Lymphatics, tertiary lymphoid organs and the granulomas of Crohn's disease: an immunohistochemical study

Tertiary Lymphoid Structures and Immunotherapy: Challenges and Opportunities

Tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS) are accumulations of lymphoid cells that arise in ectopic sites through the process of lymphoid neogenesis in chronic inflammation in autoimmunity, microbial infections, organ rejection, aging, and cancer. Their cellular composition and function and regulation via members of the lymphotoxin (LT)/tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family resemble that of secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs). Tumor-associated (TA)-TLS can be associated with favorable clinical outcomes. Immunotherapy in the form of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) has contributed to tremendous advances in cancer therapy. However, ICI are effective in only some tumors, can give rise to resistance, and can precipitate immune-related adverse events (irAEs), many of which appear to have hallmarks of autoimmunity and can resemble TLS. TA-TLS correlate with a positive response to immunotherapy, but they can also be associated with susceptibility to irAEs, suggesting that TA-TLS in combination with ICI could lead to uncontrolled autoimmunity. The tumor environment can be manipulated to ensure that, not only the number of TLS, but also their cellular composition and appropriate function allow for judicious combinations of TLS and immunotherapy that can synergize and contribute to better outcomes with a minimum of destructive irAEs. Strategies include directed delivery of lymphoneogenic cytokines and chemokines or vascular growth factors directly, via transgenes or via adenovirus vectors.

Intestinal Lymphatic Biology, Drug Delivery, and Therapeutics: Current Status and Future Directions

Historically, the intestinal lymphatics were considered passive conduits for fluids, immune cells, dietary lipids, lipid soluble vitamins, and lipophilic drugs. Studies of intestinal lymphatic drug delivery in the late 20th century focused primarily on the drugs' physicochemical properties, especially high lipophilicity, that resulted in intestinal lymphatic transport. More recent discoveries have changed our traditional view by demonstrating that the lymphatics are active, plastic, and tissue-specific players in a range of biological and pathological processes, including within the intestine. These findings have, in turn, inspired exploration of lymph-specific therapies for a range of diseases, as well as the development of more sophisticated strategies to actively deliver drugs or vaccines to the intestinal lymph, including a range of nanotechnologies, lipid prodrugs, and lipid-conjugated materials that "hitchhike" onto lymphatic transport pathways. With the increasing development of novel therapeutics such as biologics, there has been interest in whether these therapeutics are absorbed and transported through intestinal lymph after oral administration. Here we review the current state of understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the gastrointestinal lymphatic system in health and disease, with a focus on aspects relevant to drug delivery. We summarize the current state-of-the-art approaches to deliver drugs and quantify their uptake into the intestinal lymphatic system. Finally, and excitingly, we discuss recent examples of significant pharmacokinetic and therapeutic benefits achieved via intestinal lymphatic drug delivery. We also propose approaches to advance the development and clinical application of intestinal lymphatic delivery strategies in the future. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This comprehensive review details the understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the intestinal lymphatic system in health and disease, with a focus on aspects relevant to drug delivery. It highlights current state-of-the-art approaches to deliver drugs to the intestinal lymphatics and the shift toward the use of these strategies to achieve pharmacokinetic and therapeutic benefits for patients.

The role of dendritic cells in tertiary lymphoid structures: implications in cancer and autoimmune diseases

Tertiary Lymphoid Structures (TLS) are organized aggregates of immune cells such as T cells, B cells, and Dendritic Cells (DCs), as well as fibroblasts, formed postnatally in response to signals from cytokines and chemokines. Central to the function of TLS are DCs, professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that coordinate the adaptive immune response, and which can be classified into different subsets, with specific functions, and markers. In this article, we review current data on the contribution of different DC subsets to TLS function in cancer and autoimmunity, two opposite sides of the immune response. Different DC subsets can be found in different tumor types, correlating with cancer prognosis. Moreover, DCs are also present in TLS found in autoimmune and inflammatory conditions, contributing to disease development. Broadly, the presence of DCs in TLS appears to be associated with favorable clinical outcomes in cancer while in autoimmune pathologies these cells are associated with unfavorable prognosis. Therefore, it is important to analyze the complex functions of DCs within TLS in order to enhance our fundamental understanding of immune regulation but also as a possible route to create innovative clinical interventions designed for the specific needs of patients with diverse pathological diseases.

Involvement of Intestinal Epithelium Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Expression and 3, 3'-Diindolylmethane in Colonic Tertiary Lymphoid Tissue Formation

Tertiary lymphoid tissues (TLTs) are adaptive immune structures that develop during chronic inflammation and may worsen or lessen disease outcomes in a context-specific manner. Immune cell activity governing TLT formation in the intestines is dependent on immune cell aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activation. Homeostatic immune cell activity in the intestines is further dependent on ligand activation of AhR in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), yet whether AhR activation and signaling in IECs influences the formation of TLTs in the presence of dietary AhR ligands is not known. To this end, we used IEC-specific AhR deletion coupled with a mouse model of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis to understand how dietary AhR ligand 3, 3'-diindolylmethane (DIM) influenced TLT formation. DIM consumption increased the size of TLTs and decreased T-cell aggregation to TLT sites in an IEC-specific manner. In DSS-exposed female mice, DIM consumption increased the expression of genes implicated in TLT formation (Interleukin-22, Il-22; CXC motif chemokine ligand 13, CXCL13) in an IEC AhR-specific manner. Conversely, in female mice without DSS exposure, DIM significantly reduced the expression of Il-22 or CXCL13 in iAhRKO mice, but this effect was not observed in WT animals. Our findings suggest that DIM affects the immunological landscape of TLT formation during DSS-induced colitis in a manner contingent on AhR expression in IECs and biological sex. Further investigations into specific immune cell activity, IEC-specific AhR signaling pathways, and dietary AhR ligand-mediated effects on TLT formation are warranted.

Chylothorax in a Young Woman With Crohn Disease

Chylothorax, which accounts for 1% to 3% of pleural effusions, typically results from either surgery (traumatic) or underlying malignancy (nontraumatic). Less common causes of nontraumatic chylothorax are numerous and include congenital lymphatic abnormalities, connective tissue diseases, cirrhosis, and infection, among others.1 We describe what appears to be the first reported case of chylothorax caused by chylous ascites in Crohn disease. This case highlights the importance of using diagnostic evidence to link new symptoms to preexisting diseases whenever possible, as well as the systemic nature of Crohn disease.

Mesenteric-based surgery for Crohn's disease: evidence and perspectives

Postoperative anastomotic recurrence of Crohn's disease is challenging and can lead to symptom recurrence and further surgery. The mesenteric pole of the intestine is the initial site of macroscopic anastomotic recurrence, and the mesentery may play an important role in recurrence after surgical resection. Therefore, "mesenteric-based surgery" has gained increasing attention by clinicians. However, the role of mesentery in the postoperative recurrence remains controversial. This review will examine mesenteric changes in Crohn's disease, proposed roles for mesentery in disease progression, and the potential for mesenteric-based surgery in the surgical management of Crohn disease.

