Are there genetic influences on addiction: evidence from family, adoption and twin studies

Sweet-liking and sugar supplementation as innovative components in substance use disorder treatment: A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

Substance use disorders are a major global public health concern. While a wide range of psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies are available for their treatment, efficacy is limited and many patients fail to benefit from these treatments. Like addictive substances, sugar seems to trigger the dopaminergic reward centre, and sweet-liking might be a modifier of substance use disorder treatment.

METHOD

Systematic review to summarize the role of sugar and sugar-liking in addiction and addiction treatment.

RESULTS

Evidence from both preclinical and clinical studies suggests that a certain portion of the population has a genetic predisposition for sweet-liking, which might be related to a higher risk for substance use and dependence. Regarding nicotine dependence, glucose supplementation prior to or during smoking cessation rapidly mitigates withdrawal symptoms and increases smoking abstinence rates during nicotine replacement therapy. In alcohol dependence, sweet-liking patients encounter more challenges in achieving abstinence than sweet-disliking patients. In addition, sweet-liking patients with high cravings demonstrate higher abstinence rates than sweet-disliking patients. Finally, sweet-liking is associated with successful outcomes of naltrexone treatment in patients with an alcohol use disorder.

CONCLUSION

These findings present promising new challenges and opportunities to fine-tune and optimize treatment protocols in addiction care.

The role of genetics in neonatal abstinence syndrome

Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS) after in-utero exposure to opioids remains a significant public health concern. NAS is a highly variable condition in which presentation and severity cannot be explained by clinical factors alone. Research in human subjects has identified both genetic and epigenetic associations with prenatal opioid exposure and NAS severity, including single nucleotide polymorphisms, DNA methylation differences, and gene expression modifications. Animal studies have also identified key gene pathways that are likely important contributors to NAS phenotype. The clinical significance of identified genetic associations with NAS are unclear and warrant further study to see how they could impact NAS management.

Neurobiology, psychotherapeutic interventions, and emerging therapies in addiction: a systematic review

Substance use disorders (SUDs) represent a major challenge in psychiatric treatment, with significant relapse rates despite various psychotherapeutic interventions. This systematic review explores the neurobiological underpinnings of addiction and examines the efficacy of psychotherapies, such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), Mindfulness-Based Relapse Prevention (MBRP), and emerging therapies in treating SUDs. Additionally, the study assesses how emerging biomarkers and neuroimaging data could enhance therapeutic outcomes by guiding personalized treatments. Neurobiological markers, such as prefrontal-limbic connectivity, mesolimbic dopaminergic dysregulation, and glutamate transmission deficits, are shown to significantly influence treatment efficacy. For example, prefrontal cortex hypoactivity and amygdala hyperactivity correlate with poor impulse control and emotional regulation, making these individuals more responsive to CBT and EMDR. Similarly, dopaminergic dysfunction in the mesolimbic pathway is closely tied to reward-seeking behavior where Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) may offer therapeutic benefits. Epigenetic modifications, primarily those affecting the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), highlight the role of stress in relapse suggesting that trauma-focused therapies can be effective for individuals with high stress vulnerability. This review finds that integrating neurobiological insights with clinically validated psychometric assessments could significantly improve treatment stratification. Future research should focus on aligning diagnostic systems, such as the DSM-5, with neurobiological markers and psychological tells to facilitate more precise and personalized interventions, potentially transforming addiction treatment outcomes.

Molecular and Environmental Determinants of Addictive Substances

Knowledge about determinants of addiction in people taking addictive substances is poor and needs to be supplemented. The novelty of this paper consists in the analysis of innovative aspects of current research about relationships between determinants of addiction in Polish patients taking addictive substances and rare available data regarding the relationships between these factors from studies from recent years from other environments, mainly in Europe, and on the development of genetic determinants of physiological responses. We try to explain the role of the microelements Mn, Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, Cr, Ni, Tl, Se, Al, B, Mo, V, Sn, Sb, Ag, Sr, and Ba, the toxic metals Cd, Hg, As, and Pb, and the rare earth elements Sc, La, Ce, Pr, Eu, Gd, and Nd as factors that may shape the development of addiction to addictive substances or drugs. The interactions between factors (gene polymorphism, especially ANKK1 (TaqI A), ANKK1 (Taq1 A-CT), DRD2 (TaqI B, DRD2 Taq1 B-GA, DRD2 Taq1 B-AA, DRD2-141C Ins/Del), and OPRM1 (A118G)) in patients addicted to addictive substances and consumption of vegetables, consumption of dairy products, exposure to harmful factors, and their relationships with physiological responses, which confirm the importance of internal factors as determinants of addiction, are analyzed, taking into account gender and region. The innovation of this review is to show that the homozygous TT mutant of the ANKK1 TaqI A polymorphism rs 1800497 may be a factor in increased risk of opioid dependence. We identify a variation in the functioning of the immune system in addicted patients from different environments as a result of the interaction of polymorphisms.

Exploring perceptions of genetic risk and the transmission of substance use disorders

BACKGROUND

Substance use disorders (SUDs) have been consistently shown to exhibit moderate intergenerational continuity (1-3). While much research has examined genetic and social influences on addiction, less attention has been paid to clients' and lay persons' perceptions of genetic influences on the heritability of SUD (4) and implications for treatment.

METHODS

For this qualitative study, twenty-six structured Working Model of the Child Interviews (WMCI) were conducted with mothers receiving inpatient SUD treatment. These interviews were thematically analyzed for themes related to maternal perceptions around intergenerational transmission of substance use behaviours.

RESULTS

Findings show that over half of the mothers in this sample were preoccupied with their children's risk factors for addictions. Among this group, 29% spontaneously expressed concerns about their children's genetic risk for addiction, 54% shared worries about their children's propensity for addiction without mentioning the word gene or genetic. Additionally, 37% had challenges in even discussing their children's future when prompted. These concerns mapped onto internal working models of attachment in unexpected ways, with parents who were coded with balanced working models being more likely to discuss intergenerational risk factors and parents with disengaged working models displaying difficulties in discussing their child's future.

CONCLUSION

This research suggests that the dominant discourse around the brain-disease model of addictions, in its effort to reduce stigma and self-blame, may have unintended downstream consequences for parents' mental models about their children's risks for future addiction. Parents receiving SUD treatment, and the staff who deliver it, may benefit from psychoeducation about the intergenerational transmission of SUD as part of treatment.

Neurological Disorders Induced by Drug Use: Effects of Adolescent and Embryonic Drug Exposure on Behavioral Neurodevelopment

Clinical studies demonstrate that the risk of developing neurological disorders is increased by overconsumption of the commonly used drugs, alcohol, nicotine and cannabis. These drug-induced neurological disorders, which include substance use disorder (SUD) and its co-occurring emotional conditions such as anxiety and depression, are observed not only in adults but also with drug use during adolescence and after prenatal exposure to these drugs, and they are accompanied by long-lasting disturbances in brain development. This report provides overviews of clinical and preclinical studies, which confirm these adverse effects in adolescents and the offspring prenatally exposed to the drugs and include a more in-depth description of specific neuronal systems, their neurocircuitry and molecular mechanisms, affected by drug exposure and of specific techniques used to determine if these effects in the brain are causally related to the behavioral disturbances. With analysis of further studies, this review then addresses four specific questions that are important for fully understanding the impact that drug use in young individuals can have on future pregnancies and their offspring. Evidence demonstrates that the adverse effects on their brain and behavior can occur: (1) at low doses with short periods of drug exposure during pregnancy; (2) after pre-conception drug use by both females and males; (3) in subsequent generations following the initial drug exposure; and (4) in a sex-dependent manner, with drug use producing a greater risk in females than males of developing SUDs with emotional conditions and female offspring after prenatal drug exposure responding more adversely than male offspring. With the recent rise in drug use by adolescents and pregnant women that has occurred in association with the legalization of cannabis and increased availability of vaping tools, these conclusions from the clinical and preclinical literature are particularly alarming and underscore the urgent need to educate young women and men about the possible harmful effects of early drug use and to seek novel therapeutic strategies that might help to limit drug use in young individuals.

