPI therapy continued beyond hospital discharge is associated with increased morbidity, rehospitalization rate, and mortality.

DESIGN

Nationwide retrospective cohort study considering critically ill patients treated on German ICUs between January, 2017, and December, 2018 with a 2-year follow-up.

SETTING

A total of 591,207 patient datasets of a German healthcare insurer were screened.

PATIENTS

We identified 11,576 ICU patients who received PPI therapy for the first time during their index ICU stay without having an indication for its continuation.

INTERVENTIONS

The cohort was stratified into two groups: 1) patients without further PPI therapy and 2) patients with continuation of PPI therapy beyond 8 weeks after hospital discharge.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Frequency of predescribed adverse events associated with PPI therapy, 1-year rehospitalization rate, and 2-year mortality were determined. The proportion of patients with continued PPI therapy without an objectifiable indication was 41.7% (4,825 of 11,576 patients). These patients had a 27% greater risk of pneumonia (odds ratio [OR] 1.27; 95% CI, 1.15-1.39; p < 0.001) and a 17% greater risk of cardiovascular events (OR 1.17; 95% CI, 1.08-1.26; p < 0.001). Continued PPI therapy was associated with a 34% greater risk of rehospitalization (OR 1.34; 95% CI, 1.23-1.47) and a nearly 20% greater 2-year mortality risk (hazard ratio 1.17; 95% CI, 1.08-1.27; p = 0.006).

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate that an unnecessary continuation of PPI therapy after hospital discharge may significantly impact morbidity and mortality. To avoid potentially harmful overuse of a PPIs, intensivists should ensure timely cessation of a temporarily indicated PPI therapy.

Proton Pump Inhibitors and Cognitive Health: Review on Unraveling the Dementia Connection and Co-morbid Risks

Dementia, an international health issue distinguished by the impairment of daily functioning due to cognitive decline, currently affects more than 55 million people worldwide, with the majority residing in low-income and middle-income countries. Globally, dementia entails significant economic burdens in 2019, amounting to a cost of 1.3 trillion US dollars. Informal caregivers devote considerable hours to providing care for those affected. Dementia imposes a greater caregiving and disability-adjusted life-year burden on women. A recent study has established a correlation between prolonged Proton Pump Inhibitor (PPI) usage and dementia, in addition to other neurodegenerative conditions. PPIs are frequently prescribed to treat peptic ulcers and GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease) by decreasing stomach acid secretion. They alleviate acid-related symptoms through the inhibition of acid-secreting H+-K+ ATPase. In a number of observational studies, cognitive decline and dementia in the elderly have been linked to the use of PPIs. The precise mechanism underlying this relationship is unknown. These drugs might also alter the pH of brain cells, resulting in the accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides and the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Despite the compelling evidence supporting the association of PPIs with dementia, the results of studies remain inconsistent. The absence of a correlation between PPI use and cognitive decline in some studies emphasizes the need for additional research. Chronic PPI use can conceal underlying conditions, including cancer, celiac disease, vitamin B12 deficiency, and renal injury, highlighting dementia risk and the need for further investigations on cognitive health.

An examination of relationships between vitamin B12 status and functional measures of peripheral neuropathy in young adult vegetarians

Introduction

Prevalence rates for vitamin B12 deficiency in U.S. adult vegetarians may exceed 30%, which is concerning given the role for this vitamin in numerous nervous system functions, including the synthesis of myelin sheaths. Defective myelin synthesis and repair are directly linked to peripheral neuropathy; yet, few investigations have examined how physical indicators of peripheral neuropathy (e.g., hand dexterity, vibration sensitivity and balance) are impacted in individuals adhering to vegetarian diets. This feasibility research explored the relationships between peripheral neuropathy and vitamin B12 status using a cross-sectional study design. In addition, a small pilot trial was conducted for limited-efficacy testing of vitamin B12 supplementation for reducing peripheral neuropathy.

Methods

Healthy, able-bodied adults (n = 38; 19-40 years of age) reported exclusive adherence to a vegetarian or vegan diet for 3 years. Peripheral neuropathy was measured using a force plate for assessing balance, and a vibration sensitivity tester and pegboard tests to assess hand dexterity. Serum vitamin B12 and folate were measured using standard radioimmunoassay techniques.

Results

Twenty-six percent of the sample displayed deficient or marginal vitamin B12 status (serum vitamin B12 <221 pmol/L). Participants with adequate vitamin B12 status scored 10% higher on the Purdue pegboard assembly test and 20% higher on the left hand adjusted functional dexterity test in comparison to participants with marginal-to-deficient vitamin B12 status (p < 0.05).

Discussion

These data provide preliminary evidence that peripheral neuropathy can be detected in individuals with marginal-to-deficient vitamin B12 status.

Potential risk of proton pump inhibitors for Parkinson's disease: A nationwide nested case-control study

Proton pump inhibitor (PPI) use is a potential risk factor for neurodegenerative disease development; however, its role in Parkinson's disease (PD) remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the association between PPI use and PD risk. A total of 31,326 patients with newly diagnosed PD were matches by age, sex, body mass index, diabetes, and hypertension with 125,304 controls at a ratio of 1:4. The data were collected from the Korean National Health Insurance Services Database from January 2010 to December 2019. Cumulative defined daily doses of PPIs were extracted from treatment claims. We examined the association between PPI use and PD risk using conditional logistic regression. To prevent protopathic bias, we excluded patients diagnosed with PD within a 1-year lag period after PPI exposure. We applied 2- and 3-year lag periods for sensitivity analysis. PPI use was associated with an increased risk of PD when a 1-year lag period was applied between PPI exposure and PD development (adjusted odds ratio, 1.10; 95% confidence interval, 1.07-1.13). A significant positive dose-response relationship existed between the cumulative defined daily doses of PPIs and PD development (P<0.001). Similar results were obtained for the 2- or 3-year lag periods. The association did not vary based on gender. Older age, a higher Charlson Comorbidity Index score, no alcohol consumption, and a non-smoking status were associated with a significantly increased PD risk with PPI use. We observed an association between PPI use and PD risk, although long-term follow-up studies are necessary to verify this association.

Guidelines on optimizing the use of proton pump inhibitors: PPI stewardship

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) have been available for over three decades and are among the most commonly prescribed medications. They are effective in treating a variety of gastric acid-related disorders. They are freely available and based on current evidence, use of PPIs for inappropriate indications and duration appears to be common. Over the years, concerns have been raised on the safety of PPIs as they have been associated with several adverse effects. Hence, there is a need for PPI stewardship to promote the use of PPIs for appropriate indication and duration. With this objective, the Indian Society of Gastroenterology has formulated guidelines on the rational use of PPIs. The guidelines were developed using a modified Delphi process. This paper presents these guidelines in detail, including the statements, review of literature, level of evidence and recommendations. This would help the clinicians in optimizing the use of PPIs in their practice and promote PPI stewardship.

Association between Acid-Lowering Agents, Metformin, and Vitamin B12 among Boston-Area Puerto Ricans

BACKGROUND

Vitamin B12 involves several physiological functions, and malabsorption is reported with medication use.

OBJECTIVES

Studies have reported an inverse association between the use of metformin or acid-lowering agents (ALAs), such as proton pump inhibitors, histamine 2 receptor antagonists, and blood vitamin B12 concentration, because of malabsorption. The concomitant use of these medications is underreported. We sought to examine these associations in a cohort of Boston-area Puerto Rican adults.

METHODS

This analysis was conducted within the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study (BPRHS), an ongoing longitudinal cohort that enrolled 1499 Puerto Rican adults aged 45-75 y at baseline. Our study comprised 1428, 1155, and 782 participants at baseline, wave2 (2.2 y from baseline), and wave3 (6.2 y from baseline), respectively. Covariate-adjusted linear and logistic regression was used to examine the association between baseline medication use and vitamin B12 concentration or deficiency (vitamin B12 <148 pmol/L or methylmalonic acid >271 nmol/L), and long-term medication use (continuous use for ∼6.2 y) and wave3 vitamin B12 concentration and deficiency. Sensitivity analyses were done to examine these associations in vitamin B12 supplement users.