Crohn's disease as the intestinal manifestation of pan-lymphatic dysfunction: An exploratory proposal based on basic and clinical data

Crohn's disease (CD) is caused by immune, environmental, and genetic factors. It can involve the entire gastrointestinal tract, and although its prevalence is rapidly increasing its etiology remains unclear. Emerging biological and small-molecule drugs have advanced the treatment of CD; however, a considerable proportion of patients are non-responsive to all known drugs. To achieve a breakthrough in this field, innovations that could guide the further development of effective therapies are of utmost urgency. In this review, we first propose the innovative concept of pan-lymphatic dysfunction for the general distribution of lymphatic dysfunction in various diseases, and suggest that CD is the intestinal manifestation of pan-lymphatic dysfunction based on basic and clinical preliminary data. The supporting evidence is fully summarized, including the existence of lymphatic system dysfunction, recognition of the inside-out model, disorders of immune cells, changes in cell plasticity, partial overlap of the underlying mechanisms, and common gut-derived fatty and bile acid metabolism. Another benefit of this novel concept is that it proposes adopting the zebrafish model for studying intestinal diseases, especially CD, as this model is good at presenting and mimicking lymphatic dysfunction. More importantly, the ensuing focus on improving lymphatic function may lead to novel and promising therapeutic strategies for CD.

Transplant of microbiota from Crohn's disease patients to germ-free mice results in colitis

Although the role of the intestinal microbiota in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is beyond debate, attempts to verify the causative role of IBD-associated dysbiosis have been limited to reports of promoting the disease in genetically susceptible mice or in chemically induced colitis. We aimed to further test the host response to fecal microbiome transplantation (FMT) from Crohn's disease patients on mucosal homeostasis in ex-germ-free (xGF) mice. We characterized and transferred fecal microbiota from healthy patients and patients with defined Crohn's ileocolitis (CD_L3) to germ-free mice and analyzed the resulting microbial and mucosal homeostasis by 16S profiling, shotgun metagenomics, histology, immunofluorescence (IF) and RNAseq analysis. We observed a markedly reduced engraftment of CD_L3 microbiome compared to healthy control microbiota. FMT from CD_L3 patients did not lead to ileitis but resulted in colitis with features consistent with CD: a discontinued pattern of colitis, more proximal colonic localization, enlarged isolated lymphoid follicles and/or tertiary lymphoid organ neogenesis, and a transcriptomic pattern consistent with epithelial reprograming and promotion of the Paneth cell-like signature in the proximal colon and immune dysregulation characteristic of CD. The observed inflammatory response was associated with persistently increased abundance of Ruminococcus gnavus, Erysipelatoclostridium ramosum, Faecalimonas umbilicate, Blautia hominis, Clostridium butyricum, and C. paraputrificum and unexpected growth of toxigenic C. difficile, which was below the detection level in the community used for inoculation. Our study provides the first evidence that the transfer of a dysbiotic community from CD patients can lead to spontaneous inflammatory changes in the colon of xGF mice and identifies a signature microbial community capable of promoting colonization of pathogenic and conditionally pathogenic bacteria.

The yin and yang of B cells in a constant state of battle: intestinal inflammation and inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract, defined by a clinical relapse-remitting course. Affecting people worldwide, the origin of IBD is still undefined, arising as a consequence of the interaction between genes, environment, and microbiota. Although the root cause is difficult to identify, data clearly indicate that dysbiosis and pathogenic microbial taxa are connected with the establishment and clinical course of IBD. The composition of the microbiota is shaped by plasma cell IgA secretion and binding, while cytokines such as IL10 or IFN-γ are important fine-tuners of the immune response in the gastrointestinal environment. B cells may also influence the course of inflammation by promoting either an anti-inflammatory or a pro-inflammatory milieu. Here, we discuss IgA-producing B regulatory cells as an anti-inflammatory factor in intestinal inflammation. Moreover, we specify the context of IgA and IgG as players that can potentially participate in mucosal inflammation. Finally, we discuss the role of B cells in mouse infection models where IL10, IgA, or IgG contribute to the outcome of the infection.

B cell expansion hinders the stroma-epithelium regenerative cross talk during mucosal healing

Therapeutic promotion of intestinal regeneration holds great promise, but defining the cellular mechanisms that influence tissue regeneration remains an unmet challenge. To gain insight into the process of mucosal healing, we longitudinally examined the immune cell composition during intestinal damage and regeneration. B cells were the dominant cell type in the healing colon, and single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) revealed expansion of an IFN-induced B cell subset during experimental mucosal healing that predominantly located in damaged areas and associated with colitis severity. B cell depletion accelerated recovery upon injury, decreased epithelial ulceration, and enhanced gene expression programs associated with tissue remodeling. scRNA-seq from the epithelial and stromal compartments combined with spatial transcriptomics and multiplex immunostaining showed that B cells decreased interactions between stromal and epithelial cells during mucosal healing. Activated B cells disrupted the epithelial-stromal cross talk required for organoid survival. Thus, B cell expansion during injury impairs epithelial-stromal cell interactions required for mucosal healing, with implications for the treatment of IBD.

Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management of Canine Intestinal Lymphangiectasia: A Comparative Review

Intestinal lymphangiectasia was first described in the dog over 50 years ago. Despite this, canine IL remains poorly understood and challenging to manage. Intestinal lymphangiectasia is characterized by variable intestinal lymphatic dilation, lymphatic obstruction, and/or lymphangitis, and is a common cause of protein-losing enteropathy in the dog. Breed predispositions are suggestive of a genetic cause, but IL can also occur as a secondary process. Similarly, both primary and secondary IL have been described in humans. Intestinal lymphangiectasia is definitively diagnosed via intestinal histopathology, but other diagnostic results can be suggestive of IL. Advanced imaging techniques are frequently utilized to aid in the diagnosis of IL in humans but have not been thoroughly investigated in the dog. Management strategies differ between humans and dogs. Dietary modification is the mainstay of therapy in humans with additional pharmacological therapies occasionally employed, and immunosuppressives are rarely used due to the lack of a recognized immune pathogenesis. In contrast, corticosteroid and immunosuppressive therapies are more commonly utilized in canine IL. This review aims toward a better understanding of canine IL with an emphasis on recent discoveries, comparative aspects, and necessary future investigations.

Chronic stress induces colonic tertiary lymphoid organ formation and protection against secondary injury through IL-23/IL-22 signaling

Psychological stress has been previously reported to worsen symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Similarly, intestinal tertiary lymphoid organs (TLOs) are associated with more severe inflammation. While there is active debate about the role of TLOs and stress in IBD pathogenesis, there are no studies investigating TLO formation in the context of psychological stress. Our mouse model of Crohn's disease-like ileitis, the SAMP1/YitFc (SAMP) mouse, was subjected to 56 consecutive days of restraint stress (RS). Stressed mice had significantly increased colonic TLO formation. However, stress did not significantly increase small or large intestinal inflammation in the SAMP mice. Additionally, 16S analysis of the stressed SAMP microbiome revealed no genus-level changes. Fecal microbiome transplantation into germ-free SAMP mice using stool from unstressed and stressed mice replicated the behavioral phenotype seen in donor mice. However, there was no difference in TLO formation between recipient mice. Stress increased the TLO formation cytokines interleukin-23 (IL-23) and IL-22 followed by up-regulation of antimicrobial peptides. SAMP × IL-23r-/- (knockout [KO]) mice subjected to chronic RS did not have increased TLO formation. Furthermore, IL-23, but not IL-22, production was increased in KO mice, and administration of recombinant IL-22 rescued TLO formation. Following secondary colonic insult with dextran sodium sulfate, stressed mice had reduced colitis on both histology and colonoscopy. Our findings demonstrate that psychological stress induces colonic TLOs through intrinsic alterations in IL-23 signaling, not through extrinsic influence from the microbiome. Furthermore, chronic stress is protective against secondary insult from colitis, suggesting that TLOs may function to improve the mucosal barrier.