Generalized genetic liability to substance use disorders

Lifetime and temporal co-occurrence of substance use disorders (SUDs) is common and compared with individual SUDs is characterized by greater severity, additional psychiatric comorbidities, and worse outcomes. Here, we review evidence for the role of generalized genetic liability to various SUDs. Coaggregation of SUDs has familial contributions, with twin studies suggesting a strong contribution of additive genetic influences undergirding use disorders for a variety of substances (including alcohol, nicotine, cannabis, and others). GWAS have documented similarly large genetic correlations between alcohol, cannabis, and opioid use disorders. Extending these findings, recent studies have identified multiple genomic loci that contribute to common risk for these SUDs and problematic tobacco use, implicating dopaminergic regulatory and neuronal development mechanisms in the pathophysiology of generalized SUD genetic liability, with certain signals demonstrating cross-species and translational validity. Overlap with genetic signals for other externalizing behaviors, while substantial, does not explain the entirety of the generalized genetic signal for SUD. Polygenic scores (PGS) derived from the generalized genetic liability to SUDs outperform PGS for individual SUDs in prediction of serious mental health and medical comorbidities. Going forward, it will be important to further elucidate the etiology of generalized SUD genetic liability by incorporating additional SUDs, evaluating clinical presentation across the lifespan, and increasing the granularity of investigation (e.g., specific transdiagnostic criteria) to ultimately improve the nosology, prevention, and treatment of SUDs.

Perceived parental alcohol problems and drinking patterns among adolescents in Sweden

Introduction

Much research into the links between parental problematic alcohol use and adolescent substance use has focused on clinically diagnosed parental alcohol disorders. Few prior studies have utilised validated measures of adolescents' perception of parental alcohol problems and considered the severity of these problems. This study examined the associations between the severity of perceived parental alcohol problems and adolescents' drinking patterns in a Swedish national sample.

Methods

We used survey information from grade 9 and 11 students (15-18 years) from 2021 (n = 9,227). Perceived parental alcohol problems were measured by the short version of The Children of Alcoholics Screening Test (CAST-6). The outcomes were: alcohol consumption during the past 12 months, frequent heavy episodic drinking (HED), and early alcohol debut (before age 14). Sociodemographic characteristics were adjusted for.

Results

Binary logistic regressions showed that the severity of perceived parental alcohol problems was associated with alcohol consumption during the past 12 months (low severity OR 1.53, p < 0.001; moderate severity OR 1.85, p < 0.001; high severity OR 2.52, p < 0.001), HED (low severity OR 1.16, n.s.; moderate severity OR 1.31, n.s.; high severity OR 1.64, p < 0.01), and early alcohol debut (low severity OR 1.57, p < 0.001; moderate severity OR 1.65, p < 0.001; high severity OR 2.20, p < 0.001).

Conclusions

Adolescents with perceived parental alcohol problems are more likely to have risky drinking patterns themselves, and the likelihood becomes higher with increased severity. Effective interventions for children whose parents have drinking problems are important, and should also take the severity of the parents' drinking problem into account.

Disentangling heterogeneity in substance use disorder: Insights from genome-wide polygenic scores

Substance use disorder (SUD) is a global health problem with a significant impact on individuals and society. The presentation of SUD is diverse, involving various substances, ages at onset, comorbid conditions, and disease trajectories. Current treatments for SUD struggle to address this heterogeneity, resulting in high relapse rates. SUD often co-occurs with other psychiatric and mental health-related conditions that contribute to the heterogeneity of the disorder and predispose to adverse disease trajectories. Family and genetic studies highlight the role of genetic and environmental factors in the course of SUD, and point to a shared genetic liability between SUDs and comorbid psychopathology. In this study, we aimed to disentangle SUD heterogeneity using a deeply phenotyped SUD cohort and polygenic scores (PGSs) for psychiatric disorders and related traits. We explored associations between PGSs and various SUD-related phenotypes, as well as PGS-environment interactions using information on lifetime emotional, physical, and/or sexual abuse. Our results identify clusters of individuals who exhibit differences in their phenotypic profile and reveal different patterns of associations between SUD-related phenotypes and the genetic liability for mental health-related traits, which may help explain part of the heterogeneity observed in SUD. In our SUD sample, we found associations linking the genetic liability for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with lower educational attainment, the genetic liability for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with higher rates of unemployment, the genetic liability for educational attainment with lower rates of criminal records and unemployment, and the genetic liability for well-being with lower rates of outpatient treatments and fewer problems related to family and social relationships. We also found evidence of PGS-environment interactions showing that genetic liability for suicide attempts worsened the psychiatric status in SUD individuals with a history of emotional physical and/or sexual abuse. Collectively, these data contribute to a better understanding of the role of genetic liability for mental health-related conditions and adverse life experiences in SUD heterogeneity.

A dual-omics approach on the effects of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) on ventral tegmental area dopaminergic neurons in response to alcohol consumption in mice

Harmful alcohol consumption is a major socioeconomic burden to the health system, as it can be the cause of mortality of heavy alcohol drinkers. The dopaminergic (DAergic) system is thought to play an important role in the pathogenesis of alcohol drinking behaviour; however, its exact role remains elusive. Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2), a neurotrophic factor, associated with both the DAergic system and alcohol consumption, may play an important role in DAergic neuroadaptations during alcohol abuse. Within this study, we aimed to clarify the role of endogenous FGF-2 on the DAergic system and whether there is a possible link to alcohol consumption. We found that lack of FGF-2 reduces the alcohol intake of mice. Transcriptome analysis of DAergic neurons revealed that FGF-2 knockout (FGF-2 KO) shifts the molecular fingerprint of midbrain dopaminergic (mDA) neurons to DA subtypes of the ventral tegmental area (VTA). In line with this, proteomic changes predominantly appear also in the VTA. Interestingly, these changes led to an altered regulation of the FGF-2 signalling cascades and DAergic pathways in a region-specific manner, which was only marginally affected by voluntary alcohol consumption. Thus, lack of FGF-2 not only affects the gene expression but also the proteome of specific brain regions of mDA neurons. Our study provides new insights into the neuroadaptations of the DAergic system during alcohol abuse and, therefore, comprises novel targets for future pharmacological interventions.

AUD in perspective

Alcohol is a major cause of pre-mature death and individual suffering worldwide, and the importance of diagnosing and treating AUD cannot be overstated. Given the global burden and the high attributable factor of alcohol in a vast number of diseases, the need for additional interventions and the development of new medicines is considered a priority by the World Health Organization (WHO). As of today, AUD is severely under-treated with a treatment gap nearing 90%, strikingly higher than that for other psychiatric disorders. Patients often seek treatment late in the progress of the disease and even among those who seek treatment only a minority receive medication, mirroring the still-prevailing stigma of the disease, and a lack of access to effective treatments, as well as a reluctance to total abstinence. To increase adherence, treatment goals should focus not only on maintaining abstinence, but also on harm reduction and psychosocial functioning. A personalised approach to AUD treatment, with a holistic view, and tailored therapy has the potential to improve AUD treatment outcomes by targeting the heterogeneity in genetics and pathophysiology, as well as reason for, and reaction to drinking. Also, the psychiatric co-morbidity rates are high in AUD and dual diagnosis can worsen symptoms and influence treatment response and should be considered in the treatment strategies.

Bitter taste function-related genes are implicated in the behavioral association between taste preference and ethanol preference in male mice

Alcohol use disorder in humans is highly heritable, and as a term is synonymous with alcoholism, alcohol dependence, and alcohol addiction. Defined by the NIAAA as a medical condition characterized by an impaired ability to stop or control alcohol use despite adverse social, occupational, or health consequences, the genetic basis of alcohol dependence is much studied. However, an intriguing component to alcohol acceptance exists outside of genetics or social factors. In fact, mice of identical genetic backgrounds without any prior experience of tasting ethanol display widely varying preferences to it, far beyond those seen for typical taste solutions. Here, we hypothesized that a preference for ethanol, which tastes both bitter and sweet to humans, would be influenced by taste function. Using a mouse model of taste behavior, we tested preferences for bitter and sweet in mice that, without training or previous experience, either preferred or avoided ethanol solutions in consumption trials. Data showed clear sex differences, in which male mice that preferred ethanol also preferred a bitter quinine solution, whereas female mice that preferred ethanol also preferred a sweet sucralose solution. Male mice preferring ethanol also exhibited lower expression levels of mRNA for genes encoding the bitter taste receptors T2R26 and T2R37, and the bitter transducing G-protein subunit GNAT3, suggesting that the higher ethanol preference observed in the male mice may be due to bitter signaling, including that arising from ethanol, being weaker in this group. Results further support links between ethanol consumption and taste response, and may be relevant to substance abuse issues in human populations.