RESULTS

At baseline, we observed an association between metformin use (β = -0.069; P = 0.03) and concomitant ALA and metformin use (β = -0.112; P = 0.02) and vitamin B12 concentration, but not a deficiency. We did not observe associations between ALA, proton pump inhibitors, or histamine 2 receptor antagonists, individually, with vitamin B12 concentration or deficiency.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest an inverse relationship between metformin, concomitant ALA, metformin use, and serum vitamin B12 concentration.

Proton Pump Inhibitors, Kidney Damage, and Mortality: An Updated Narrative Review

Since their approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1989, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) have become one of the most highly utilized drugs in the United States, assuming a position as one of the top 10 most prescribed medications in the country. The purpose of PPIs is to limit the amount of gastric acid secreted by the parietal cells via irreversible inhibition of the H+/K+-ATPase pump, therefore maintaining an elevated gastric acid pH of greater than 4 for 15-21 h. Even though PPIs have many clinical uses, they are not without their adverse effects, mimicking achlorhydria. Besides electrolyte abnormalities and vitamin deficiencies, long-term use of PPIs has been linked to acute interstitial nephritis, bone fractures, poor COVID-19 infection outcomes, pneumonia, and possibly an increase in all-cause mortality. The causality between PPI use and increased mortality and disease risk can be questioned since most studies are observational. Confounding variables can greatly affect an observational study and explain the wide-ranging associations with the use of PPIs. Patients on PPIs are generally older, obese, sicker with a higher number of baseline morbidities, and on more medications than the compared PPI non-users. These findings suggest that PPI users are at a higher risk of mortality and complications based on pre-existing conditions. This narrative review aims to update readers on the concerning effects that proton pump inhibitor use can have on patients and give providers a resource to create informed decisions on appropriate PPI use.

Adverse Effects Associated with Long-Term Use of Proton Pump Inhibitors

Proton Pump Inhibitors are used widely to manage many gastric acid-related conditions such as gastroesophageal disease, gastritis, esophagitis, Barrett's esophagus, Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, peptic ulcer disease, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-associated ulcers, and Helicobacter pylori eradication, around the globe. This review article focuses on adverse effects associated with the long-term use of proton pump inhibitors. Various observational studies, clinical trials, and meta-analyses have established the adverse effects associated with the long-term use of proton pump inhibitors including renal disorders (acute interstitial nephritis, acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, and end-stage renal disease), cardiovascular risks (major adverse cardiovascular events, myocardial infarction, stent thrombosis, and stroke), fractures, infections (Clostridium difficile infection, community-acquired pneumonia, and Coronavirus disease 2019), micronutrient deficiencies (hypomagnesemia, anemia, vitamin B12 deficiency, hypocalcemia, hypokalemia), hypergastrinemia, cancers (gastric cancer, pancreatic cancer, colorectal cancer, hepatic cancer), hepatic encephalopathy, and dementia. Clinicians including prescribers and pharmacists should be aware of the adverse effects of taking proton pump inhibitors for an extended period of time. In addition, the patients taking proton pump inhibitors for long-term should be monitored for the listed adverse effects. The American Gastroenterological association recommends a few non-pharmacological measures and the use of histamine 2 blockers to lessen gastrointestinal symptoms of gastroesophageal reflex disease and the utilization of proton pump inhibitors treatment if there is a definitive indication. Additionally, the American Gastroenterological association's Best Practice Advice statements emphasize deprescribing when there is no clear indication for proton pump inhibitors therapy.

Vitamin B12 deficiency and use of proton pump inhibitors: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Proton pump inhibitors (PPI) may impact the absorption of vitamin B12. We performed a systematic review to ascertain if PPI use increases risk of vitamin B12 deficiency.

METHODS

Electronic databases (Pubmed, Embase, Scopus) were searched on first of September 2022. We selected studies that compared the frequency of vitamin B12 deficiency in PPI users and non-users. Pooled Odds Ratio (OR) was calculated for the occurrence of vitamin B12 deficiency in PPI users compared to non-users. The risk of bias was assessed using the Newcastle Ottawa scale.

RESULTS

Twenty-five studies were included. The pooled OR of vitamin B12 deficiency among PPI users (2852 participants) was higher than non-users (28070 participants) (OR 1.42, 95% CI: 1.16-1.73; I² = 54%). Overall risk of PPI use among vitamin B12 deficient individuals was higher than those without deficiency (OR 1.49, 1.20-1.85; I² = 68%). Most studies found no difference between serum vitamin B12 levels among PPI users compared to non-users.

CONCLUSION

Although the pooled OR of vitamin B12 deficiency was slightly increased in PPI users, but there was significant heterogeneity, and the pooled OR was too low to imply an association clearly. Better-designed prospective studies in long-term users may clarify the issue.

REGISTRATION

This study was not registered on PROSPERO.

Proton pump inhibitor use and its effect on vitamin B12 and homocysteine levels among men and women: A large cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have demonstrated an association between proton pump inhibitors (PPI) use and vitamin B12 deficiency. However, data regarding PPI use and elevated serum homocysteine level, an important marker of vitamin B12 deficiency, are scant.

METHODS

Data were collected from medical records of subjects examined at a screening center in Israel. Cross sectional analysis was conducted on 25,953 subjects. Levels of vitamin B12 and homocysteine were compared between subjects who consumed PPI medications and those who did not.

RESULTS

The mean age of the study population was 45 years and 33% were females. Subjects who received PPI medications had a minor higher vitamin B12 levels (320 pmol/L vs 300 pmol/L, p=0.024). Levels of vitamin B12 remained higher in females receiving PPI medications after performing a stratified analysis according to subjects' gender. Homocysteine levels were higher in subjects receiving PPI medications as compared to those who did not (12.0 μmol/L vs 11.6 0 μmol/L, p<0.001). Levels remained higher in female subjects after performing a stratified analysis according to subjects' sex. There was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of vitamin B12 deficiency (according to two cutoffs: vitamin B12≤200 or ≤140 pmol/L) as well as the prevalence of hyperhomocysteinemia (defined as homocysteine >15.0 μmol/L) between the two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

According to our study, no association was found between PPI medication use and vitamin B12 deficiency or hyperhomocysteinemia. Patients receiving PPI medications had slightly higher levels of vitamin B12 and homocysteine, however these differences were too small to have any clinical relevance.

Association of Vitamin B12 deficiency with long-term PPIs use: A cohort study

Background

Proton Pump inhibitors are widely used among the majority of the world's population as acid-suppressing medications. Proton Pump Inhibitors have been reported to cause intestinal damage and adverse gut microbiota changes affecting several mechanisms, including malabsorption, etc.

Aim

In order to gain a deeper understanding, we conducted a cohort analysis to assess the prevalence & association of Vitamin B12 deficiency in patients on long-term use of PPIs.

Methods

This single-center cohort study was conducted at the Department of Internal Medicine, KRL hospital in Islamabad, Pakistan from May 2021 to May 2022. Rao soft calculator with a 95% confidence interval and 5% error margin was used to find the estimated sample size. Vitamin B₁₂ levels were analyzed using the Cobas e411 analyzer. Chi-square test, odds ratio, and t-tests were used for analysis.

Results

Among the 1225 participants, more than half of the men (55.10%) had low levels of vitamin B12. Vit B12 levels were observed to be significantly lower in Omeprazole patients than in Pantoprazole patients. A vitamin B12 deficiency is 0.5 times more likely in patients taking PPIs. There is a substantial difference between the early and final levels of B12 indicated by the t-test.

Conclusion

According to our findings, long-term usage of PPIs is linked to an increased risk of vitamin B12 insufficiency specifically in men falling under the ages of 18 and 40.

•

Increased focus and precision have been achieved by single-centered approach.

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Over 1200 people were enrolled during the course of the year-long data collection period, which have contributed to the study's overall authenticity.