Reverse translation approach generates a signature of penetrating fibrosis in Crohn's disease that is associated with anti-TNF response

OBJECTIVE

Fibrosis is a common feature of Crohn's disease (CD) which can involve the mesenteric fat. However, the molecular signature of this process remains unclear. Our goal was to define the transcriptional signature of mesenteric fibrosis in CD subjects and to model mesenteric fibrosis in mice to improve our understanding of CD pathogenesis.

DESIGN

We performed histological and transcriptional analysis of fibrosis in CD samples. We modelled a CD-like fibrosis phenotype by performing repeated colonic biopsies in mice and analysed the model by histology, type I collagen-targeted positron emission tomography (PET) and global gene expression. We generated a gene set list of essential features of mesenteric fibrosis and compared it to mucosal biopsy datasets from inflammatory bowel disease patients to identify a refined gene set that correlated with clinical outcomes.

RESULTS

Mesenteric fibrosis in CD was interconnected to areas of fibrosis in all layers of the intestine, defined as penetrating fibrosis. We found a transcriptional signature of differentially expressed genes enriched in areas of the mesenteric fat of CD subjects with high levels of fibrosis. Mice subjected to repeated colonic biopsies showed penetrating fibrosis as shown by histology, PET imaging and transcriptional analysis. Finally, we composed a composite 24-gene set list that was linked to inflammatory fibroblasts and correlated with treatment response.

CONCLUSION

We linked histopathological and molecular features of CD penetrating fibrosis to a mouse model of repeated biopsy injuries. This experimental system provides an innovative approach for functional investigations of underlying profibrotic mechanisms and therapeutic concepts in CD.

Intestinal fibroblastic reticular cell niches control innate lymphoid cell homeostasis and function

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) govern immune cell homeostasis in the intestine and protect the host against microbial pathogens. Various cell-intrinsic pathways have been identified that determine ILC development and differentiation. However, the cellular components that regulate ILC sustenance and function in the intestinal lamina propria are less known. Using single-cell transcriptomic analysis of lamina propria fibroblasts, we identify fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) that underpin cryptopatches (CPs) and isolated lymphoid follicles (ILFs). Genetic ablation of lymphotoxin-β receptor expression in Ccl19-expressing FRCs blocks the maturation of CPs into mature ILFs. Interactome analysis shows the major niche factors and processes underlying FRC-ILC crosstalk. In vivo validation confirms that a sustained lymphotoxin-driven feedforward loop of FRC activation including IL-7 generation is critical for the maintenance of functional ILC populations. In sum, our study indicates critical fibroblastic niches within the intestinal lamina propria that control ILC homeostasis and functionality and thereby secure protective gut immunity.

Fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) support localisation of immune cells in secondary lymphoid tissues but less is known about the lamina propria. Here the authors use scRNA-seq and intestinal infection to characterise FRCs in the intestinal lamina propria and show specialised niches that foster innate lymphoid cells during homeostasis and infection.

The Role of the Lymphatic System in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Although the number of therapeutic options for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has increased in recent years, patients suffer from decreased quality of life due to non-response or loss of response to the currently available treatments. An increased understanding of the disease’s etiology could provide novel insights for treatment strategies in IBD. Lymphatic system components are generally linked to immune responses and presumably related to inflammatory diseases pathophysiology. This review aims to summarize findings on immune-mediated mechanisms in lymphoid tissues linked with IBD pathogenesis and (potential) novel treatments. Enhanced innate and adaptive immune responses were observed in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) and other lymphoid structures, such as Peyer’s patches, in patients with IBD and in animal models. Furthermore, the phenomenon of lymphatic obstruction in the form of granulomas in MLNs and lymphatic vessels correlates with disease activity. There is also evidence that abnormalities in the lymphatic stromal components and lymph node microbiome are common in IBD and could be exploited therapeutically. Finally, novel agents targeting lymphocyte trafficking have been added to the treatment armamentarium in the field of IBD. Overall, gut-associated lymphoid tissue plays a key role in IBD immunopathogenesis, which could offer novel therapeutic targets.

Colitis and Colorectal Carcinogenesis: The Focus on Isolated Lymphoid Follicles

Gut-associated lymphoid tissue is one of the most diverse and complex immune compartments in the human body. The subepithelial compartment of the gut consists of immune cells of innate and adaptive immunity, non-hematopoietic mesenchymal cells, and stem cells of different origins, and is organized into secondary (and even tertiary) lymphoid organs, such as Peyer's patches, cryptopatches, and isolated lymphoid follicles. The function of isolated lymphoid follicles is multifaceted; they play a role in the development and regeneration of the large intestine and the maintenance of (immune) homeostasis. Isolated lymphoid follicles are also extensively associated with the epithelium and its conventional and non-conventional immune cells; hence, they can also function as a starting point or maintainer of pathological processes such as inflammatory bowel diseases or colorectal carcinogenesis. These relationships can significantly affect both physiological and pathological processes of the intestines. We aim to provide an overview of the latest knowledge of isolated lymphoid follicles in colonic inflammation and colorectal carcinogenesis. Further studies of these lymphoid organs will likely lead to an extended understanding of how immune responses are initiated and controlled within the large intestine, along with the possibility of creating novel mucosal vaccinations and ways to treat inflammatory bowel disease or colorectal cancer.

Harnessing murine models of Crohn's disease ileitis to advance concepts of pathophysiology and treatment

Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) are both characterized by chronic inflammation and severe dysfunction of the gastrointestinal tract. These two forms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) represent distinct clinical disorders with diverse driving mechanisms; however, this divergence is not reflected in currently approved therapeutics that commonly target general proinflammatory pathways. A compelling need therefore remains to understand factors that differentiate the topology and the distinct clinical manifestations of CD versus UC, in order to develop more effective and specialized therapies. Animal models provide valuable platforms for studying IBD heterogeneity and deciphering disease-specific mechanisms. Both the established and the newly developed ileitis mouse models are characterized by various disease initiating mechanisms and diverse phenotypic outcomes that reflect the complexity of human CD-ileitis. Microbial dysbiosis, destruction of epithelial barrier integrity, immune cell deregulation, as well as the recently described genome instability and stromal cell activation have all been proposed as the triggering factors for the development of ileitis-associated pathology. In this review, we aim to critically evaluate the mechanistic underpinnings of murine models of CD-ileitis, discuss their phenotypic similarities to human disease, and envisage their further exploitation for the development of novel targeted and personalized therapeutics.

Role of mesenteric component in Crohn’s disease: A friend or foe?

Crohn’s disease (CD) is a complex and relapsing gastrointestinal disease with mesenteric alterations. The mesenteric neural, vascular, and endocrine systems actively take part in the gut dysbiosis-adaptive immunity-mesentery-body axis, and this axis has been proven to be bidirectional. The abnormalities of morphology and function of the mesenteric component are associated with intestinal inflammation and disease progress of CD via responses to afferent signals, neuropeptides, lymphatic drainage, adipokines, and functional cytokines. The hypertrophy of mesenteric adipose tissue plays important roles in the pathogenesis of CD by secreting large amounts of adipokines and representing a rich source of proinflammatory or profibrotic cytokines. The vascular alteration, including angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis, is concomitant in the disease course of CD. Of note, the enlarged and obstructed lymphatic vessels, which have been described in CD patients, are likely related to the early onset submucosa edema and being a cause of CD. The function of mesenteric lymphatics is influenced by endocrine of mesenteric nerves and adipocytes. Meanwhile, the structure of the mesenteric lymphatic vessels in hypertrophic mesenteric adipose tissue is mispatterned and ruptured, which can lead to lymph leakage. Leaky lymph factors can in turn stimulate adipose tissue to proliferate and effectively elicit an immune response. The identification of the role of mesentery and the crosstalk between mesenteric tissues in intestinal inflammation may shed light on understanding the underlying mechanism of CD and help explore new therapeutic targets.