Neural Network Connectivity Following Opioid Dependence is Altered by a Common Genetic Variant in the µ-Opioid Receptor, OPRM1 A118G

Opioid use disorder is a chronic, relapsing disease associated with persistent changes in brain plasticity. A common single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the µ-opioid receptor gene, OPRM1 A118G, is associated with altered vulnerability to opioid addiction. Reconfiguration of neuronal connectivity may explain dependence risk in individuals with this SNP. Mice with the equivalent Oprm1 variant, A112G, demonstrate sex-specific alterations in the rewarding properties of morphine and heroin. To determine whether this SNP influences network-level changes in neuronal activity, we compared FOS expression in male and female mice that were opioid-naive or opioid-dependent. Network analyses identified significant differences between the AA and GG Oprm1 genotypes. Based on several graph theory metrics, including small-world analysis and degree centrality, we show that GG females in the opioid-dependent state exhibit distinct patterns of connectivity compared to other groups of the same genotype. Using a network control theory approach, we identified key cortical brain regions that drive the transition between opioid-naive and opioid-dependent brain states; however, these regions are less influential in GG females leading to sixfold higher average minimum energy needed to transition from the acute to the dependent state. In addition, we found that the opioid-dependent brain state is significantly less stable in GG females compared to other groups. Collectively, our findings demonstrate sex- and genotype-specific modifications in local, mesoscale, and global properties of functional brain networks following opioid exposure and provide a framework for identifying genotype differences in specific brain regions that play a role in opioid dependence.

Why do people use drugs? A neglected question

The aim of this article is to revisit the multivariate causes of drug use. From the initial drive to experiment, to a progression towards dependence, this review endeavours to extrapolate the aetiology of causation. In doing so, prevalence of, and attitudes towards drug use are firstly examined. Influences on why people use illicit drugs are subsequently explored through the lens of established risk factors. Drug use and dependence are embedded within a complex interplay of invidual, genetic, cultural, and socio-economic components. By exploring the aetiology of drug use in a holistic sense, this will not only aid the therapeutic quality of intervention from clinicians, but enable the development of more comprehensive and tailored intervention plans in supporting recovery.

Does Morphine Exposure Before Gestation Change Anxiety-Like Behavior During Morphine Dependence in Male Wistar Rats?

Background

Anxiety is one of the comorbid disorders of opioid addiction, which leads to opioid abuse or persuades people to engage in opioid abuse. Evidence revealed that morphine exposure before conception changes the offspring's phenotype. The current study aimed to investigate the influence of morphine dependence and abstinence on anxiety-like behavior in morphine-exposed and drug-naïve offspring.

Methods

Adult male and female rats were treated with morphine or vehicle for 21 days. Then, all rats were left without drug treatment for 10 days. A morphine-exposed female rat was mated with either a vehicle-exposed or morphine-abstinent male. According to parental morphine exposure, the offspring were categorized into four distinct groups: (1) control (both drug-naïve parents), (2) paternal morphine-exposed, (3) maternal morphine-exposed, and (4) biparental morphine-exposed. The anxiety-like behavior was measured in adult male offspring using open field and elevated plus-maze tests before morphine exposure (naïve), 21 days after morphine exposure (dependence), and ten days after the last morphine exposure (abstinence).

Findings

The results indicated that anxiety-like behavior increased before morphine exposure in maternal and biparental morphine-exposed offspring (P<0.05). However, after morphine exposure, the anxiety level did not change among the groups. Ten days after the last morphine exposure, anxiety-like behavior increased only in biparental morphine-exposed offspring (P<0.05).

Conclusion

The offspring of morphine-abstinent parents exhibited an anxious phenotype. Disruption of the HPA axis was seen in the progeny of maternal and biparental morphine-exposed rats. Indeed, morphine exposure for 21 days did not change anxiety-like behavior in these offspring which might be correlated to disruption of HPA axis in them.

Health Benefits of Esports: A Systematic Review Comparing the Cardiovascular and Mental Health Impacts of Esports

Sports all over the world are celebrated and embraced as an indicator of triumph of youth and the human experience. Esports have increasingly come to be associated with an industry likened to traditional sports. Professional gamers who continuously define new standards in the areas of gaming, entertainment, and esports have emerged. This systematic review sought to find out the extent to which these virtual sports affect cardiovascular and mental health, both positively and negatively, and if this is comparable to traditional sports to any degree. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses, we reviewed journals and full-text articles that addressed the topic with keywords, such as esports, cardiovascular, mental health, gaming, and virtual reality. Six articles were selected after quality assessment. In summary, rehabilitative medicine currently benefits the most from this entertainment platform, with comparable findings in the positive and negative effects on mental health. Cardiovascular health appears to benefit from esports, with an increase in physical activity with use, but is not at the level of replacing traditional sports. Unlike as seen with traditional sports, addiction to gaming appears to be a steadily emerging issue that mental health practitioners will, in the not-so-distant future, have to lay ground rules for if esports are to be incorporated in everyday affairs.

Sex moderates family history of alcohol use disorder and childhood maltreatment effects on an fMRI stop-signal task

Childhood maltreatment (CM) and a family history (FH) of alcohol use disorder (AUD) are each associated with increased impulsivity. However, their unique or shared brain targets remain unknown. Furthermore, both CM and FH demonstrate sex-dependent effects on brain and behavior. We hypothesized that CM and FH interact in brain regions involved in impulsivity with sex-dependent effects. 144 first-year college students (18-19 years old) with varying experiences of CM and/or FH but without current AUD performed an fMRI stop-signal task. We tested interactions between FH, CM, and sex on task performance and blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal during successful inhibitions. We examined correlations between BOLD response and psychiatric symptoms. Significant three-way interactions of FH, CM, and sex were detected for brain and behavioral data, largely driven by male subjects. In males, CM was associated with poorer response inhibition but only for those with less FH; males with higher levels of both CM and FH demonstrated better response inhibition. Three-way interaction effects on voxel-wise BOLD response during response inhibition were found in bilateral middle frontal gyrus, left inferior frontal gyrus, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, and posterior cingulate cortex. Network-level analyses implicated the left frontoparietal network, executive control network, and default-mode network. Greater BOLD response in these networks correlated with lower depressive, impulsive, and attentional symptoms, reduced alcohol misuse, greater resilience scores, and heightened trait anxiety. The results highlight sex-divergent effects of heritable and environmental risk factors that may account for sex-dependent expression of psychopathology in response to risk factors.

Association of GABA receptor delta subunit gene variations with increased risk of methamphetamine dependence

OBJECTIVE

Evidence reveals that γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors are involved in the development of methamphetamine (METH) dependence. The GABA receptor delta subunit gene (GABRD) might be a good candidate gene for METH dependence. In a case-control study, we investigated the association between the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in GABRD and METH dependence in a Chinese Han population.

METHODS

A total of 300 METH dependent patients and 300 age and sex matched normal control subjects were recruited. Four SNPs (rs13303344, rs4481796, rs2376805, and rs2229110) in GABRD were determined with the TaqMan genotyping assay. The association of the SNPs with METH dependence was assessed.

RESULTS

Only the allele frequency of rs2376805 significantly differed between the patients and controls (P = 0.030). The G allele frequency of rs2376805 was higher in the METH dependent group than in the controls (odds ratio = 1.332, 95 % CI: 1.028-1.724). This association was found in females but not in males. In females, the frequencies of genotype and allele at rs2376805 significantly differed between the patients and controls (P = 0.025, 0.022, respectively); the rs2376805 G allele may also be a risk factor for METH dependence (odds ratio = 1.548, 95 % CI: 1.063-2.257). The haplotype ACGT frequency significantly differed between the patients and controls in total subjects (P = 0.008, odds ratio = 1.815, 95 % CI: 1.183-2.782), as well as in females (P = 0.005, odds ratio = 2.702, 95 % CI: 1.313-5.562). In females only, the METH craving score was significantly lower in patients harboring the G allele at rs2376805 than in those harboring the homozygous AA genotype (P = 0.044).

CONCLUSION

The preliminary results indicate that GABRD rs2376805 is associated with METH dependence, especially in females.

Associations between the COMT rs4680 Gene Polymorphism and Personality Dimensions and Anxiety in Patients with a Diagnosis of Other Stimulants Dependence

BACKGROUND

Research on the hypodopaminergic hypothesis of addictions showed that hypodopaminergic activity in males predicted the number of drugs used and is associated with drug-seeking behavior. Variant alleles may cause hypodopaminergic functioning as a result of the reduced density of dopamine receptors, decreased response to dopamine, increased dopamine clearance or metabolism in the reward system. The catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) is involved in the metabolism of dopamine. Personality traits may mediate the genetic predisposition to substance use disorders additively by various motivations associated with reward-seeking and regulating negative emotions, and also relate to self-control and environment selection.