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It is possible that this large-scale investigation may serve to clarify the link between PPIs and VIT B12 deficiency during this period of uncertainty.

Proton Pump Inhibitors and Bone Health: An Update Narrative Review

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are an antacid drug often used in acid-related disorders. They decrease acid secretion in the stomach by blocking an enzyme called H+/K+ ATPase which controls acid production. Introduced to the market in 1989, their use has increased rapidly worldwide and they are now among the top 10 most prescribed drugs in the United States. As of 2015, the FDA has already approved six drugs of this class (omeprazole, esomeprazole, lansoprazole, dexlansoprazole, pantoprazole and rabeprazole). Recently, the risks and benefits of long-term PPI use were questioned and many studies indicated that their use should be carefully considered, especially in young patients, whose treatment with these drugs could last many years. Even greater concerns have been raised about a potential positive association between PPIs and osteoporotic fracture risk including the hip, spine and wrist. Although based on observational studies, there is substantial evidence associating the long-term use of PPIs and fracture. This relationship is only partially admitted due to the lack of consistent effects of PPIs on bone mineral density loss. Therefore, this narrative review aimed to discuss the recent findings pertaining to the risk of osteoporotic fracture associated with PPIs, in particular prolonged use, and to call for further research to elucidate the mechanisms associated with this bone fragility.

Establishing the Association Between Osteoporosis and Peptic Ulcer Disease: A Systematic Review

Osteoporosis is one of the most common metabolic bone diseases. Many studies were conducted to find the association between peptic ulcer disease (PUD), Helicobacter pylori infection, proton-pump inhibitor (PPI) use, and increased risk for fracture, but results remain ambiguous. We performed this systematic review to understand the association between PUD and osteoporosis. We comprehensively searched relevant articles on April 19, 2022, by exploring different databases including PubMed, PubMed Central (PMC), and Medline using relevant keywords. After applying inclusion and exclusion criteria and undergoing quality assessment, we retained 25 studies published in and after 2015. For our systematic review, we included a total of 5,600,636 participants. The studies included in our review demonstrated a significant association between PUD, H. pylori infection, and the risk of osteoporosis. Long-term PPI use was also found to be a risk factor for osteoporosis. Malabsorption of nutrients, increase in inflammatory cytokines, and alterations in hormone status were found to be the notable factors behind the association. Early management of H. pylori infection and cautious use of long-term PPIs may protect against osteoporosis. Further randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are necessary to establish a causal relationship.

Vitamin B-12 Intake from Dairy but Not Meat Is Associated with Decreased Risk of Low Vitamin B-12 Status and Deficiency in Older Adults from Quebec, Canada

BACKGROUND

Vitamin B-12 deficiency can result in irreversible neurologic damages. It is most prevalent among older adults (∼5%-15%), mainly due to impaired absorption. Vitamin B-12 bioavailability varies between food sources, so their importance in preventing deficiency may also vary.

OBJECTIVES

Using the NuAge Database and Biobank, we examined the associations between vitamin B-12 intake (total and by specific food groups) and low vitamin B-12 status and deficiency in older adults.

METHODS

NuAge-the Quebec Longitudinal Study on Nutrition and Successful Aging-included 1753 adults aged 67-84 y who were followed 4 y. Analytic samples comprised 1230-1463 individuals. Dietary vitamin B-12 intake was assessed annually using three 24-h dietary recalls. Vitamin B-12 status was assessed annually as low serum vitamin B-12 (<221 pmol/L), elevated urinary methylmalonic acid (MMA)/creatinine ratio (>2 μmol/mmol), and a combination of both (deficiency). Vitamin B-12 supplement users were excluded. Multilevel logistic regressions, adjusted for relevant confounders, were used.

RESULTS

Across all study years, 21.8%-32.5% of participants had low serum vitamin B-12, 12.5%-17.0% had elevated urine MMA/creatinine, and 10.1%-12.7% had deficiency. Median (IQR) total vitamin B-12 intake was 3.19 μg/d (2.31-4.37). Main sources were "dairy" and "meat, poultry, and organ meats." The ORs (95% CIs) in the fifth quintile compared with the first of total vitamin B-12 intake were as follows: for low serum vitamin B-12, 0.52 (0.37, 0.75; P-trend < 0.0001); for elevated urine MMA/creatinine, 0.63 (0.37, 1.08; P-trend = 0.091); and for vitamin B-12 deficiency, 0.38 (0.18, 0.79; P-trend = 0.006). Similarly, ORs (95% CIs) in the fourth quartile compared with the first of dairy-derived vitamin B-12 intake were 0.46 (0.32, 0.66; P-trend < 0.0001), 0.51 (0.30, 0.87; P-trend = 0.006), and 0.35 (0.17, 0.73; P-trend = 0.003), respectively. No associations were observed with vitamin B-12 from "meat, poultry, and organ meats."

CONCLUSIONS

Higher dietary vitamin B-12 intake, especially from dairy, was associated with decreased risk of low vitamin B-12 status and deficiency in older adults. Food groups might contribute differently at reducing risk of deficiency in older populations.

Vitamin B12 absorption and malabsorption

Vitamin B12 is assimilated and transported by complex mechanisms that involve three transport proteins, intrinsic factor (IF), haptocorrin (HC) and transcobalamin (TC) and their respective membrane receptors. Vitamin deficiency is mainly due to inadequate dietary intake in vegans, and B12 malabsorption is related to digestive diseases. This review explores the physiology of vitamin B12 absorption and the mechanisms and diseases that produce malabsorption. In the stomach, B12 is released from food carrier proteins and binds to HC. The degradation of HC by pancreatic proteases and the pH change trigger the transfer of B12 to IF in the duodenum. Cubilin and amnionless are the two components of the receptor that mediates the uptake of B12 in the distal ileum. Part of liver B12 is excreted in bile, and undergoes an enterohepatic circulation. The main causes of B12 malabsorption include inherited disorders (Intrinsic factor deficiency, Imerslund-Gräsbeck disease, Addison's pernicious anemia, obesity, bariatric surgery and gastrectomies. Other causes include pancreatic insufficiency, obstructive Jaundice, tropical sprue and celiac disease, bacterial overgrowth, parasitic infestations, Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, inflammatory bowel diseases, chronic radiation enteritis of the distal ileum and short bowel. The assessment of B12 deficit is recommended in the follow-up of subjects with bariatric surgery. The genetic causes of B12 malabsorption are probably underestimated in adult cases with B12 deficit. Despite its high prevalence in the general population and in the elderly, B12 malabsorption cannot be anymore assessed by the Schilling test, pointing out the urgent need for an equivalent reliable test.

Anemia in nursing homes, proton pump inhibitors and prescribing cascade of antianemic drugs

PURPOSE

Some medications can cause anemia through their effect on gastrointestinal function, such as proton pump inhibitors and H2-antagonists, and on the risk of bleeding, such as anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents. The main aim of this study is to evaluate how anemia is related with the most commonly used drugs in a large sample of NH residents.

METHODS

This retrospective cross-sectional multicenter study was conducted in a sample of Italian long-term care NHs distributed throughout the country.

RESULTS

In all, 2602 NH residents recruited from 27 Italian long-term NHs (mean age ± SD: 88.4 ± 8.5) and 441 (16.9%) had a diagnosis of anemia. The unadjusted model showed a significant relation with PPI (OR 1.71, 95% CI 1.39-2.11, p < 0.0001). This relation was maintained in the model adjusted for age, sex, CKD, atrophic gastritis, peptic ulcer and rheumatic disease (OR 1.61, 95% CI 1.31-1.99, p < 0.0001). PPI users were also at higher risk of being treated with antianemic drugs-iron supplements, folate, vitamin B12 and erythropoietin (OR 2.03, 95% CI 1.67-2.48, p < 0.0001)-even if they did not have anemia (OR 1.94, 95% CI 1.55-2.42, p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Proton pump inhibitors are associated with anemia in NH residents. PPIs are also related with an increased probability of receiving drugs to treat anemia, such as iron supplements, folate or cyanocobalamin and erythropoietin, as the effect of a prescribing cascade. Optimization of PPI prescription is needed to avoid adverse events and promote rational drug prescription.