Ileitis-associated tertiary lymphoid organs arise at lymphatic valves and impede mesenteric lymph flow in response to tumor necrosis factor

Lymphangitis and the formation of tertiary lymphoid organs (TLOs) in the mesentery are features of Crohn's disease. Here, we examined the genesis of these TLOs and their impact on disease progression. Whole-mount and intravital imaging of the ileum and ileum-draining collecting lymphatic vessels (CLVs) draining to mesenteric lymph nodes from TNFΔARE mice, a model of ileitis, revealed TLO formation at valves of CLVs. TLOs obstructed cellular and molecular outflow from the gut and were sites of lymph leakage and backflow. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) neutralization begun at early stages of TLO formation restored lymph transport. However, robustly developed, chronic TLOs resisted regression and restoration of flow after TNF neutralization. TNF stimulation of cultured lymphatic endothelial cells reprogrammed responses to oscillatory shear stress, preventing the induction of valve-associated genes. Disrupted transport of immune cells, driven by loss of valve integrity and TLO formation, may contribute to the pathology of Crohn's disease.

Cells of the human intestinal tract mapped across space and time

The cellular landscape of the human intestinal tract is dynamic throughout life, developing in utero and changing in response to functional requirements and environmental exposures. Here, to comprehensively map cell lineages, we use single-cell RNA sequencing and antigen receptor analysis of almost half a million cells from up to 5 anatomical regions in the developing and up to 11 distinct anatomical regions in the healthy paediatric and adult human gut. This reveals the existence of transcriptionally distinct BEST4 epithelial cells throughout the human intestinal tract. Furthermore, we implicate IgG sensing as a function of intestinal tuft cells. We describe neural cell populations in the developing enteric nervous system, and predict cell-type-specific expression of genes associated with Hirschsprung's disease. Finally, using a systems approach, we identify key cell players that drive the formation of secondary lymphoid tissue in early human development. We show that these programs are adopted in inflammatory bowel disease to recruit and retain immune cells at the site of inflammation. This catalogue of intestinal cells will provide new insights into cellular programs in development, homeostasis and disease.

The oxysterol receptor GPR183 in inflammatory bowel diseases

Immune cell trafficking is an important mechanism for the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The oxysterol receptor GPR183 and its ligands, dihydroxylated oxysterols, can mediate positioning of immune cells including innate lymphoid cells. GPR183 has been mapped to an IBD risk locus, however another gene, Ubac2 is encoded on the reverse strand and associated with Behçet's disease, therefore the role of GPR183 as a genetic risk factor requires validation. GPR183 and production of its oxysterol ligands are up-regulated in human IBD and murine colitis. Gpr183 inactivation reduced severity of colitis in group 3 innate lymphoid cells-dependent colitis and in IL-10 colitis but not in dextran sodium sulphate colitis. Irrespectively, Gpr183 knockout strongly reduced accumulation of intestinal lymphoid tissue in health and all colitis models. In conclusion, genetic, translational and experimental studies implicate GPR183 in IBD pathogenesis and GPR183-dependent cell migration might be a therapeutic drug target for IBD. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue on Oxysterols, Lifelong Health and Therapeutics. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v178.16/issuetoc.

What the early pathologists got wrong, and right, about the pathology of Crohn's disease: a historical perspective

Surgeons, who documented what they had seen and felt in the abdomen of the patient, made the earliest descriptions of Crohn's disease (CD). Dalziel wrote the first pathology description in 1913. Crohn and his coworkers reinvented what Dalziel had written about and called it by a different name, 'regional enteritis'. Later others elaborated on the histologic features, at first the lymphoid follicles, later the granulomas. Some thought the latter were comprised of lymphatic endothelial cells and that endothelial plugs obstructed the lymphatics. Tonelli and others recognized that lymphedema was important and caused by obstructions to lymphatic vasculature. Some lymphatics they described contained lymphocyte plugs and others granulomas. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) has now shown that endothelial cells are not the cause of lymphatic obstruction, but rather CD68-positive macrophages, concluding that the 'lymphocyte thrombi' are passive, caught upstream of granuloma-obstructed lymphatics. Numerous authors recognized that transmural edema was the most significant change in Crohn's disease and that this was later followed by fibrosis and contracture of the diseased segment. Key descriptive papers spoke of the segmental lymphedema. Most recently, attention has been given to attachments of the intralymphatic CD68+ granulomas to a focal point where endothelial damage occurred, damage suggesting infectious penetration of the mucosa, necrosis of lymphatic endothelium and then granulomatous response, both inside and outside the lymphatics, of submucosa, muscularis, and subserosa. D2-40 IHC outlines the endothelium, and anti-CD68 shows the granulomas. IHC adds a valuable perspective when reviewing CD resections.

Epithelioid Cell Granulomas in Crohn's Disease Are Differentially Associated With Blood Vessels and Lymphatic Vessels: A Sequential Double Immunostaining Study

Crohn's disease (CD) is a gastrointestinal disorder of unknown etiology. CD-specific longitudinal ulcers show an association between disease pathogenesis and vasculature dysfunction. Granulomatous lymphangitis may also contribute to CD pathogenesis; meanwhile, vasculitis is the primary CD lesion. We investigated the association between granulomas and lymphatic and blood vessels to assess the role of vasculature in CD pathogenesis. Two small and large intestine specimens were obtained from four CD patients. From each specimen, 160 sequential sections were obtained and double immunohistochemical stained to label lymphatic and blood vessels in association with granulomas. We found that 289 of 342 granulomas (85%) were associated with a lymphatic vessel and 313 of 364 granulomas (86%) were associated with a blood vessel. Although intrablood vessel granulomas were not detected, intralymphatic vessel granulomas were. In the internal region of the granuloma, we found more blood vessels than lymphatic vessels. Hence, these results cumulatively demonstrate that CD epithelioid cell granulomas are differentially associated with lymphatic and blood vessels, suggesting both as essential for the formation and maintenance of these granulomas. Moreover, both lymphatic and blood vessels may participate in granulomatous inflammation in the primary CD lesions; however, additional studies with larger numbers of participants are required to validate our findings.

Microscopic features of small bowel mucosa of patients with Crohn's disease

BACKGROUND

Double-balloon enteroscopy enables performing numerous small bowel biopsies for pathologic analysis. However, most histopathological characteristics of Crohn's disease are non-specific characteristics. We aimed to explore the small bowel mucosal histopathologic characters of Crohn's disease and identify some disease-specific changes.

METHODS

We included 253 patients without tumors and grouped them into Crohn's disease, suspected Crohn's disease, and non-Crohn's disease groups. These patients underwent double-balloon endoscopy examination and small bowel biopsy at Renji Hospital, Shanghai. All histopathological sections were reviewed, and > 20 histopathological parameters were assessed. Immunohistochemistry was conducted when necessary.