THE AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to investigate the association of the rs4680 polymorphism of COMT with personality dimensions and anxiety in patients addicted to stimulants other than cocaine (F15 according to WHO ICD-10 nomenclature) in the case of examined patients amphetamine.

METHODS

The study was conducted among patients addicted to stimulants other than cocaine (amphetamine). The study group included 247 patients addicted to stimulants (amphetamine) and the control group comprised 280 healthy male volunteers. The real-time PCR method was used to carry out genetic tests; personality dimensions were assessed using the standardized NEO-FFI and state and trait anxiety were assessed with STAI. All analyses were performed using STATISTICA 13.

RESULTS

The results of the 2 × 3 factorial ANOVA showed a statistically significant effect of the combined factor COMT rs4680 genotype on the group of patients diagnosed with other stimulants dependence/control (F_2,252 = 3.11, p = 0.0465, η² = 0.024). Additionally, we observed that the results of the 2 × 3 factorial ANOVA showed a statistically significant influence of the combined factor COMT rs4680 on the genotype in the group of patients diagnosis with other stimulants dependence/control (F_2,252 = 6.16, p = 0.0024, η² = 0.047).

CONCLUSIONS

In our research, the polymorphism G/G COMT rs4680 genotype was associated with higher scores of STAI traits and STAI states in the patients dependent on amphetamine. In the control group we observed no such interactions.

Expression of stable and reliable preference and aversion phenotypes following place conditioning with psychostimulants

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

Drug-seeking behavior occurs more readily in some individuals than others. This phenomenon is considered in studies of drug self-administration in which high drug-seeking/taking individuals can be identified. In contrast, studies of conditioned place preference (CPP) often involve a random sample of drug-naïve rodents that includes phenotypes not considered relevant to addiction. The main objective of the current studies was to determine if a priori identification of different conditioning phenotypes could improve the validity and sensitivity of CPP expression as a preclinical test for vulnerability to addiction.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Analysis of cocaine place conditioning data from 443 Swiss-Webster mice revealed a trimodal distribution with peaks corresponding to means of k = 3 clusters. The cluster means occurred at high, low, or negative preference scores, the latter suggesting a phenotype acquiring conditioned place aversion (CPA). The same clusters were identified in mice conditioned with methamphetamine, MDPV, or amphetamine, and these clusters remained stable and reliable during three additional expression tests spaced at 24 h. A meta-analysis of effect sizes obtained from CPP literature revealed a positively skewed distribution affected by sample size, consistent with the existence of a CPA phenotype within the populations tested. A dopamine receptor antagonist, flupentixol, blocked cocaine CPP expression in a group containing all phenotypes, but sensitivity improved markedly when CPA phenotypes were excluded from the dataset.

CONCLUSIONS

These studies suggest that taking phenotype into consideration when designing place conditioning studies will improve their application as a preclinical tool in addiction biology and drug discovery.

Promoter Specific Methylation of SSTR4 is Associated With Alcohol Dependence in Han Chinese Males

Alcohol dependence (AD), a disease can be affected by environmental factors with epigenetic modification like DNA methylation changes, is one of the most serious and complex public health problems in China and worldwide. Previous findings from our laboratory using the Illumina Infinium Human Methylation450 BeadChip suggested that methylation at the promoter of SSTR4 was one of the major form of DNA modification in alcohol-dependent populations. To investigate whether DNA methylation levels of the SSTR4 promoter influence alcohol-dependent behaviors, genomic DNA was extracted from the peripheral blood sample of 63 subjects with AD and 65 healthy controls, and pyrosequencing was used to verify the results of BeadChip array. Linear regression was used to analyze the correlation between the methylation levels of SSTR4 promoter and the scores of alcohol dependence scales. Gene expression of SSTR4 in brain tissue was obtained from the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project and Human Brain Transcriptome database (HBT). We found the methylation levels of SSTR4 in AD group were significantly lower than healthy controls (two-tailed t-test, t = 14.723, p < 0.001). In addition, only weak to moderate correlations between the methylation levels of the SSTR4 promoter region and scale scores of Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), Life Events Scale (LES) and Wheatley Stress Profile (WSS) based on linear regression analyses (AUDIT: R ² = 0.35, p < 0.001; LES: R ² = 0.27, p < 0.001; WSS: R ² = 0.49, p < 0.001). The hypomethylated status of SSTR4 may involve in the development of AD and increase the risk of AD persistence in Han Chinese males.

The pharmacotherapeutic management of comorbid bipolar disorder and alcohol use disorder

INTRODUCTION

Comorbidity of bipolar disorder (BD) and alcohol use disorder (AUD) is very frequent resulting in detrimental outcomes, including increased mortality. Diagnosis of AUD in BD and vice versa is often delayed as symptoms of one disorder mimic and obscure the other one. Evidence for pharmacotherapies for people with comorbid BD and AUD remains limited, and further proof-of-concept studies are urgently needed.

AREAS COVERED

This paper explores the currently available pharmacotherapies for AUD, BD and their usefulness for comorbid BD and AUD. It also covers to some degree the epidemiology, diagnosis, and potential common neurobiological traits of comorbid BD and AUD.

EXPERT OPINION

The authors conclude that more controlled studies are needed before evidence-based guidance can be drawn up for clinician's use. Since there are no relevant pharmacological interactions, approved medications for AUD can also be used safely in BD. For mood stabilization, lithium should be considered first in adherent persons with BD and comorbid AUD. Alternatives include valproate, lamotrigine, and some atypical antipsychotics, with partial D2/D3 receptor agonism possibly being beneficial in AUD, too.

The influence of chromosome 4 on high ethanol consumption and blood pressure

The Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats (SHR) strain was developed through selective breeding for high systolic blood pressure. In our laboratory, we established a congenic rat strain named SHR.Lewis-Anxrr16 (SLA16). The SLA16 rat strain is genetically identical to the SHR except for the inserted Anxrr16 region in chromosome 4. Our objective was to evaluate the influence of this genomic region on ethanol consumption and blood pressure. First, we exposed SHR and SLA16 male and female rats to ethanol consumption. Results showed that, regardless of strain, females consumed more ethanol than males during forced (10% v/v) and spontaneous ethanol consumption (SEC; 2.5-20% v/v). Then, females from both strains were used to evaluate sensitivity to ethanol. No strain differences in the loss of righting reflex were observed after ethanol treatment (3 g/kg, 20% w/v, intraperitoneal [i.p.]). But, in the triple test, female SHR rats presented lower sensitivity to the ethanol (1.2 g/kg, 14% w/v, i.p.). Surprisingly, female SHR rats also presented higher blood pressure after SEC (10% v/v). Finally, losartan treatment was effective in decreasing the blood pressure of female rats of both strains, but had specific effects on SHR ethanol consumption. Our data suggest that SLA16 female rats consume less ethanol (10%), are more sensitive to its effects, and present lower blood pressure than SHR female rats. We demonstrated that the Anxrr16 locus in chromosome 4 is a genetic candidate to explain high ethanol consumption and blood pressure, at least in females.

FOXN3 and GDNF Polymorphisms as Common Genetic Factors of Substance Use and Addictive Behaviors

Epidemiological and phenomenological studies suggest shared underpinnings between multiple addictive behaviors. The present genetic association study was conducted as part of the Psychological and Genetic Factors of Addictions study (n = 3003) and aimed to investigate genetic overlaps between different substance use, addictive, and other compulsive behaviors. Association analyses targeted 32 single-nucleotide polymorphisms, potentially addictive substances (alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and other drugs), and potentially addictive or compulsive behaviors (internet use, gaming, social networking site use, gambling, exercise, hair-pulling, and eating). Analyses revealed 29 nominally significant associations, from which, nine survived an FDRbl correction. Four associations were observed between FOXN3 rs759364 and potentially addictive behaviors: rs759364 showed an association with the frequency of alcohol consumption and mean scores of scales assessing internet addiction, gaming disorder, and exercise addiction. Significant associations were found between GDNF rs1549250, rs2973033, CNR1 rs806380, DRD2/ANKK1 rs1800497 variants, and the “lifetime other drugs” variable. These suggested that genetic factors may contribute similarly to specific substance use and addictive behaviors. Specifically, FOXN3 rs759364 and GDNF rs1549250 and rs2973033 may constitute genetic risk factors for multiple addictive behaviors. Due to limitations (e.g., convenience sampling, lack of structured scales for substance use), further studies are needed. Functional correlates and mechanisms underlying these relationships should also be investigated.