The views of African and Middle Eastern Gastroenterologists on the management of mild-to-moderate, non-erosive gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD)

INTRODUCTION

Gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a common gastrointestinal disorder that occurs when backflow of the gastric contents into the esophagus results in troublesome symptoms. Though GERD has been extensively studied in Western populations, literature on the management of GERD in patients in Africa and Middle East (AME) is scarce.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we provide an overview of the management of mild-to-moderate GERD in AME. Here we focus on the efficacy and safety of currently available treatments for GERD to help physicians and community pharmacists appropriately manage patients with mild-to-moderate GERD in the primary healthcare setting, detailing specific situations and patient scenarios that are relevant to the region, including management of GERD during Ramadan and post-bariatric surgery.

EXPERT OPINION

Under-appreciation of the burden of GERD in the region has resulted in a lack of consensus on management. Barriers that currently prevent the adoption of treatment guidelines in the primary healthcare setting may include lack of availability of local guidelines and referral systems, a paucity of region-specific research, and dogmatic adherence to traditional practice. By increasing awareness, strengthening knowledge, and by more effective utilization of resources, physicians and pharmacists could optimize GERD management strategies to better support patients.

ACG Clinical Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) continues to be among the most common diseases seen by gastroenterologists, surgeons, and primary care physicians. Our understanding of the varied presentations of GERD, enhancements in diagnostic testing, and approach to patient management have evolved. During this time, scrutiny of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) has increased considerably. Although PPIs remain the medical treatment of choice for GERD, multiple publications have raised questions about adverse events, raising doubts about the safety of long-term use and increasing concern about overprescribing of PPIs. New data regarding the potential for surgical and endoscopic interventions have emerged. In this new document, we provide updated, evidence-based recommendations and practical guidance for the evaluation and management of GERD, including pharmacologic, lifestyle, surgical, and endoscopic management. The Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation system was used to evaluate the evidence and the strength of recommendations. Key concepts and suggestions that as of this writing do not have sufficient evidence to grade are also provided.

Associations of atrophic gastritis and proton-pump inhibitor drug use with vitamin B-12 status, and the impact of fortified foods, in older adults

BACKGROUND

Atrophic gastritis (AG) and use of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) result in gastric acid suppression that can impair the absorption of vitamin B-12 from foods. The crystalline vitamin B-12 form, found in fortified foods, does not require gastric acid for its absorption and could thus be beneficial for older adults with hypochlorhydria, but evidence is lacking.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate associations of AG and PPI use with vitamin B-12 status, and the potential protective role of fortified foods, in older adults.

METHODS

Eligible participants (n = 3299) not using vitamin B-12 supplements were drawn from the Trinity-Ulster and Department of Agriculture cohort, a study of noninstitutionalized adults aged ≥60 y and recruited in 2008-2012. Vitamin B-12 status was measured using 4 biomarkers, and vitamin B-12 deficiency was defined as a combined indicator value < -0.5. A pepsinogen I:II ratio <3 was considered indicative of AG.

RESULTS

AG was identified in 15% of participants and associated with significantly lower serum total vitamin B-12 (P < 0.001) and plasma holotranscobalamin (holoTC; P < 0.001), and higher prevalence of vitamin B-12 deficiency (38%), compared with PPI users (21%) and controls (without AG and nonusers of PPIs; 15%; P < 0.001). PPI drugs were used (≥6 mo) by 37% of participants and were associated with lower holoTC concentrations, but only in participants taking higher doses (≥30 mg/d). Regular, compared with nonregular, consumption of fortified foods (i.e., ≥5 and 0-4 portions/wk, respectively) was associated with higher vitamin B-12 biomarkers in all participants, but inadequate to restore normal vitamin B-12 status in those with AG.

CONCLUSIONS

Older adults who have AG and/or use higher doses of PPIs are more likely to have indicators of vitamin B-12 deficiency. Fortified foods, if consumed regularly, were associated with enhanced vitamin B-12 status, but higher levels of added vitamin B-12 than currently provided could be warranted to optimize status in people with AG.

Analysis of the Impact of Selected Vitamins Deficiencies on the Risk of Disability in Older People

Vitamin deficiencies have a serious impact on healthy aging in older people. Many age-related disorders have a direct or indirect impact on nutrition, both in terms of nutrient assimilation and food access, which may result in vitamin deficiencies and may lead to or worsen disabilities. Frailty is characterized by reduced functional abilities, with a key role of malnutrition in its pathogenesis. Aging is associated with various changes in body composition that lead to sarcopenia. Frailty, aging, and sarcopenia all favor malnutrition, and poor nutritional status is a major cause of geriatric morbidity and mortality. In the present narrative review, we focused on vitamins with a significant risk of deficiency in high-income countries: D, C, and B (B6/B9/B12). We also focused on vitamin E as the main lipophilic antioxidant, synergistic to vitamin C. We first discuss the role and needs of these vitamins, the prevalence of deficiencies, and their causes and consequences. We then look at how these vitamins are involved in the biological pathways associated with sarcopenia and frailty. Lastly, we discuss the critical early diagnosis and management of these deficiencies and summarize potential ways of screening malnutrition. A focused nutritional approach might improve the diagnosis of nutritional deficiencies and the initiation of appropriate clinical interventions for reducing the risk of frailty. Further comprehensive research programs on nutritional interventions are needed, with a view to lowering deficiencies in older people and thus decreasing the risk of frailty and sarcopenia.

Do patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease exhibit compromised bone quality prior to proton pump inhibitor therapy?

Patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) are routinely treated with proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), despite many reports of increased fracture risk associated with PPI use. Notably, the skeletal properties in patients with GERD prior to PPI therapy have not been addressed. We hypothesized that PPI-naïve GERD patients have bone impairment, and that short-term treatment with PPI has minimal skeletal effects. To test this, 17 (12 men/5 women) GERD patients age 32–73 years, not previously exposed to PPI, and 17 age- and sex-matched controls were enrolled from September 2010 to December 2012. Bone mineral density (BMD) at lumbar spine, femoral neck, total hip, and trabecular bone score (TBS) at the lumbar spine, a marker of bone microarchitecture, were measured by dual X-ray absorptiometry. Markers of bone turnover and calcium homeostasis, and gastric hormones were analyzed. The same parameters were measured after three months of treatment with the PPI pantoprazole. The GERD patients displayed a significantly lower TBS at baseline than controls (1.31 ± 0.11 vs. 1.43 ± 0.07, p = 0.0006). Total hip and femoral neck BMD were lower in patients compared to controls, however, not significantly (p = 0.09 and 0.12, respectively). CTX was non-significantly higher in GERD patients at baseline (p = 0.11). After three months, changes in BMD, TBS and CTX did not differ between the groups. In conclusion, this is the first report demonstrating compromised bone quality and inferior BMD in PPI-naïve GERD patients. Treatment with pantoprazole did not influence bone parameters, indicating that short-term use with this PPI is safe for the skeleton.

•

Previous studies have reported an increased fracture risk in PPI users.

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Patients with GERD had compromised bone quality before starting PPI.

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Three months treatment with pantoprazole did not influence bone parameters.

Effect of long-term acid suppression therapy with proton pump inhibitors or H2 receptor blockers on serum vitamin B12 levels in elderly population

BACKGROUND

Long-term usage of acid suppression drugs like proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) or H₂ receptor blockers in the elderly population has been found to result in vitamin B₁₂ deficiency. However, the reports are equivocal.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the serum vitamin B₁₂ levels in elderly patients under chronic acid suppression therapy.

METHODS

Patients aged above 60 years and on any of the PPIs or H₂ blockers for at least 6 months were recruited. Out of 77 patients recruited, 60 patients were included for the final analysis. The serum vitamin B₁₂ levels were measured using the AccuDiag™-Vitamin B12 ELISA system.