RESULTS

There were different forms of granulomatous lymphangitis on the small bowel mucosa in Crohn's disease. They showed as various macrophages or epithelioid cells in the lumina of lymphatics or in the center of the villi with or without evident obstruction. These features were only observed in Crohn's disease patients. Furthermore, they were correlated with granuloma and lymphangiectasia. Additionally, 15 other features showed significant differences among the three groups, and Crohn's disease patients showed an average of almost seven histopathological characteristics.

CONCLUSIONS

We described the detailed morphologies of granulomatous lymphangitis on the small bowel mucosa and recommend it as a useful histopathological feature for the diagnosis of Crohn's disease. In terms of specificity and sensitivity, it was superior to non-caseating epithelioid granuloma.

Lymphatic endothelial cell immunohistochemical markers for evaluation of the intestinal lymphatic vasculature in dogs with chronic inflammatory enteropathy

Background

Lymphatic endothelial cell (LEC) immunohistochemical markers have identified intestinal lymphatic vasculature abnormalities in humans with inflammatory bowel disease, but have not been used to evaluate intestinal lymphatic vasculature in a group of dogs with chronic inflammatory enteropathy (CIE).

Objectives

To utilize LEC markers to identify and measure intestinal lymphatic vasculature in endoscopic biopsy samples of CIE dogs. To evaluate whether measured lymphatic vasculature variables correlate with serum albumin concentrations.

Animals

Twenty‐four dogs with CIE; n = 13, serum albumin concentration <2.5 g/dL (CIE‐protein‐losing enteropathy [PLE]), n = 11, serum albumin concentration ≥2.5 g/dL (CIE‐N).

Methods

Prospective study. Lymphatic endothelial cell immunolabeling with Prox‐1 and LYVE‐1 performed on endoscopic biopsy samples from 24 dogs with CIE. Duodenal and ileal villous lacteal width (VLW) and proprial mucosal lacteal width (MLW) were determined for each case and analyzed for correlation with serum albumin concentration. Lacteal dilatation scores using routine H&E histopathology were assessed for correlation with immunohistochemistry (IHC)‐calculated VLW and MLW.

Results

Lower serum albumin concentrations were correlated with increased VLW (rho = −.4644; P = .02) and MLW (rho = −.6514; P < .001) in the ileum. Lymphatic endothelial cell IHC identified presumptive proprial mucosal lymphangiectasia in some dogs that was not recognized with routine H&E staining. Lacteal dilatation scores were correlated with VLW in duodenum (rho = .4634; P = .02) and ileum (rho = .5292; P = .008), but did not correlate with MLW.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Lymphatic endothelial cell immunolabeling identified presumptive proprial mucosal lymphangiectasia in CIE dogs, particularly in the ileum of hypoalbuminemic dogs. Routine evaluation of villous lacteals likely underestimates abnormalities of the lymphatic vasculature in dogs with CIE.

Adipocytes orchestrate the formation of tertiary lymphoid organs in the creeping fat of Crohn's disease affected mesentery

The formation of tertiary lymphoid organs (TLOs) is orchestrated by the stromal cells of tissues chronically submitted to inflammatory stimuli, in order to uphold specific adaptive immune responses. We have recently shown that the smooth muscle cells of the arterial wall orchestrate the formation of the TLOs associated with atherosclerosis in response to the local release of TNF-α. Observational studies have recently documented the presence of structures resembling TLOs the creeping fat that develops in the mesentery of patients with Crohn's disease (CD), an inflammatory condition combining a complex and as yet not elucidated infectious and autoimmune responses. We have performed a comprehensive analysis of the TLO structures in order to decipher the mechanism leading to their formation in the mesentery of CD patients, and assessed the effect of infectious and/or inflammatory inducers on the potential TLO-organizer functions of adipocytes. Quantitative analysis showed that both T and B memory cells, as well as plasma cells, are enriched in the CD-affected mesentery, as compared with tissue from control subjects. Immunohistochemistry revealed that these cells are concentrated within the creeping fat of CD patients, in the vicinity of transmural lesions; that T and B cells are compartmentalized in clearly distinct areas; that they are supplied by post-capillary high endothelial venules and drained by lymphatic vessels indicating that these nodules are fully mature TLOs. Organ culture showed that mesenteric tissue samples from CD patients contained greater amounts of adipocyte-derived chemokines and the use of the conditioned medium from these cultures in functional assays was able to actively recruit T and B lymphocytes. Finally, the production of chemokines involved in TLO formation by 3T3-L1 adipocytes was directly elicited by a combination of TNF-α and LPS in vitro. We therefore propose a mechanism in which mesenteric adipocyte, through their production of key chemokines in response to inflammatory/bacterial stimuli, may orchestrate the formation of functional TLOs developing in CD-affected mesentery.

Comparative pathophysiology and management of protein-losing enteropathy

Protein‐losing enteropathy, or PLE, is not a disease but a syndrome that develops in numerous disease states of differing etiologies and often involving the lymphatic system, such as lymphangiectasia and lymphangitis in dogs. The pathophysiology of lymphatic disease is incompletely understood, and the disease is challenging to manage. Understanding of PLE mechanisms requires knowledge of lymphatic system structure and function, which are reviewed here. The mechanisms of enteric protein loss in PLE are identical in dogs and people, irrespective of the underlying cause. In people, PLE is usually associated with primary intestinal lymphangiectasia, suspected to arise from genetic susceptibility, or “idiopathic” lymphatic vascular obstruction. In dogs, PLE is most often a feature of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and less frequently intestinal lymphangiectasia, although it is not proven which process is the true driving defect. In cats, PLE is relatively rare. Review of the veterinary literature (1977‐2018) reveals that PLE was life‐ending in 54.2% of dogs compared to published disease‐associated deaths in IBD of <20%, implying that PLE is not merely a continuum of IBD spectrum pathophysiology. In people, diet is the cornerstone of management, whereas dogs are often treated with immunosuppression for causes of PLE including lymphangiectasia, lymphangitis, and crypt disease. Currently, however, there is no scientific, extrapolated, or evidence‐based support for an autoimmune or immune‐mediated mechanism. Moreover, people with PLE have disease‐associated loss of immune function, including lymphopenia, severe CD4+ T‐cell depletion, and negative vaccinal titers. Comparison of PLE in people and dogs is undertaken here, and theories in treatment of PLE are presented.

Mesenteric Adipose Tissue Alterations in Crohn's Disease Are Associated With the Lymphatic System

BACKGROUND

Mesenteric fat wrapping and thickening are typical characteristics of Crohn's disease (CD). The purpose of this study was to explore the cause of mesenteric adipose hypertrophy and analyze the role of lymphatic vessels in mesenteric adipose tissue in CD.

METHODS

Twenty-three CD patients who underwent ileocolonic resection were included. In CD patients, specimens were obtained from hypertrophic mesenteric adipose tissue (htMAT) next to the diseased ileum. The mesenteric lymphatic vessels in mesenteric adipose tissue were separated under stereoscope microscope. Transmission electron microscopy and immunofluorescence were used to observe the structure of mesenteric lymphatic vessels. The NF-κB signaling pathway in mesenteric adipose tissue was detected in CD specimens using Western blotting.