Influence of Age and Genetic Background on Ethanol Intake and Behavioral Response Following Ethanol Consumption and During Abstinence in a Model of Alcohol Abuse

Genetic background and age at first exposure have been identified as critical variables that contribute to individual vulnerability to drug addiction. Evidence shows that genetic factors may account for 40–70% of the variance in liability to addiction. Alcohol consumption by young people, especially in the form of binge-drinking, is becoming an alarming phenomenon predictive of future problems with drinking. Thus, the literature indicates the need to better understand the influence of age and genetic background on the development of alcohol dependence. To this aim, the inbred rat strains Lewis (LEW, addiction prone) and Fischer 344 (F344, addiction resistant) were used as a model of genetic vulnerability to addiction and compared with the outbred strain Sprague-Dawley (SD) in a two-bottle choice paradigm as a model of alcohol abuse. During a 9-week period, adolescent and adult male rats of the three strains were intermittently exposed to ethanol (20%) and water during three 24-h sessions/week. Adult and adolescent SD and LEW rats escalated their alcohol intake over time reaching at stable levels, while F344 rats did not escalate their intake, regardless of age at drinking onset. Among adolescents, only F344 rats consumed a higher total amount of ethanol than adults, although only SD and LEW rats escalated their intake. Adult LEW rats, albeit having a lower ethanol consumption as compared to SD rats but greater than F344, showed a more compulsive intake, consuming higher amounts of ethanol during the first hour of exposure, reaching a higher degree of ethanol preference when start drinking as adolescents. Behavioral analysis during the first hour of ethanol consumption revealed significant strain differences, among which noticeable the lack of sedative effect in the LEW strain, at variance with F344 and SD strains, and highest indices of withdrawal (most notable jumping) in LEW rats during the first hour of abstinence days. The present results underscore the importance of individual genetic background and early onset of alcohol use in the progression toward abuse and development of alcohol addiction.

Contingent stimulus delivery assay for zebrafish reveals a role for CCSER1 in alcohol preference

Alcohol use disorders are complex, multifactorial phenomena with a large footprint within the global burden of diseases. Here, we report the development of an accessible, two-choice self-administration zebrafish assay (SAZA) to study the neurobiology of addiction. Using this assay, we first demonstrated that, although zebrafish avoid higher concentrations of alcohol, they are attracted to low concentrations. Pre-exposure to alcohol did not change this relative preference, but acute exposure to an alcohol deterrent approved for human use decreased alcohol self-administration. A pigment mutant used in whole-brain imaging studies displayed a similar relative alcohol preference profile; however, mutants in CCSER1, a gene associated with alcohol dependence in human genetic studies, showed a reversal in relative preference. The presence of a biphasic response (hormesis) in zebrafish validated a key aspect of vertebrate responses to alcohol. SAZA adds a new dimension for discovering novel alcohol deterrents and studying the neurogenetics of addiction using the zebrafish.

Multidimensional Impulsive Personality Traits Mediate the Effect of Parent Substance Use Disorder on Adolescent Alcohol and Cannabis Use

Theory suggests that behavioral undercontrol mediates the effect of parental substance disorder on offspring substance use, but no studies have tested multidimensional impulsive personality traits as mechanisms of risk. Adolescents (N = 392; 48% female) from a multigenerational study of familial alcohol disorder self-reported impulsive personality traits via the UPPS-P (Mage = 16.09; Range = 13-19) and alcohol/cannabis frequency one year later. The UPPS-P assesses negative and positive urgency (i.e., rash action in a negative or positive mood state), lack of premeditation (i.e., lack of planning/forethought), lack of perseverance (i.e., inability to finish tedious/boring tasks), and sensation seeking (i.e., thrill seeking/risk taking). Parent substance disorder was assessed via diagnostic interviews. Two-part hurdle models tested predictors of any substance use (i.e., binary part) and frequency of use (i.e., continuous part). Parent substance disorder was indirectly associated with any alcohol/cannabis use (binary part) and higher cannabis frequency (continuous part) through negative urgency. Parental substance disorder was associated with higher alcohol frequency through a lack of premeditation. Sensation seeking was associated with any alcohol/cannabis use but unrelated to parental substance disorder. Despite indirect effects, strong effects of parental substance disorder on substance use remained. The findings are discussed in terms of theory and public health implications.

Identification of the Risk Genes Associated With Vulnerability to Addiction: Major Findings From Transgenic Animals

Understanding risk factors for substance use disorders (SUD) can facilitate medication development for SUD treatment. While a rich literature exists discussing environmental factors that influence SUD, fewer articles have focused on genetic factors that convey vulnerability to drug use. Methods to identify SUD risk genes include Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) and transgenic approaches. GWAS have identified hundreds of gene variants or single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). However, few genes identified by GWAS have been verified by clinical or preclinical studies. In contrast, significant progress has been made in transgenic approaches to identify risk genes for SUD. In this article, we review recent progress in identifying candidate genes contributing to drug use and addiction using transgenic approaches. A central hypothesis is if a particular gene variant (e.g., resulting in reduction or deletion of a protein) is associated with increases in drug self-administration or relapse to drug seeking, this gene variant may be considered a risk factor for drug use and addiction. Accordingly, we identified several candidate genes such as those that encode dopamine D₂ and D₃ receptors, mGluR₂, M₄ muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, and α₅ nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which appear to meet the risk-gene criteria when their expression is decreased. Here, we describe the role of these receptors in drug reward and addiction, and then summarize major findings from the gene-knockout mice or rats in animal models of addiction. Lastly, we briefly discuss future research directions in identifying addiction-related risk genes and in risk gene-based medication development for the treatment of addiction.

Who Is at Risk of Developing Cannabis Dependence? Findings From an Extensive Online Study on Cannabis Users

OBJECTIVES

Although frequency of cannabis use is considered to be the strongest risk factor for developing cannabis dependence, only up to half of daily users become dependent. In this study, we explored an array of risk factors and moderators of cannabis dependence symptoms from the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Edition endorsed by participants.

METHODS

A sample of 1,635 cannabis users completed an Internet survey consisting of measures of cannabis and other drug use. Multiple linear regression with a backward elimination method was employed to identify predictors of cannabis dependence symptoms. After that, a series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed to test the predictive validity of the interactions between frequency of cannabis use and other predictors.

RESULTS

Frequency of cannabis use appeared to be the strongest predictor of developing cannabis dependence symptoms; other significant predictors of cannabis dependence symptoms were substance-dependency-related treatment seeking, mental health problems in the family and pattern of substance use. Duration of cannabis use, relationship status, and drug use history in the family were identified as significant moderators of the relationship between frequency of cannabis use and the number of cannabis dependence symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirms that the frequency of cannabis use is the strongest predictor of cannabis dependence symptoms but this relationship is significantly moderated by three abovementioned factors.

Effects of genetic risk for alcohol dependence and onset of regular drinking on the progression to alcohol dependence: A polygenic risk score approach

BACKGROUND

Prior studies have established the importance of genetic contributions to the etiology of alcohol dependence (AD), and suggested an early onset of alcohol use represents an initial marker of this genetic risk, which is associated with a more rapid progression to AD and increased risk for AD itself. Building on prior work, the current study examined whether the additive effects of AD risk variants predicted the rate of progression to AD from the onset of regular drinking, a drinking milestone with high clinical relevance to AD prevention.

METHODS

Data from 1501 European-ancestry adults from the University of California - San Francisco Family Alcoholism Study were used to examine whether polygenic risk scores for AD (PRSAD) and age-at-onset of regular drinking contributed uniquely to the likelihood of having a lifetime AD diagnosis and the rate of progression from regular drinking to AD. Mixed effects logistic regression and Cox proportional hazards regression analyses were employed.

RESULTS

Increases in PRSAD were associated with a faster progression from regular drinking to AD independent of age-at-onset of regular drinking. An independent effect of age-at-onset of regular drinking was also observed indicating that a one-year delay in regular drinking was associated with a 7% decrease in the hazard of progression to AD among drinkers with an early onset (≤ 18), but a 3% increase among drinkers with a late onset (> 18) of regular drinking.

CONCLUSIONS

These results broaden our understanding of the contributions of measured genotypes underlying AD-risk on the etiology and clinical course of AD.

Coronary heart disease in mothers and fathers of adult children with alcohol use disorders

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Having a family member with an alcohol use disorder (AUD) may negatively affect a person's health. Our aim was to study the long-term risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) in parents who have an offspring with AUD.

DESIGN

Cohort study with Cox regression models and co-sibling analyses.

SETTING

Sweden.

PARTICIPANTS

From population registers, we selected all parent-offspring pairs in which the parent was born in Sweden between 1945 and 1965.