RESULTS

Out of 60 patients, pantoprazole (40%) and omeprazole (37%) were the commonly prescribed acid-suppressing drugs. Nearly 50% of the patients on prolonged acid suppression therapy were either "deficient" (less than 200 pg/ml) or "insufficient" (200 to 300 pg/ml) in serum vitamin B₁₂ levels. Neither the average serum vitamin B₁₂ levels (p = 0.994) nor the vitamin B₁₂ status (p = 0.226) varied significantly across the drug groups of pantoprazole, omeprazole, and ranitidine.

CONCLUSIONS

Prolonged acid suppression therapy with PPIs or H₂ blockers may result in serum vitamin B₁₂ deficiency. However, there was no class (PPIs vs. H₂ receptor blockers)- or drug (pantoprazole vs. omeprazole vs. ranitidine)-based differences found in the vitamin B₁₂ deficiency caused.

Proton pump inhibitors and dementia risk: Evidence from a cohort study using linked routinely collected national health data in Wales, UK

OBJECTIVES

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are commonly prescribed for prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal conditions or for gastroprotection from other drugs. Research suggests they are linked to increased dementia risk. We use linked national health data to examine the association between PPI use and the development of incident dementia.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

A population-based study using electronic health-data from the Secure Anonymised Information Linkage (SAIL) Databank, Wales (UK) from 1999 to 2015. Of data available on 3,765,744 individuals, a cohort who had ever been prescribed a PPI was developed (n = 183,968) for people aged 55 years and over and compared to non-PPI exposed individuals (131,110). Those with prior dementia, mild-cognitive-impairment or delirium codes were excluded. Confounding factors included comorbidities and/or drugs associated with them. Comorbidities might include head injury and some examples of medications include antidepressants, antiplatelets and anticoagulants. These commonly prescribed drugs were investigated as it was not feasible to explore all drugs in this study. The main outcome was a diagnosis of incident dementia. Cox proportional hazard regression modelling was used to calculate the Hazard ratio (HR) of developing dementia in PPI-exposed compared to unexposed individuals while controlling for potential confounders. The mean age of the PPI exposed individuals was 69.9 years and 39.8% male while the mean age of the unexposed individuals was 72.1 years and 41.1% male. The rate of PPI usage was 58.4% (183,968) and incident dementia rate was 11.8% (37,148/315,078). PPI use was associated with decreased dementia risk (HR: 0.67, 95% CI: 0.65 to 0.67, p<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

This study, using large-scale, multi-centre health-data was unable to confirm an association between PPI use and increased dementia risk. Previously reported links may be associated with confounders of people using PPI's, such as increased risk of cardiovascular disease and/or depression and their associated medications which may be responsible for any increased risk of developing dementia.

Multiple Health Benefits and Minimal Risks Associated with Vegetarian Diets

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Understand the current prevalence, health benefits, and health risks of vegetarian diets.

RECENT FINDINGS

Since the publishing of the Adventist Health Study 2 in 2013, there have been several prospective diet studies demonstrating and challenging the health benefits and risks of the vegetarian diet. The definition of the vegetarian diet has become more specific over time and requires standardization for research purposes. Despite an uptrend in sales rates of plant-based foods per year, a 2018 Gallup poll showed overall stagnation of the percentage of self-reported vegetarians and vegans compared to percentages obtained 6 years prior. Compared to the Adventist Health Study, more recent vegetarian diet studies have demonstrated significant although smaller risk reductions for mortality in cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and chronic kidney disease. Recent studies have correlated certain food groups with early death or increased longevity. In addition, the vegetarian health risks of deficiencies of protein, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, vitamin B12, iron, calcium, and zinc are explored.

Magnesium oxide and hip fracture in the elderly: a population-based retrospective cohort analysis

Using national insurance claims of Taiwan, we found that magnesium oxide (MgO) use is associated with an increased risk of hip fracture in the elderly. Further studies are warranted to explore the mechanisms associated with MgO use that lead to hip fracture.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between MgO use and hip fracture risk in the elderly (age > 65 years).

METHODS

This nationwide population-based retrospective study was conducted from 1996 to 2013. Individuals with (n = 26,069) and without (n = 26,069) MgO use were enrolled after propensity score matching. Primary outcome was a hip fracture. After adjusting for age, sex, comorbidities, and medications, multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to calculate incidences and risk of hip fracture [hazard ratio (HR)].

RESULTS

During the mean follow-up duration of 4.8 years in the MgO cohort and 5.7 years in the non-MgO cohort, respectively 1547 and 1107 cases developed a hip fracture. MgO use was identified as a risk factor for hip fracture in both univariate [crude HR, 1.68; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.55-1.81; p < 0.001] and multivariate [adjusted HR (aHR), 1.66; 95% CI, 1.54-1.80; p < 0.001] Cox proportional hazards regression models. The cumulative incidence of hip fracture was significantly higher in the MgO cohort than in the non-MgO cohort (1.23 per 100 person-years vs. 0.74 per 100 person-years, logrank test, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

MgO use is an independent risk factor for hip fracture in the elderly.

Cobalamin Deficiency in the Elderly

Older people are at risk for cobalamin (vitamin B₁₂) deficiency because of a number of common disorders (e.g., autoimmune gastritis) and drugs (e.g., antacids) that may alter its absorption and utilization. The prevalence of cobalamin deficiency increases with age, resulting, particularly elevated, in frail and institutionalized subjects. At variance with common sense, the diagnosis is far from simple. It requires a high degree of suspicion, due to heterogeneity and non-specificity of the signs and symptoms, ranging from macrocytosis (with or without anemia) to neuropsychiatric manifestations, that characterize several other aging-related disorders, like hematological malignancies, diabetes, hypothyroidism or vasculopathy. Furthermore, the detection of low levels of serum vitamin B₁₂ appears poorly sensitive and specific. Other biomarkers, like serum homocysteine or methylmalonic acid, have improved the diagnostic possibilities but are expensive, not widely available, and may be influenced by some confounders (e.g., folate deficiency, or chronic renal failure). Early recognition and treatment are crucial since a proportion of patients develop severe complications, such as bone marrow failure and irreversible neurological impairment. High-dose oral treatment has proven to be as effective as the parenteral route, even in subjects with malabsorption, ensuring the complete resolution in the majority of cases. In this review, we trace the essential role of cobalamin in humans, the possible causes and impact of deficiency, the diagnostic challenges and the therapeutic options, between old and emerging concepts, with a particular focus on the elderly.

Study of Melatonin as Preventive Agent of Gastrointestinal Damage Induced by Sodium Diclofenac

Safety profile of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) has been widely studied and both therapeutic and side effects at the gastric and cardiovascular level have been generally associated with the inhibitory effect of isoform 1 (COX-1) and 2 (COX-2) cyclooxygenase enzymes. Now there are evidences of the involvement of multiple cellular pathways in the NSAIDs-mediated-gastrointestinal (GI) damage related to enterocyte redox state. In a previous review we summarized the key role of melatonin (MLT), as an antioxidant, in the inhibition of inflammation pathways mediated by oxidative stress in several diseases, which makes us wonder if MLT could minimize GI NSAIDs side effects. So, the aim of this work is to study the effect of MLT as preventive agent of GI injury caused by NSAIDs. With this objective sodium diclofenac (SD) was administered alone and together with MLT in two experimental models, ex vivo studies in pig intestine, using Franz cells, and in vivo studies in mice where stomach and intestine were studied. The histological evaluation of pig intestine samples showed that SD induced the villi alteration, which was prevented by MLT. In vivo experiments showed that SD altered the mice stomach mucosa and induced tissue damage that was prevented by MLT. The evaluation by quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) of two biochemical markers, COX-2 and iNOS, showed an increase of both molecules in less injured tissues, suggesting that MLT promotes tissue healing by improving redox state and by increasing iNOS/NO that under non-oxidative condition is responsible for the maintenance of GI-epithelium integrity, increasing blood flow and promoting angiogenesis and that in presence of MLT, COX-2 may be responsible for wound healing in enterocyte. Therefore, we found that MLT may be a preventive agent of GI damages induced by NSAIDs.