RESULTS

Electron microscopy showed that the structure of mesenteric lymphatic vessel was discontinuous, and the microstructure of lymphatic endothelial cells appeared ruptured and incomplete. Through an immunofluorescence technique, we found that the surface of lymphatic endothelial cells lacked tight junction protein staining in CD. Also, the expression of claudin-1, occludin, and ZO-1 in the mesenteric lymphatic vessel of htMAT was significantly lower than that of control. These results indicated that the structure of the mesenteric lymphatic vessel in htMAT was mispatterned and ruptured, which could lead to lymph leakage. Leaky lymph factors could stimulate adipose tissue to proliferate. Antigens that leaked into the mesenteric adipose tissue could effectively elicit an immune response. The levels of cytokines (TNF-a, IL-1β, IL-6) was increased in the htMAT of CD patients by activated NF-κB signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrated that the hypertrophy of mesenteric adipose tissue may result from mispatterned and ruptured lymphatic vessels. Alteration of mesenteric adipose tissue was associated with activated NF-κB signaling pathway. This study enhances support for elucidating the importance of mesenteric lymphatic vessels and adipose tissue in CD.

Mesenteric Lymphatic Vessel Density Is Associated with Disease Behavior and Postoperative Recurrence in Crohn's Disease

PURPOSE

The aims of the present study were to examine the density of lymphatic vessels in the mesentery and to assess the predictive value of the mesenteric lymphatic vessel density for postoperative clinical recurrence.

METHODS

Ileocolonic resection specimens were obtained from 53 patients with Crohn's disease and 10 non-inflammatory bowel disease control subjects. Mesentery adipose tissues adjacent to the bowel wall were used for the histological quantification of lymphatic vessels using immunohistochemistry with the D2-40 antibody. The relationships between lymphatic vessel density and disease behavior, the presence of granulomas, the presence of creeping fat, and postoperative clinical recurrence were assessed.

RESULTS

Median lymphatic vessel density in the mesentery adjacent to inflamed or non-inflamed intestine was lower in control subjects than in Crohn's disease patients (2.13‰; interquartile range [IQR], 1.83-2.61; 8.34‰; IQR, 6.39-10.22; 4.43‰; IQR, 3.32-5.78; P ˂ 0.001). Increased mesenteric lymphatic vessel density was significantly associated with stricturing behavior, the presence of intestinal granulomas, the presence of creeping fat, and bowel thickness. Interestingly, patients with disease recurrence had an increased mesenteric lymphatic vessel density of the proximal mesenteric margin at the time of resection compared with those who did not have disease recurrence (6.23‰; IQR, 5.43-6.75 vs. 3.28‰; IQR, 2.93-4.29; P ˂ 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to its correlation with disease behavior, bowel thickness, and the presence of intestinal granulomas and creeping fat, increased mesenteric lymphatic vessel density in the proximal margin is predictive of early clinical recurrence after surgery in patients with Crohn's disease.

Decreased Expression of Prox1 Is Associated With Postoperative Recurrence in Crohn's Disease

BACKGROUND

Prox1 is a transcription factor necessary for lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic function. The aim of the study was to assess the correlation between the expression of Prox1 and postoperative recurrence in Crohn's disease [CD].

METHODS

Forty CD patients who underwent ileo-colonic resection were included. Expression levels of Prox1 and D2-40 were detected using immunohistochemistry. Expression levels of Prox1, VEGFR3, and VEGFC protein were also detected in fresh CD specimens using western blotting and quantitative polymerase chain reaction [Q-PCR]. Endoscopic recurrence was used as the endpoint. Patients comprised two groups: endoscopic recurrence [Group R+] and no endoscopic recurrence [Group R-].

RESULTS

Prox1 protein expression was significantly higher in CD than in normal tissues [p <0.05], as detected using both immunohistochemistry and western blotting. Analysis of inter-relationships revealed significant correlation between Prox1 expression and lymphatic vessel density [p <0.001, r = 0.823]. There was also significant correlation between Prox1 expression and the visceral fat area [VFA] [p = 0.002, r = -0.469]. The Group R- patients had significantly higher Prox1 expression than the Group R+ patients [21.08 ± 1.61 versus 15.64 ± 1.17, p = 0.011]. Also, the lymphatic vessel density value was lower in Group R+ than in Group R- patients [6.02 ± 0.39 versus 8.13 ± 0.59, p = 0.004]. Moreover, there was a significant difference in the VFA between Group R- and Group R+ patients [64.43 ± 7.76 versus 90.44 ± 6.11, p = 0.016]. In addition to Prox1, VEGFC/VEGFR3 was found to increase, which was further confirmed using Q-PCR.

CONCLUSIONS

Prox1 expression could be useful as a protective factor against recurrence in CD patients. The therapeutic role of Prox1 may lead to improved treatments.

Hyperplasia of Lymphoid Follicles and Lymphangiectasia in the Parietal Pleura in Bucillamine-induced Yellow Nail Syndrome

Yellow nail syndrome (YNS) pleurisy is often difficult to control, and pathological examinations have rarely been reported. We herein report a case of bucillamine-induced YNS in which histopathology of the parietal pleura revealed hyperplasia of the lymphoid follicles and lymphangiectasia. Even after the discontinuation of bucillamine, the pleurisy and lymphedema showed no change. Based on the histopathological findings showing similarity to rheumatoid pleurisy, we administered corticosteroid treatments, and both the pleurisy and lymphedema improved. The findings in the present case suggest that, in bucillamine-induced YNS, pleurisy may be related to inflammation caused by rheumatoid arthritis in addition to abnormalities in lymphatic vessels.

Obstructive Lymphangitis Precedes Colitis in Murine Norovirus-Infected Stat1-Deficient Mice

Murine norovirus (MNV) is an RNA virus that can prove lethal in mice with impaired innate immunity. We found that MNV-4 infection of Stat1-/- mice was not lethal, but produced a 100% penetrant, previously undescribed lymphatic phenotype characterized by chronic-active lymphangitis with hepatitis, splenitis, and chronic cecal and colonic inflammation. Lesion pathogenesis progressed from early ileal enteritis and regional dilated lymphatics to lymphangitis, granulomatous changes in the liver and spleen, and, ultimately, typhlocolitis. Lesion development was neither affected by antibiotics nor reproduced by infection with another enteric RNA virus, rotavirus. MNV-4 infection in Stat1-/- mice decreased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (Vegf) receptor 3, Vegf-c, and Vegf-d and increased interferon (Ifn)-γ, tumor necrosis factor-α, and inducible nitric oxide synthase. However, anti-IFN-γ and anti-tumor necrosis factor-α antibody treatment did not attenuate the histologic lesions. Studies in Ifnαβγr-/- mice suggested that canonical signaling via interferon receptors did not cause MNV-4-induced disease. Infected Stat1-/- mice had increased STAT3 phosphorylation and expressed many STAT3-regulated genes, consistent with our findings of increased myeloid cell subsets and serum granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, which are also associated with increased STAT3 activity. In conclusion, in Stat1-/- mice, MNV-4 induces lymphatic lesions similar to those seen in Crohn disease as well as hepatitis, splenitis, and typhlocolitis. MNV-4-infected Stat1-/- mice may be a useful model to study mechanistic associations between viral infections, lymphatic dysfunction, and intestinal inflammation in a genetically susceptible host.

The role of adipose tissue in inflammatory bowel diseases

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The occurrence of creeping fat wrapping segments of inflamed gut represents a characteristic yet incompletely understood hallmark of Crohn's disease. Over the last decade, numerous studies have provided a limited understanding of this feature. Still, deciphering the detailed mechanisms and the pathophysiologic relevance of the interplay between creeping fat, barrier function and intestinal inflammation will be the aim of future studies.