MEASUREMENTS

Baseline was set when the offspring was 15 years old and AUD was assessed from medical and criminal registers. The parents were followed for CHD during a mean follow-up of 18 years. Hazard ratios (HRs) in mothers and fathers were calculated and adjusted for potential confounders (year of birth, age at childbirth, sex of the child, parent' AUD, educational level, and marital status).

FINDINGS

In mothers, the adjusted HR for CHD was 1.24 (95% CI = 1.19-1.28) in relation to having a child with AUD. In fathers, the HR for CHD was lower than in mothers but still increased; the adjusted HR was 1.08 (95% CI = 1.05-1.12). In the co-sibling analyses, the HRs for mothers were similar to the HRs estimated from the population-based sample, but in fathers the association did not remain significant (HR = 0.98 [0.90-1.06]).

CONCLUSIONS

In Sweden, there appears to be an association between having an offspring with alcohol use disorder and increased risk of developing coronary heart disease. For fathers, the association did not remain in co-sibling analyses.

Problem drinking as intentional risky behavior: Examining the association between state health insurance coverage and excessive alcohol consumption

The moral hazard theory asserts that having health insurance may increase individual risk-taking behaviors. We examined the association between state health insurance coverage and excessive alcohol use among U.S. adults. We used 2001-2017 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data to estimate annual binge and heavy drinking rates for each state. In a multivariable regression analysis, we used difference-in-difference (DID) models to assess the association between state-level insurance coverage and binge and heavy drinking. Additionally, we assess the potential asymmetric effect and whether economic recessions (2001, 2008-09) had a moderation effect. In the multivariable DID analysis, aggregate state insurance coverage was not significantly associated with binge drinking rates in baseline analysis with state-fixed effects (Model 1), and in the analysis that extends the baseline model to include state unique time trend (Model 2). A similar result was found for heavy drinking in Model 1. In contrast, the result showed a significant association between health insurance coverage and heavy drinking rates in Model 2. However, we found no significant association for binge and heavy drinking rates in both models in the analyses restricting data to periods before the methodological change in the BRFSS sampling frame. The results did not show asymmetric effects, and the association between health insurance and excessive alcohol use did not differ during economic recessions. These findings largely do not support assertions that health insurance may lead to moral hazards (risk-taking behaviors), especially binge drinking.

Factors modulating the incubation of drug and non-drug craving and their clinical implications

It was suggested in 1986 that cue-induced cocaine craving increases progressively during early abstinence and remains high during extended periods of time. Clinical evidence now supports this hypothesis and that this increase is not specific to cocaine but rather generalize across several drugs of abuse. Investigators have identified an analogous incubation phenomenon in rodents, in which time-dependent increases in cue-induced drug seeking are observed after abstinence from intravenous drug or palatable food self-administration. Incubation of craving is susceptible to variation in magnitude as a function of biological and/or the environmental circumstances surrounding the individual. During the last decade, the neurobiological correlates of the modulatory role of biological (sex, age, genetic factors) and environmental factors (environmental enrichment and physical exercise, sleep architecture, acute and chronic stress, abstinence reinforcement procedures) on incubation of drug craving has been investigated. In this review, we summarized the behavioral procedures adopted, the key underlying neurobiological correlates and clinical implications of these studies.

Epigenetics of alcohol use disorder-A review of recent advances in DNA methylation profiling

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a major contributor to morbidity and mortality worldwide. Although there is a heritable component, the etiology of AUD is complex and can involve environmental exposures like trauma and can be associated with many different patterns of alcohol consumption. Epigenetic modifications, which can mediate the influence of genetic variants and environmental variables on gene expression, have emerged as an important area of AUD research. Over the past decade, the number of studies investigating AUD and DNA methylation, a form of epigenetic modification, has grown rapidly. Yet we are still far from understanding how DNA methylation contributes to or reflects aspects of AUD. In this paper, we reviewed studies of DNA methylation and AUD and discussed how the field has evolved. We found that global DNA and candidate DNA methylation studies did not produce replicable results. To assess whether findings of epigenome-wide association studies (EWAS) were replicated, we aggregated significant findings across studies and identified 184 genes and 15 gene ontological pathways that were differentially methylated in at least two studies and four genes and three gene ontological pathways that were differentially methylated in three studies. These genes and pathways repeatedly found enrichment of immune processes, which is in line with recent developments suggesting that the immune system may be altered in AUD. Finally, we assess the current limitations of studies of DNA methylation and AUD and make recommendations on how to design future studies to resolve outstanding questions.

A systematic review of gene-by-intervention studies of alcohol and other substance use

Alcohol and other substance use problems are common, and the efficacy of current prevention and intervention programs is limited. Genetics may contribute to differential effectiveness of psychosocial prevention and intervention programs. This paper reviews gene-by-intervention (G×I) studies of alcohol and other substance use, and implications for integrating genetics into prevention science. Systematic review yielded 17 studies for inclusion. Most studies focused on youth substance prevention, alcohol was the most common outcome, and measures of genotype were heterogeneous. All studies reported at least one significant G×I interaction. We discuss these findings in the context of the history and current state of genetics, and provide recommendations for future G×I research. These include the integration of genome-wide polygenic scores into prevention studies, broad outcome measurement, recruitment of underrepresented populations, testing mediators of G×I effects, and addressing ethical implications. Integrating genetic research into prevention science, and training researchers to work fluidly across these fields, will enhance our ability to determine the best intervention for each individual across development. With growing public interest in obtaining personalized genetic information, we anticipate that the integration of genetics and prevention science will become increasingly important as we move into the era of precision medicine.

The Gut Microbiome and Substance Use Disorder

Substance use disorders (SUDs) remain a significant public health challenge, affecting tens of millions of individuals worldwide each year. Often comorbid with other psychiatric disorders, SUD can be poly-drug and involve several different substances including cocaine, opiates, nicotine, and alcohol. SUD has a strong genetic component. Much of SUD research has focused on the neurologic and genetic facets of consumption behavior. There is now interest in the role of the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of SUD. In this review, we summarize current animal and clinical evidence that the gut microbiome is involved in SUD, then address the underlying mechanisms by which the gut microbiome interacts with SUD through metabolomic, immune, neurological, and epigenetic mechanisms. Lastly, we discuss methods using various inbred and outbred mice models to gain an integrative understanding of the microbiome and host genetic controls in SUD.

Risk and resilience for alcohol use disorder revealed in brain functional connectivity

A family history of alcoholism (FH) increases risk for alcohol use disorder (AUD), yet many at-risk individuals never develop alcohol use problems. FH is associated with intermediate levels of risk phenotypes, whereas distinct, compensatory brain changes likely promote resilience. Although several cognitive, behavioral, and personality factors have been associated with AUD, the relative contributions of these processes and their neural underpinnings to risk or resilience processes remains less clear. We examined whole-brain resting-state functional connectivity (FC) and behavioral metrics from 841 young adults from the Human Connectome Project, including healthy controls, individuals with AUD, and their unaffected siblings. First, we identified functional connections in which unaffected siblings were intermediate between controls and AUD, indicating AUD risk, and those in which siblings diverged, indicating resilience. Canonical correlations relating brain risk and resilience FC to behavioral patterns revealed AUD risk and resilience phenotypes. Risk phenotypes primarily implicated frontal-parietal networks corresponding with executive function, impulsivity, externalizing behaviors, and social-emotional intelligence. Conversely, resilience-related phenotypes were underpinned by networks of medial prefrontal, striatal, temporal, brainstem and cerebellar connectivity, which associated with high trait attention and low antisocial behavior. Additionally, we calculated "polyphenotypic" risk and resilience scores, to investigate how the relative load of risk and resilience phenotypes influenced the probability of an AUD diagnosis. Polyphenotypic scores predicted AUD in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, resilience phenotypes interacted with risk phenotypes, reducing their effects. The hypothesis-generating results revealed interpretable AUD-related phenotypes and offer brain-informed targets for developing more effective interventions.

Epigenome-wide association study and multi-tissue replication of individuals with alcohol use disorder: evidence for abnormal glucocorticoid signaling pathway gene regulation

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a chronic debilitating disorder with limited treatment options and poorly defined pathophysiology. There are substantial genetic and epigenetic components; however, the underlying mechanisms contributing to AUD remain largely unknown. We conducted the largest DNA methylation epigenome-wide association study (EWAS) analyses currently available for AUD (total N = 625) and employed a top hit replication (N = 4798) using a cross-tissue/cross-phenotypic approach with the goal of identifying novel epigenetic targets relevant to AUD. Results show that a network of differentially methylated regions in glucocorticoid signaling and inflammation-related genes were associated with alcohol use behaviors. A top probe consistently associated across all cohorts was located in the long non-coding RNA growth arrest specific five gene (GAS5) (p < 10-24). GAS5 has been implicated in regulating transcriptional activity of the glucocorticoid receptor and has multiple functions related to apoptosis, immune function and various cancers. Endophenotypic analyses using peripheral cortisol levels and neuroimaging paradigms showed that methylomic variation in GAS5 network-related probes were associated with stress phenotypes. Postmortem brain analyses documented increased GAS5 expression in the amygdala of individuals with AUD. Our data suggest that alcohol use is associated with differential methylation in the glucocorticoid system that might influence stress and inflammatory reactivity and subsequently risk for AUD.