Metformin and Micronutrient Status in Type 2 Diabetes: Does Polypharmacy Involving Acid-Suppressing Medications Affect Vitamin B12 Levels?

Metformin is the first-choice drug in uncomplicated type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and is effective in improving glycaemic control. It is the most widely prescribed oral antidiabetic medicine and has a good safety profile. However, there is an abundance of evidence that metformin use is associated with decreased Vitamin B12 status, though the clinical implications of this in terms of increased risk of diabetic peripheral neuropathy are debated. There is growing evidence that other B vitamins, vitamin D and magnesium may also be impacted by metformin use in addition to alterations to the composition of the microbiome, depending on the dose and duration of therapy. Patients using metformin for prolonged periods may, therefore, need initial screening with intermittent follow-up, particularly since vitamin B₁₂ deficiency has similar symptoms to diabetic neuropathy which itself affects 40-50% of patients with T2DM at some stage. Among patients with T2DM, 40% are reported to experience symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux disease (GORD), of whom 70% use oral antidiabetic medications. The most common medications used to treat GORD are proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and antagonists of histamine selective H₂ receptors (H₂RAs), both of which independently affect vitamin B₁₂ and magnesium status. Research indicates that co-prescribing metformin with either PPIs or H₂RAs can have further deleterious effects on vitamin B₁₂ status. Vitamin B12 deficiency related to metformin and polypharmacy is likely to contribute to the symptoms of diabetic neuropathy which may frequently be under-recognised. This review explores current knowledge surrounding these issues and suggests treatment strategies such as supplementation.

Cobalamin Deficiency: Effect on Homeostasis of Cultured Human Astrocytes

Cobalamin deficiency is an important health problem. The major non-hematological symptoms of hypocobalaminemia are nervous system disorders, but the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying this phenomenon have not yet been fully explained. Increasing scientific evidence is stressing the pivotal role of astrocyte dysfunction in the pathogenesis of a wide range of neurological disorders. In light of the above, the aim of this study was to develop an in vitro model of cobalamin deficiency by optimizing the conditions of astrocyte culture in the presence of vitamin B₁₂ antagonist, and then the model was used for multidirectional analysis of astrocyte homeostasis using image cytometry, immunoenzymatic and colorimetric assays, and fluorescence spectroscopy. Our results indicated that long-term incubation of normal human astrocytes with hydroxycobalamin(c-lactam) causes an increase of extracellular homocysteine level, a reduction of cell proliferation, and an accumulation of cells in the G₂/M cell cycle phase. Moreover, we observed dramatic activation of caspases and an increase of catalase activity. Interestingly, we excluded extensive apoptosis and oxidative stress. The study provided significant evidence for astrocyte homeostasis disturbance under hypocobalaminemia, thus indicating an important element of the molecular mechanism of nervous system diseases related to vitamin B₁₂ deficiency.

Insights into Effects/Risks of Chronic Hypergastrinemia and Lifelong PPI Treatment in Man Based on Studies of Patients with Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome

The use of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) over the last 30 years has rapidly increased both in the United States and worldwide. PPIs are not only very widely used both for approved indications (peptic ulcer disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), Helicobacter pylori eradication regimens, stress ulcer prevention), but are also one of the most frequently off-label used drugs (25–70% of total). An increasing number of patients with moderate to advanced gastroesophageal reflux disease are remaining on PPI indefinitely. Whereas numerous studies show PPIs remain effective and safe, most of these studies are <5 years of duration and little data exist for >10 years of treatment. Recently, based primarily on observational/epidemiological studies, there have been an increasing number of reports raising issues about safety and side-effects with very long-term chronic treatment. Some of these safety issues are related to the possible long-term effects of chronic hypergastrinemia, which occurs in all patients taking chronic PPIs, others are related to the hypo-/achlorhydria that frequently occurs with chronic PPI treatment, and in others the mechanisms are unclear. These issues have raised considerable controversy in large part because of lack of long-term PPI treatment data (>10–20 years). Zollinger–Ellison syndrome (ZES) is caused by ectopic secretion of gastrin from a neuroendocrine tumor resulting in severe acid hypersecretion requiring life-long antisecretory treatment with PPIs, which are the drugs of choice. Because in <30% of patients with ZES, a long-term cure is not possible, these patients have life-long hypergastrinemia and require life-long treatment with PPIs. Therefore, ZES patients have been proposed as a good model of the long-term effects of hypergastrinemia in man as well as the effects/side-effects of very long-term PPI treatment. In this article, the insights from studies on ZES into these controversial issues with pertinence to chronic PPI use in non-ZES patients is reviewed, primarily concentrating on data from the prospective long-term studies of ZES patients at NIH.

Effect of Gastric Acid Suppressants on Response to a Physical Activity Intervention and Major Mobility Disability in Older Adults: Results from the Lifestyle Interventions for Elders (LIFE) Study

OBJECTIVES

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and histamine2 receptor antagonists (H2 RAs) are associated with pharmacologic effects that may be detrimental to mobility and response to physical activity. Mobility disability and injurious fall outcomes in PPI and H2 RA users were compared with nonusers in this secondary analysis of data from the Lifestyle Interventions for Elders (LIFE) study.

METHODS

Participants ages 70-89 years were randomized to a physical activity (PA) or successful aging intervention and evaluated by medication use. Confounders included baseline demographic characteristics, physical function, cognitive function, sleep quality, and acid reflux symptoms that were adjusted via propensity score weighting. Outcomes were incident and persistent major mobility disability (MMD and pMMD) and injurious falls. Weighted proportional hazard models evaluated independent and interaction effects of PPIs and H2 RAs.

RESULTS

No interaction was found between PPIs and H2 RAs and the PA intervention. Drug use associations were significant for H2 RAs (hazard ratio [HR] 1.74 [95% confidence interval [CI] 1.12-2.68]) and PPIs (HR 1.32 [95% CI 1.02-1.70]) compared with nonusers for pMMD. PPIs were associated with increased injurious falls compared with nonusers (HR 1.44 [95% CI 1.06-1.96]). Pooling of data from the H2 RA and PPI exposure groups showed a 26% increase in MMD (HR 1.26 [95% CI 1.07-1.48]), a 44% increase in pMMD (HR 1.44 [95% CI 1.16-1.77]), and a 48% increase in injurious falls (HR 1.48 [95% CI 1.15-1.91]) compared with nonusers. All direct comparisons between PPIs and H2 RAs were nonsignificant.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with nonusers, participants using either PPIs or H2 RAs had an increased risk of MMD, pMMD, and injurious falls. It is not known if these effects are related to the individual pharmacology of each medication, reduced acid secretion, or the underlying disease state. Further study is required to determine causality.

Proton Pump Inhibitors and Fracture Risk: A Review of Current Evidence and Mechanisms Involved

The number of patients with gastroesophageal problems taking proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) is increasing. Several studies suggested a possible association between PPIs and fracture risk, especially hip fractures, but the relationship remains contentious. This review aimed to investigate the longitudinal studies published in the last five years on the relationship between PPIs and fracture risk. The mechanism underlying this relationship was also explored. Overall, PPIs were positively associated with elevated fracture risk in multiple studies (n = 14), although some studies reported no significant relationship (n = 4). Increased gastrin production and hypochlorhydria are the two main mechanisms that affect bone remodeling, mineral absorption, and muscle strength, contributing to increased fracture risk among PPI users. As a conclusion, there is a potential relationship between PPIs and fracture risks. Therefore, patients on long-term PPI treatment should pay attention to bone health status and consider prophylaxis to decrease fracture risk.

Vitamin D and vitamin B12 deficiencies in patients with small intestinal carcinoid tumour: is opioid use disorder a confounding factor in the diagnosis?