RECENT FINDINGS

The last 18 months have substantially contributed to this field, starting with an elegant three-dimensional study revealing B cell aggregates around lymphatic vessels embedded in the mesenteric fat, thus bringing back the idea that Crohn's disease might represent a 'lymphatic disease'. Furthermore, studies on a cellular level elucidated the interplay of mesenteric adipocytes, immune cells and intestinal epithelial cells. Last, imaging studies provide evidence indicating that changes depicted by computed tomography within the mesenteric fat compartment rather than of the bowel wall are predictive for the presence of endoscopic lesions. This underlines the impact of mesenteric changes on Crohn's disease activity.

SUMMARY

The findings of the last 18 months further contribute to solving the puzzle that will ultimately reveal the role of the mesenteric fat tissue in the control of intestinal immunity and inflammation.

Mesenteric organ lymphatics and inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a complex gastrointestinal disorder and its etiology is unclear yet. Current theory in IBD is focused on genetics, immunity and intestinal microbes. Emerging clinical evidence and experimental results suggest that morphologic abnormalities and dysfunction of mesenteric lymphatics may have potential roles in the pathogenesis and disease course of IBD. In this review, we summarize the findings of specific investigations of the lymphatics and explore its role in IBD.

The pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α inhibits lymphatic pumping via activation of the NF-κB-iNOS signaling pathway

OBJECTIVE

Mesenteric lymphatic vessel pumping, important to propel lymph and immune cells from the intestinal interstitium to the mesenteric lymph nodes, is compromised during intestinal inflammation. The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α, is a significant contributor to the inflammation-induced lymphatic contractile dysfunction, and to determine its mode of action.

METHODS

Contractile parameters were obtained from isolated rat mesenteric lymphatic vessels mounted on a pressure myograph after 24-hours incubation with or without TNF-α. Various inhibitors were administered, and quantitative real-time PCR, Western blotting, and immunofluorescence confocal imaging were applied to characterize the mechanisms involved in TNF-α actions.

RESULTS

Vessel contraction frequency was significantly decreased after TNF-α treatment and could be restored by selective inhibition of NF-кB, iNOS, guanylate cyclase, and ATP-sensitive K⁺ channels. We further demonstrated that NF-кB inhibition also suppressed the significant increase in iNOS mRNA observed in TNF-α-treated lymphatic vessels and that TNF-α treatment favored the nuclear translocation of the p65 NF-κB subunit.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that TNF-α decreases mesenteric lymphatic contractility by activating the NF-κB-iNOS signaling pathway. This mechanism could contribute to the alteration of lymphatic pumping reported in intestinal inflammation.

ELISA Serology for Antibodies Against Chlamydia trachomatis in Crohn's Disease

Background

Recently we reported IgA anti-Chlamydia antibodies in patients with Crohn’s disease (CD), in particular in four patients from a single family of six with CD.

Methods

We studied sera from four cohorts from the north of France. These were identified as: EPIMAD (80 pediatric onset CD and 20 pediatric onset ulcerative colitis), MINOTOR (148 adult onset sporadic CD and 50 adult onset ulcerative colitis), Grande Famillies (50) and matched controls for the Grande Famillies cohort (49). Sera were tested using commercial anti-Chlamydia trachomatis (LGV2:434) IgG and IgA human enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. Cutoff for positivity was 11.0 standard units.

Results

Patients with sporadic CD, unaffected first degree relatives from multiplex families and ulcerative colitis patients had no greater serologic reactivity than controls. However, multiplex families’ patients had twice as many positives as the other groups: for IgG 20% vs. 8%; for IgA 20% vs. 10%.

Conclusions

Though not attaining statistical significance, the data showed that familial CD patients had greater exposure to C. trachomatis than sporadic CD patients, supporting our earlier results from one family from the north of France. More specific serologic tests based on outer membrane proteins will need to be employed against the various Chlamydia species with zoonotic potential.

Adipokine apelin ameliorates chronic colitis in Il-10-/- mice by promoting intestinal lymphatic functions

Both mesenteric adipose tissue (MAT) and lymphatic vessels (LVs) play important roles in the pathogenesis of Crohn's disease (CD), and adipokines have been implicated in the crosstalk between MAT and LVs. Apelin, a newly identified adipokine, has been demonstrated to be crucial in the development and stabilization of LVs. We aimed to identify the expression of apelin in MAT of CD patients and explore whether apelin influences the disease course in murine colitis and determine its contributions to LVs. Expression of apelin in MAT specimens from patients with CD (n = 24) and without CD (control, n = 12) was detected. Il-10 deficient (Il-10^-/-) mice with established colitis were administered apelin, and untreated and wild-type mice served as controls (n = 8 for each group). Disease activity and colonic inflammation was evaluated. The LV density, lymphatic drainage function and related signaling pathways were also analyzed. We found that MAT from CD patients expressed a higher level of apelin compared with that from controls. Systemic delivery of apelin significantly ameliorated chronic colitis in Il-10^-/- mice, demonstrated by decreased disease activity index and inflammatory scores, and lower levels of Tnf-α, Il-1β and Il-6. Increased LV density and podoplanin levels indicated that apelin promoted lymphangiogenesis. Evans blue dye and fluorescent lymphangiography revealed an enhanced lymphatic drainage function in apelin-treated mice. The role of apelin was found to be related to the activation of the Akt and Erk signaling pathways. These results indicate that the adipokine apelin was highly expressed in MAT of CD patients and has a promising role in ameliorating experimental colitis by promoting intestinal lymphatic functions, suggesting the potential crosstalk between adipokines and LVs in MAT in CD status. Therapies with adipokines, such as apelin, may be a novel approach for the treatment of CD.

Obesity/Bariatric Surgery and Crohn's Disease

BACKGROUND

Crohn's disease (CD) following bariatric surgery has been previously described. It is not clear whether the clinical entity is due to rapid metabolism of fat, change in the bacterial milieu of the bowel, the loss of defense mechanisms of the stomach, or even a coincidence.

OBJECTIVES

To present observations which might serve to sort out these various etiologies.

DESIGN

We present 5 cases of colitis, ileocolitis or enteritis, some with fistula formation, with clinical onset following bariatric surgery and add these to the 7 cases previously identified as CD reported elsewhere. We provide the clinical features of these 12 cases to reconcile with causative mechanisms.

LIMITATIONS

It remains possible that the onset of CD (or other inflammatory bowel disease) precedes the bariatric surgery which then accelerates the clinical manifestations described. Furthermore, without controls the association could remain a coincidence.

CONCLUSIONS

We review the evidence for release of proinflammatory cells and cytokines contained in fat following the bariatric surgery, and also consider the roles that the surgical resection of stomach and shortening of the bowel may also bring about this syndrome. The earlier onset is more likely due to surgical loss of defenses of the stomach and the later onset to a metabolic alteration of the presurgical obesity, involving fat metabolism, and/or the microbiome. The role of characteristic creeping fat of CD is also addressed.

Association of granulomas in mesenteric lymph nodes in Crohn's disease with younger age and transmural inflammation

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Mesenteric lymph nodes were usually removed during bowel resection surgery for Crohn's disease (CD). Mesenteric lymph node (MLN) granuloma predicted postoperative disease recurrence in patients with CD after ileocolic resection (ICR). This study was aimed to identify factors associated with MLN granulomas in a cohort of CD patients who underwent ICR.