Altered excitatory transmission in striatal neurons after chronic ethanol consumption in selectively bred crossed high alcohol-preferring mice

Genetic predisposition to heavy drinking is a risk factor for alcohol misuse. We used selectively bred crossed high alcohol-preferring (cHAP) mice to study sex differences in alcohol drinking and its effect on glutamatergic activity in dorsolateral (DLS) and dorsomedial (DMS) striatum. We performed whole-cell patch-clamp recording in neurons from male and female cHAP mice with 5-week alcohol drinking history and alcohol-naïve controls. In DMS, alcohol-naïve males' neurons displayed lower cell capacitance and higher membrane resistance than females' neurons, both effects reversed by drinking. Conversely, in DLS neurons, drinking history increased capacitance only in males and changed membrane resistance only in females. Altered biophysical membrane properties were accompanied by disrupted glutamatergic transmission. Drinking history increased spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic current (sEPSC) amplitude in DMS and frequency in DLS female neurons, compared to alcohol-naïve females, without effect in males. Acute ethanol differentially impacted DMS and DLS neurons by sex and drinking history. In DMS, acute alcohol significantly increased sEPSC frequency only in neurons from alcohol-naïve females, an effect that disappeared after drinking history. In DLS, acute alcohol had opposing effects in males and females based on drinking history. Estrous cycle also impacted DMS and DLS neurons differently: sEPSC amplitudes were higher in DMS cells from drinking history than alcohol-naïve females, whereas estrous cycle, not drinking history, modified DLS firing rate. Our data show sex differences in cHAP ethanol consumption and neurophysiology, suggesting differential dysregulation of glutamatergic drive onto DMS and DLS after chronic ethanol consumption.

The Streetlight Effect: Reappraising the Study of Addiction in Light of the Findings of Genome-wide Association Studies

Drug dependence has long been thought to have a genetic component. Research seeking to identify the genetic basis of addiction has gone through important transitions over its history, in part based upon the emergence of new technologies, but also as the result of changing perspectives. Early research approaches were largely dictated by available technology, with technological advancements having highly transformative effects on genetic research, but the limitations of technology also affected modes of thinking about the genetic causes of disease. This review explores these transitions in thinking about the genetic causes of addiction in terms of the "streetlight effect," which is a type of observational bias whereby people search for something only where it is easiest to search. In this way, the genes that were initially studied in the field of addiction genetics were chosen because they were the most "obvious," and formed current understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying the actions of drugs of abuse and drug dependence. The problem with this emphasis is that prior to the genomic era the vast majority of genes and proteins had yet to be identified, much less studied. This review considers how these initial choices, as well as subsequent choices that were also driven by technological limitations, shaped the study of the genetic basis of drug dependence. While genome-wide approaches overcame the initial biases regarding which genes to choose to study inherent in candidate gene studies and other approaches, genome-wide approaches necessitated other assumptions. These included additive genetic causation and limited allelic heterogeneity, which both appear to be incorrect. Thus, the next stage of advancement in this field must overcome these shortcomings through approaches that allow the examination of complex interactive effects, both gene × gene and gene × environment interactions. Techniques for these sorts of studies have recently been developed and represent the next step in our understanding of the genetic basis of drug dependence.

Genetic and Depressive Traits Moderate the Reward-Enhancing Effects of Acute Nicotine in Young Light Smokers

INTRODUCTION

Rates of light smoking have increased in recent years and are associated with adverse health outcomes. Reducing light smoking is a challenge because it is unclear why some but not others, progress to heavier smoking. Nicotine has profound effects on brain reward systems and individual differences in nicotine's reward-enhancing effects may drive variability in smoking trajectories. Therefore, we examined whether a genetic risk factor and personality traits known to moderate reward processing, also moderate the reward-enhancing effects of nicotine.

METHODS

Light smokers (n = 116) performed a Probabilistic Reward Task to assess reward responsiveness after receiving nicotine or placebo (order counterbalanced). Individuals were classified as nicotine dependence 'risk' allele carriers (rs16969968 A-allele carriers) or non-carriers (non-A-allele carriers), and self-reported negative affective traits were also measured.

RESULTS

Across the sample, reward responsiveness was greater following nicotine compared to placebo (p = 0.045). For Caucasian A-allele carriers but not non-A-allele carriers, nicotine enhanced reward responsiveness compared to placebo for those who received placebo first (p = 0.010). Furthermore, for A-allele carriers but not non-A-allele carriers who received nicotine first, the enhanced reward responsiveness in the nicotine condition carried over to the placebo condition (p < 0.001). Depressive traits also moderated the reward-enhancing effects of nicotine (p = 0.010) and were associated with blunted reward responsiveness following placebo but enhanced reward responsiveness following nicotine.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that individual differences in a genetic risk factor and depressive traits alter nicotine's effect on reward responsiveness in light smokers and may be important factors underpinning variability in smoking trajectories in this growing population.

IMPLICATIONS

Individuals carrying genetic risk factors associated with nicotine dependence(rs16969968 A-allele carriers) and those with higher levels of depressive personality traits, showmore pronounced increases in reward learning following acute nicotine exposure. These findingssuggest that genetic and personality factors may drive individual differences in smoking trajectoriesin young light smokers by altering the degree to which nicotine enhances reward processing.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT02129387 (pre-registered hypothesis: www.clinicaltrials.gov).

Heritability of ethanol consumption and pharmacokinetics in a genetically diverse panel of collaborative cross mouse strains and their inbred founders

BACKGROUND

Interindividual variation in voluntary ethanol consumption and ethanol response is partially influenced by genetic variation. Discovery of the genes and allelic variants that affect these phenotypes may clarify the etiology and pathophysiology of problematic alcohol use, including alcohol use disorder. Genetically diverse mouse populations, which demonstrate heritable variation in ethanol consumption, can be utilized to discover the genes and gene networks that influence this trait. The Collaborative Cross (CC) recombinant inbred strains, Diversity Outbred (DO) population and their 8 founder strains are complementary mouse resources that capture substantial genetic diversity and can demonstrate expansive phenotypic variation in heritable traits. These populations may be utilized to discover candidate genes and gene networks that moderate ethanol consumption and other ethanol-related traits.

METHODS

We characterized ethanol consumption, preference, and pharmacokinetics in the 8 founder strains and 10 CC strains in 12-hour drinking sessions during the dark phase of the circadian cycle.

RESULTS

Ethanol consumption was substantially heritable, both early in ethanol access and over a chronic intermittent access schedule. Ethanol pharmacokinetics were also heritable; however, no association between strain-level ethanol consumption and pharmacokinetics was detected. The PWK/PhJ strain was the highest drinking strain, with consumption substantially exceeding that of the C57BL/6J strain, which is commonly used as a model of "high" or "binge" drinking. Notably, we found strong evidence that sex moderated genetic effects on voluntary ethanol drinking.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, this research serves as a foundation for expanded genetic study of ethanol consumption in the CC/DO and related populations. Moreover, we identified reference strains with extreme consumption phenotypes that effectively represent polygenic models of excessive ethanol use.

Friends' childhood adversity and long-term implications for substance misuse: a prospective Swedish cohort study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Although an individual's childhood adversity is predictive of later substance misuse, the effect of adversity within an individual's friendship network has not been established. The current study aims to estimate the strength of the association between exposure to childhood adversity among individuals' friends at the onset of adolescence, relative to individuals' own exposure to childhood adversity, and hospitalization for substance misuse between young adulthood and retirement.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Stockholm, Sweden.

PARTICIPANTS

Individuals born in 1953, living in Stockholm in 1963, and who nominated three best friends in the 6th grade school class (n = 7180; females = 3709, males = 3471), followed to 2016.

MEASUREMENTS

The outcome was hospitalization with a main or secondary diagnosis attributed to substance misuse, reflected in Swedish inpatient records (ages 19-63 years). Five indicators of childhood adversity (ages 0-12 years) were operationalized into composite measures for individuals and their friends, respectively. Friendships were identified using sociometric data collected in the school class setting (age 13 years).