Carcinoid tumours have the ability to secrete various peptides and bioamines that lead to carcinoid syndrome manifested as cutaneous flushing, diarrhoea, bronchial constriction and cardiac involvement. The deficiencies of vitamins D and B₁₂ have previously been reported in patients with carcinoid tumours presumably due to chronic diarrhoea associated with the carcinoid syndrome. Herein, we chronicle the case of a patient with opioid use disorder who presented with small bowel obstruction that was found to be caused by a midgut carcinoid tumour. Laboratory studies revealed deficiencies of vitamins D and B₁₂ even though he denied diarrhoea and had no other aetiology of deficiencies of these vitamins. Additionally, this paper presents a review of the published medical literature pertaining to clinical features, diagnostic investigations and treatment of intestinal carcinoid tumours and explores possible explanations for the observed deficiencies in these patients.

Depression, Hematologic Parameters, and Blood Levels of Vitamin B12 in Patients With Laryngopharyngeal Reflux Under Use of Proton Pump Inhibitors

Objective

The objective of this study was to evaluate and correlate hematologic indices, vitamin B₁₂ levels, and depression in patients with suspected laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) treated with proton pump inhibitor (PPI).

Methods

This was a prospective study with a population (n = 23) consisted of patients with suspected LPR and treated with 2 daily doses of Omeprazole 40 mg (80 mg or full dose). The study volunteers performed a complete blood count and vitamin B₁₂ dosage before and after 3 and 6 months of treatment, as well as depression screening using the Center of Epidemiologic Studies-Depression (CES-D) questionnaire before and after 6 months of treatment. Scores greater than 16 were considered as suggestive of depression.

Results

The mean score on the CES-D scale of study participants at baseline significantly decreased after 6 months of treatment. A significant decrease was observed in the red blood cells count (RBC) after 6 months in relation to 3 months. Significant increases in mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH) were observed from 3 months to 6 months in this study. Vitamin B₁₂ levels increased significantly between baseline and after 6 months of treatment.

Conclusion

Decreased scores on the CES-D scale were associated with increased MCV values, with no association with vitamin B₁₂ levels. However, vitamin B₁₂ levels also increased significantly after 6 months of treatment with PPI.

Proton pump inhibitor use and risk of dementia: Systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are an established kind of drugs used to the treatment of most acid-related diseases. Some prospective studies have noticed that PPI use was associated with increased dementia risk. However, the results of those studies were inconsistent and controversial. This meta-analysis aims to determine the association of PPI use and risk of dementia among older people.

METHODS

Relevant articles were systematically identified by searching the PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases from inception to February 2018. Cohort studies that reported the risk of dementia or Alzheimer's disease (AD) among PPI users compared with non-PPI users were included. The quality of studies was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS). The publication bias was detected by a funnel plot and Egger test. The meta-analysis will abstract risk estimates including relative risks (RRs), hazard ratios (HRs), and odds ratios (ORs) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) for the associations between PPI use and dementia or Alzheimer's risk. Study-specific results were pooled using a random-effects model.

RESULTS

Six cohort studies were selected finally. The pooled RRs of dementia and AD were 1.23 (95% CI: 0.90-1.67) and 1.01 (95% CI: 0.78-1.32), respectively, compared with those of non-PPI use. The Egger test and funnel plot showed no existence of publication bias. Overall, there was no statistically significant association between PPI use and risk of dementia or AD (P >.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis suggests that there was no statistical association between PPIs use and increased risk of dementia or AD.

Axonal Sensorimotor Polyneuropathies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This article describes clinical features of axonal sensorimotor polyneuropathies based on selected etiologies.

RECENT FINDINGS

Axonal sensorimotor polyneuropathies have been well described for some time. Recent advances include the assessment of the incidence of peripheral neuropathy in the elderly, the recognition of the limited influence of electrodiagnostic testing on the clinical management of uncomplicated axonal sensorimotor polyneuropathy, the development of guidelines for treatment of painful neuropathy, the identification of risk factors predisposing patients for chemotherapy-induced neuropathy, a report on the association of metabolic syndrome and idiopathic axonal sensorimotor neuropathy, and the availability of more cost-effective genetic testing for identifying inherited polyneuropathies.

SUMMARY

Axonal sensorimotor polyneuropathies carry an extensive list of differential diagnoses. Diagnosis is based on detailed history, physical examination, recognition of associated neurologic and non-neurologic features, and appropriate testing. Disease-modifying treatments are lacking in many cases. Management focuses on modification of predisposing lifestyle and medical factors, rehabilitation, and pain relief.

Proton Pump Inhibitors: Risks and Rewards and Emerging Consequences to the Gut Microbiome

In recent years, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) have been criticized for their various adverse interactions and side effects, creating a dilemma among practitioners regarding their use. Our goal is to review the proper use and possible side effects that might be caused by or associated with PPI use. Conclusions were drawn based on the evidence supporting or refuting short-term and long-term adverse events associated with PPI use. We also looked for the evidence regarding effects of PPIs on gut microbiota and their overall safety profile. Although there are significant discrepancies in the current literature regarding various adverse effects associated with PPI use, current data suggest that PPI use is not associated with an increased risk of bone fractures, community-acquired pneumonia, cardiovascular events, hypocalcemia, and gastric malignancies. A mild increased risk of vitamin B₁₂ deficiency and chronic kidney disease, and a moderate increase in the risk of rebound hypersecretion, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, and enteric infections, including Clostridium difficile, has been noted with PPI therapy. PPI's link with dementia and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis is not clear and requires further investigation. When used appropriately, PPIs are safe medications and are associated with minimal side effects. A clear indication and potential short-term and long-term side effects should be considered before starting PPI therapy.

Proton Pump Inhibitors, H2-Receptor Antagonists, Metformin, and Vitamin B-12 Deficiency: Clinical Implications

There is clear evidence that proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs), H2-receptor antagonists (H2RAs), and metformin can reduce serum vitamin B-12 concentrations by inhibiting the absorption of the vitamin. However, it is unclear if the effects of these drugs on serum vitamin B-12 are associated with increased risk of biochemical or functional deficiency (as is indicated by elevated blood concentrations of homocysteine and methylmalonic acid) or clinical deficiency (including megaloblastic anemia and neurologic disorders such as peripheral neuropathy and cognitive dysfunction). This review provides an overview of vitamin B-12 absorption and biochemistry and the mechanisms by which PPIs, H2RAs, and metformin affect these functions. It also summarizes the literature relating the use of these drugs to the risk of vitamin B-12 deficiency. Also discussed is that strategies for assessing vitamin B-12 status and diagnosing vitamin B-12 deficiency have evolved in recent years beyond solely measuring serum total vitamin B-12. Multiple analyte testing, a strategy in which ≥2 of 4 biomarkers of vitamin B-12 status-serum total vitamin B-12, holotranscobalamin, homocysteine, and methylmalonic acid-are measured, increases sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing vitamin B-12 deficiency. It is concluded that randomized controlled trials are now needed that use the strategy of multiple analyte testing to determine if PPIs, H2RAs, and metformin do indeed increase the risk of vitamin B-12 deficiency. Until these studies are conducted, a reasonable recommendation for physicians and their patients who are taking these drugs is to monitor vitamin B-12 status and to provide vitamin B-12 supplements if altered blood biomarkers or clinical signs consistent with low or deficient vitamin B-12 status develop.

Healthy ageing: the natural consequences of good nutrition-a conference report

Many countries are witnessing a marked increase in longevity and with this increased lifespan and the desire for healthy ageing, many, however, suffer from the opposite including mental and physical deterioration, lost productivity and quality of life, and increased medical costs. While adequate nutrition is fundamental for good health, it remains unclear what impact various dietary interventions may have on prolonging good quality of life. Studies which span age, geography and income all suggest that access to quality foods, host immunity and response to inflammation/infections, impaired senses (i.e., sight, taste, smell) or mobility are all factors which can limit intake or increase the body's need for specific micronutrients. New clinical studies of healthy ageing are needed and quantitative biomarkers are an essential component, particularly tools which can measure improvements in physiological integrity throughout life, thought to be a primary contributor to a long and productive life (a healthy "lifespan"). A framework for progress has recently been proposed in a WHO report which takes a broad, person-centered focus on healthy ageing, emphasizing the need to better understand an individual's intrinsic capacity, their functional abilities at various life stages, and the impact by mental, and physical health, and the environments they inhabit.

Discontinuing Long-Term PPI Therapy: Why, With Whom, and How?

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are among the most widely used class of drugs prescribed over the long term in all of clinical medicine with 8-10% of ambulatory adults have been prescribed a PPI in the past 30 days. However, numerous studies have raised doubts about the long term safety of PPI use. The purpose of this review is threefold: (i) To provide an overview of the current evidence demonstrating associations between PPI use and adverse health outcomes and the likelihood of the associations being causal (Why?); (ii) To be able to identify long-term PPI users in whom the intensity of PPI therapy could be reduced or in whom PPIs could be eliminated outright (Who?); and (iii) To provide strategies on how to reduce or stop chronic PPI therapy while maintaining symptom control and reducing the risk for symptom or upper GI disease recurrence (How?).

Clinical Practice Guideline: Hoarseness (Dysphonia) (Update)

Objective

This guideline provides evidence-based recommendations on treating patients who present with dysphonia, which is characterized by altered vocal quality, pitch, loudness, or vocal effort that impairs communication and/or quality of life. Dysphonia affects nearly one-third of the population at some point in its life. This guideline applies to all age groups evaluated in a setting where dysphonia would be identified or managed. It is intended for all clinicians who are likely to diagnose and treat patients with dysphonia.

Purpose

The primary purpose of this guideline is to improve the quality of care for patients with dysphonia, based on current best evidence. Expert consensus to fill evidence gaps, when used, is explicitly stated and supported with a detailed evidence profile for transparency. Specific objectives of the guideline are to reduce inappropriate variations in care, produce optimal health outcomes, and minimize harm. For this guideline update, the American Academy of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery Foundation selected a panel representing the fields of advanced practice nursing, bronchoesophagology, consumer advocacy, family medicine, geriatric medicine, internal medicine, laryngology, neurology, otolaryngology–head and neck surgery, pediatrics, professional voice, pulmonology, and speech-language pathology.

Action Statements

The guideline update group made strong recommendations for the following key action statements (KASs): (1) Clinicians should assess the patient with dysphonia by history and physical examination to identify factors where expedited laryngeal evaluation is indicated. These include, but are not limited to, recent surgical procedures involving the head, neck, or chest; recent endotracheal intubation; presence of concomitant neck mass; respiratory distress or stridor; history of tobacco abuse; and whether the patient is a professional voice user. (2) Clinicians should advocate voice therapy for patients with dysphonia from a cause amenable to voice therapy. The guideline update group made recommendations for the following KASs: (1) Clinicians should identify dysphonia in a patient with altered voice quality, pitch, loudness, or vocal effort that impairs communication or reduces quality of life (QOL). (2) Clinicians should assess the patient with dysphonia by history and physical examination for underlying causes of dysphonia and factors that modify management. (3) Clinicians should perform laryngoscopy, or refer to a clinician who can perform laryngoscopy, when dysphonia fails to resolve or improve within 4 weeks or irrespective of duration if a serious underlying cause is suspected. (4) Clinicians should perform diagnostic laryngoscopy, or refer to a clinician who can perform diagnostic laryngoscopy, before prescribing voice therapy and document/communicate the results to the speech-language pathologist (SLP). (5) Clinicians should advocate for surgery as a therapeutic option for patients with dysphonia with conditions amenable to surgical intervention, such as suspected malignancy, symptomatic benign vocal fold lesions that do not respond to conservative management, or glottic insufficiency. (6) Clinicians should offer, or refer to a clinician who can offer, botulinum toxin injections for the treatment of dysphonia caused by spasmodic dysphonia and other types of laryngeal dystonia. (7) Clinicians should inform patients with dysphonia about control/preventive measures. (8) Clinicians should document resolution, improvement or worsened symptoms of dysphonia, or change in QOL of patients with dysphonia after treatment or observation. The guideline update group made a strong recommendation against 1 action: (1) Clinicians should not routinely prescribe antibiotics to treat dysphonia. The guideline update group made recommendations against other actions: (1) Clinicians should not obtain computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for patients with a primary voice complaint prior to visualization of the larynx. (2) Clinicians should not prescribe antireflux medications to treat isolated dysphonia, based on symptoms alone attributed to suspected gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) or laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR), without visualization of the larynx. (3) Clinicians should not routinely prescribe corticosteroids for patients with dysphonia prior to visualization of the larynx. The policy level for the following recommendation about laryngoscopy at any time was an option: (1) Clinicians may perform diagnostic laryngoscopy at any time in a patient with dysphonia.

Disclaimer

This clinical practice guideline is not intended as an exhaustive source of guidance for managing dysphonia (hoarseness). Rather, it is designed to assist clinicians by providing an evidence-based framework for decision-making strategies. The guideline is not intended to replace clinical judgment or establish a protocol for all individuals with this condition, and it may not provide the only appropriate approach to diagnosing and managing this problem. Differences from Prior Guideline (1) Incorporation of new evidence profiles to include the role of patient preferences, confidence in the evidence, differences of opinion, quality improvement opportunities, and any exclusion to which the action statement does not apply (2) Inclusion of 3 new guidelines, 16 new systematic reviews, and 4 new randomized controlled trials (3) Inclusion of a consumer advocate on the guideline update group (4) Changes to 9 KASs from the original guideline (5) New KAS 3 (escalation of care) and KAS 13 (outcomes) (6) Addition of an algorithm outlining KASs for patients with dysphonia

Emerging dilemmas in the diagnosis and management of gastroesophageal reflux disease

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is common, but less so than widely reported because of inconsistencies in definition. In clinical practice, the diagnosis is usually based on a symptom assessment without testing, and the extent of diagnostic testing pursued should be limited to that which guides management or which protects the patient from the risks of a potentially morbid treatment or an undetected early (or imminent) esophageal adenocarcinoma or which does both. When testing is pursued, upper gastrointestinal endoscopy is the most useful initial diagnostic test because it evaluates for the major potential morbidities (Barrett's, stricture, and cancer) associated with GERD and facilitates the identification of some alternative diagnostic possibilities such as eosinophilic esophagitis. However, endoscopy is insensitive for diagnosing GERD because most patients with GERD have non-erosive reflux disease, a persistent diagnostic dilemma. Although many studies have tried to objectify the diagnosis of GERD with improved technology, this is ultimately a pragmatic diagnosis based on response to proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy, and, in the end, response to PPI therapy becomes the major indication for continued PPI therapy. Conversely, in the absence of objective criteria for GERD and the absence of apparent clinical benefit, PPI therapy is not indicated and should be discontinued. PPIs are well tolerated and safe, but nothing is perfectly safe, and in the absence of measurable benefit, even a miniscule risk dominates the risk-benefit assessment.

Adverse effects of proton-pump inhibitor use in older adults: a review of the evidence

Proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) are a widely prescribed class of medications used to treat acid-related disorders and use has significantly increased over the last few decades. PPIs are often inappropriately prescribed and since they have been on the market, a number of post-marketing studies have been published demonstrating associations between longer duration of PPI therapy and a number of adverse effects that are a concern in older adults. The objective of this review is to discuss the existing literature of potential adverse effects with long-term PPI use in older adults and to summarize the implications in clinical practice. A PubMed search was conducted to identify studies evaluating the potential long-term adverse effects of PPI therapy in older adults, and publications were selected based on relevant criteria. PPIs have been associated with an increased risk of a number of adverse effects including osteoporotic-related fractures, Clostridium difficile infection, community-acquired pneumonia, vitamin B12 deficiency, kidney disease, and dementia, demonstrated by a number of case-control, cohort studies, and meta-analyses. Older adults should be periodically evaluated for the need for continued use of PPI therapy given the number of potential adverse effects associated with long-term use.