FINDINGS

Individuals' own childhood adversity does not predict childhood adversity among friends (P > 0.05). Childhood adversity among friends is independently associated with an increased risk of an individual's later substance misuse [hazard ratio (HR) = 1.17, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.09-1.24], independently of an individual's own childhood adversity (HR = 1.47, 95% CI = 1.34-1.61). However, childhood adversity among friends does not moderate the association between individuals' own childhood adversity and later substance misuse.

CONCLUSIONS

Within a birth cohort of individuals born in 1950s Stockholm, Sweden, childhood adversity among an individual's friends appears to predict the individual's substance misuse in later life independently of an individual's own exposure to childhood adversity.

The effect of mental health on social capital: An instrumental variable analysis

Although a large body of literature has examined the effect of social capital on health and theoretical models suggest a reciprocal relationship between the two variables, there are relatively few studies that have investigated the effect of mental health on social capital. This paper evaluates the impact of mental health on the stock of social capital using data from the cross-sectional 2012 (N = 21,844) and 2002 (N = 31,089) Canadian Community Health Survey - Mental Health editions. Mental health was measured retrospectively as self-rated mental health, past year mental health conditions, and past 30-day psychological distress. Given the reciprocal relationship, we used an instrumental variable approach with family history of mental health problems as the instrument and examined forms of social capital - sense of belonging and workplace social support - that are largely measures of social capital provided by non-family members in the community and workplace. The analysis suggests there are large and significant associations between measures of mental health and both outcomes, which persist in the instrumental variable analyses. These findings highlight the urgent need for policy makers to implement greater prevention and treatment of poor mental health, and provide greater support for individuals with poor mental health so they can build and maintain their social capital.

Genetic susceptibility of opioid receptor genes polymorphism to drug addiction: A candidate-gene association study

BACKGROUND

Like other complex diseases including drug addiction, genetic factors can interfere with the disease. In this study, three opioid genes (OPRM1, OPRD1, and OPRK1) were examined for an association with drug addiction among Jordanian males.

METHODS

The study involved 498 addicts, in addition to 496 healthy controls and all from Arab descent.

RESULTS

The findings in this study showed that rs1799971 of the OPRM1 gene was in association with drug addiction for both alleles and genotypes with P-values = 0.002 and 0.01, respectively. In addition, a significant association between the dominant model (A/A vs G/A-G/G) of rs1799971 (OPRM1) and drug addiction (P-value = 0.003, OR = 1.59 (1.17-2.15)) was detected. Moreover, a genetic haplotype (AGGGCGACCCC) of theOPRM1 gene revealed a significant association with drug addiction (P-value = 0.01, OR = 1.56 (1.15-2.12)). We also found that the age of addicts, smoking, and marital status with genetic variants within OPRM1, OPRD1, and OPRK1 genes may be implicated in drug addiction risk.

CONCLUSION

We propose that rs1799971 of the OPRM1gene is a genetic risk factor for drug addiction among Jordanian males.

High Trait Attention Promotes Resilience and Reduces Binge Drinking Among College Students With a Family History of Alcohol Use Disorder

Binge patterns of alcohol use among post-high school emerging adults are associated with both immediate negative consequences and increased risk of long-term drinking problems, particularly among individuals with a family history (FH) of alcohol use disorder (AUD). Therefore, the developmental time period of emerging adulthood, paired with the high-risk environment of college campuses, represents an important target for interventions. Attentional ability has recently emerged as a mediator of resilience to stress-related psychopathology and offers a potential neurocognitive target for interventions. We tested the hypothesis that attentional ability promotes resilience to binge drinking in a sample of 464 college students with (n = 221) or without (n = 243) familial risk for AUD. Two-way analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) tested effects of FH and self-reported binge drinking on attention scores from the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS). In addition, mediation analyses tested whether BIS attention scores mediated the relationship between Conner-Davidson Resilience Scale scores and binge drinking. ANCOVA results indicated a significant FH-by-binge drinking interaction (p = 0.008) in which FH positive subjects who did not binge drink had the fewest attention problems, consistent with a marker of resilience. Furthermore, BIS attention scores significantly mediated the effect of Conner-Davidson Resilience Scale scores on binge drinking, with stronger effects in FH positive subjects (p < 0.001) than FH negative subjects (p = 0.49). The findings suggest that attention promotes resilience to binge drinking in individuals with familial risk for AUD. Interventions targeting attentional ability in this high-risk population, particularly FH positive individuals with attention deficits, may serve to reduce binge drinking and its consequences.

Bibliometric Insights in Genetic Factors of Substance-Related Disorders: Intellectual Developments, Turning Points, and Emerging Trends

Substance-related disorders are a group of medical conditions that affect a person's brain and behavior and lead to an inability to control the use of legal or illegal drug(s) or medication. Substance-related disorder is a serious public health and society problem worldwide. Genetic factors have been proven to have an important role. Researchers have carried out a lot of work in this field, and a large number of research results have been published in academic journals around the world. However, there are few overviews of research progress, presentation, and development trends in this field. In this study, a total of 636 articles related to genetic factors of substance-related disorders were retrieved from the Web of Science (WoS) database from 1997 to 2018, and the scientific literatures were analyzed by bibliometrics. The study found that the United States (US) has maintained a leading position in the field of research, with many core institutions and plenty of high-quality research results. Alcohol use disorder is still the most concerning issue in this field. Over the past 20 years, new techniques such as genome-wide association study (GWAS) based on high-throughput sequencing technology have replaced family studies, twin studies, and retrospective studies in this field. We believe that it is urgent to study the genetic factors of substance-related disorders, which can greatly deepen the understanding of the pathogenesis of substance-related disorders and may provide potential targets for precise treatment of such diseases.

Association between polymorphism in gene related to the dopamine circuit and motivations for drinking in patients with alcohol use disorder

The development of alcohol use disorder (AUD) is influenced by genetic, psychological, and social factors. However, the identification of the load of each of these factors and the association between them is still debatable. This study aimed to explore the load of the association between AUD and polymorphisms in genes of the dopaminergic system, as well as with drinking triggers. The study comprised 227 inpatients with AUD and 174 controls. The pattern and motivations for drinking were evaluated using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and the Inventory of Drinking Situations (IDS). Analyses of genetic variation in genes encoding dopaminergic were performed using next generation sequencing. We observed an significant association between a polymorphism in DDC (rs11575457) and AUD. Positive reinforcement factors as urges/temptations to drink and pleasant emotion, in isolation, were the significantly related elements to drinking. In addition, negative (physical discomfort) and positive reinforcement factors (testing personal control; pleasant time with others) significantly reinforced the interaction with DDC genetic variant for increased odds of an individual presenting AUD. These results indicated a complex relationship between the dopaminergic system and the drug-seeking behavior profiles.

Dysregulation of the histone demethylase KDM6B in alcohol dependence is associated with epigenetic regulation of inflammatory signaling pathways

Epigenetic enzymes oversee long‐term changes in gene expression by integrating genetic and environmental cues. While there are hundreds of enzymes that control histone and DNA modifications, their potential roles in substance abuse and alcohol dependence remain underexplored. A few recent studies have suggested that epigenetic processes could underlie transcriptomic and behavioral hallmarks of alcohol addiction. In the present study, we sought to identify epigenetic enzymes in the brain that are dysregulated during protracted abstinence as a consequence of chronic and intermittent alcohol exposure. Through quantitative mRNA expression analysis of over 100 epigenetic enzymes, we identified 11 that are significantly altered in alcohol‐dependent rats compared with controls. Follow‐up studies of one of these enzymes, the histone demethylase KDM6B, showed that this enzyme exhibits region‐specific dysregulation in the prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens of alcohol‐dependent rats. KDM6B was also upregulated in the human alcoholic brain. Upregulation of KDM6B protein in alcohol‐dependent rats was accompanied by a decrease of trimethylation levels at histone H3, lysine 27 (H3K27me3), consistent with the known demethylase specificity of KDM6B. Subsequent epigenetic (chromatin immunoprecipitation [ChIP]–sequencing) analysis showed that alcohol‐induced changes in H3K27me3 were significantly enriched at genes in the IL‐6 signaling pathway, consistent with the well‐characterized role of KDM6B in modulation of inflammatory responses. Knockdown of KDM6B in cultured microglial cells diminished IL‐6 induction in response to an inflammatory stimulus. Our findings implicate a novel KDM6B‐mediated epigenetic signaling pathway integrated with inflammatory signaling pathways that are known to underlie the development of alcohol addiction.