METHODS

The study group consisted of 18 patients with CD who underwent the index ICR between 2004 and 2012 and had MLN granulomas. The control group included 32 cases negative for MLN granulomas, which were randomly selected from the same period. Clinicodemographic and histological features were compared in these two groups.

RESULTS

The presence of MLN granuloma was associated with younger age, perianal disease, and ileocolic disease. Gender, body mass index, smoking status, disease duration, extraintestinal manifestation, length of bowel resected, total number of nodes examined, medical treatment, and indications for surgery were not significantly different between the groups. The presence of MLN granuloma was associated with mural granuloma, transmural inflammation, mural abscess, hypertrophy of the muscularis propria, fibrosis of the muscularis propria, and serosal fibrosis in the small bowel. The multivariable analysis confirms that MLN granuloma was associated with age and transmural inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

In CD patients who underwent the index ICR, the presence of MLN granuloma was associated with younger age and transmural inflammation. Our current results suggest that the detection of MLN granulomas may be enhanced in patients at higher risk, that is, younger patients or those with transmural inflammation on imaging or histopathology.

High endothelial venules associated with T cell subsets in the inflamed gut of newly diagnosed inflammatory bowel disease patients

Naive and central memory T lymphocytes (T_N and T_CM ) can infiltrate the inflamed gut mucosa in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients. Homing of these subsets to the gut might be explained by ectopic formation of tertiary lymphoid organs (TLOs), containing high endothelial venules (HEVs). We aimed to evaluate the presence of HEVs and TLOs in inflamed intestinal mucosa of newly diagnosed, untreated IBD patients in relation to the presence of T_N and T_CM lymphocytes. IBD patients (n = 39) and healthy controls (n = 8) were included prospectively. Biopsy samples of inflamed and normal intestine, respectively, were analysed by immunohistochemistry for lymphocytes (CD3/CD20), blood vessels (CD31) and peripheral lymph node addressin (PNAd) expression (MECA-79). T_N and T_CM lymphocyte subsets were identified by flow cytometric immunophenotyping. A higher number of HEVs was found in the inflamed colon of patients with ulcerative colitis [median 3·05 HEV/mm² ; interquartile range (IQR) = 0-6·39] and ileum of Crohn's disease patients (1·40; 0-4·34) compared to healthy controls (both 0; P = 0·033). A high density of colonic HEVs (HEV^high ) was associated with increased infiltration of T_N and T_CM in the inflamed gut (median 87%; IQR = 82-93% of T cell population), compared to HEV^low patients (58%; 38-81%; P = 0·003). The number of colonic follicles was higher in HEV^high patients (median 0·54/mm² ; IQR 0·28-0·84) compared to HEV^low patients (0·25/mm² ; 0·08-0·45; P = 0·031) and controls (0·31/mm² ; 0·23-0·45; P = 0·043). Increased homing of T_N and T_CM lymphocytes to inflamed gut tissue in IBD patients might be facilitated by ectopic formation of extrafollicular HEVs and TLOs in a subgroup of patients.

Lymphoid Aggregates Remodel Lymphatic Collecting Vessels that Serve Mesenteric Lymph Nodes in Crohn Disease

Early pathological descriptions of Crohn disease (CD) argued for a potential defect in lymph transport; however, this concept has not been thoroughly investigated. In mice, poor healing in response to infection-induced tissue damage can cause hyperpermeable lymphatic collecting vessels in mesenteric adipose tissue that impair antigen and immune cell access to mesenteric lymph nodes (LNs), which normally sustain appropriate immunity. To investigate whether analogous changes might occur in human intestinal disease, we established a three-dimensional imaging approach to characterize the lymphatic vasculature in mesenteric tissue from controls or patients with CD. In CD specimens, B-cell-rich aggregates resembling tertiary lymphoid organs (TLOs) impinged on lymphatic collecting vessels that enter and exit LNs. In areas of creeping fat, which characterizes inflammation-affected areas of the bowel in CD, we observed B cells and apparent innate lymphoid cells that had invaded the lymphatic vessel wall, suggesting these cells may be mediators of lymphatic remodeling. Although TLOs have been described in many chronic inflammatory states, their anatomical relationship to preestablished LNs has never been revealed. Our data indicate that, at least in the CD-affected mesentery, TLOs are positioned along collecting lymphatic vessels in a manner expected to affect delivery of lymph to LNs.

An Infectious Pig Model of Crohn's Disease

BACKGROUND

Over the last several years, we have demonstrated that intestinal lymphangitis and lymphatic obstruction are fundamental lesions in Crohn's disease, for which no therapy is currently available. There is an infectious enteritis of young pigs that offers an opportunity to understand how the lymphangitis of CD may have been initiated. The pathology of chlamydial enteritis was described earlier, from 1987 to 2009.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Tissue blocks and hematoxylin and eosin-stained slides from Chlamydia suis-inoculated young pigs were provided by D. Rogers and F. Guscetti. Experimental animals, gnotobiotic and conventional, had been autopsied 4, 7, and 10 days postinoculation. Serial sections of intestine were immunostained with a Chlamydia trachomatis antibody, which cross-reacted with C. suis antigen, and compared with hematoxylin and eosin preparations.

RESULTS

Immunohistochemistry revealed antigen in villous epithelial cells of jejunum and ileum and in the endothelium of lacteals and lymphatics by day 4. This was accompanied by lymphatic endothelial necrosis, lymphangitis, and inflammatory lymphatic obstruction, through several layers of the affected intestinal segments, days 4 through 10.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the original authors documented lesions to define the porcine disease, here the author characterizes the lymphangitis as a model for understanding Crohn's disease and suggests a chlamydial origin for the latter.

Gel-Trapped Lymphorganogenic Chemokines Trigger Artificial Tertiary Lymphoid Organs and Mount Adaptive Immune Responses In Vivo

We previously generated artificial lymph node-like tertiary lymphoid organs (artTLOs) in mice using lymphotoxin α-expressing stromal cells. Here, we show the construction of transplantable and functional artTLOs by applying soluble factors trapped in slow-releasing gels in the absence of lymphoid tissue organizer stromal cells. The resultant artTLOs were easily removable, transplantable, and were capable of attracting memory B and T cells. Importantly, artTLOs induced a powerful antigen-specific secondary immune response, which was particularly pronounced in immune-compromised hosts. Synthesis of functionally stable immune tissues/organs like those described here may be a first step to eventually develop immune system-based therapeutics. Although much needs to be learned from the precise mechanisms of action, they may offer ways in the future to reestablish immune functions to overcome hitherto untreatable diseases, including severe infection, cancer, autoimmune diseases, and various forms of immune deficiencies, including immune-senescence during aging.

Ectopic Tertiary Lymphoid Tissue in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Protective or Provocateur?

Organized lymphoid tissues like the thymus first appeared in jawed vertebrates around 500 million years ago and have evolved to equip the host with a network of specialized sites, strategically located to orchestrate strict immune-surveillance and efficient immune responses autonomously. The gut-associated lymphoid tissues maintain a mostly tolerant environment to dampen our responses to daily dietary and microbial products in the intestine. However, when this homeostasis is perturbed by chronic inflammation, the intestine is able to develop florid organized tertiary lymphoid tissues (TLT), which heralds the onset of regional immune dysregulation. While TLT are a pathologic hallmark of Crohn's disease (CD), their role in the overall process remains largely enigmatic. A critical question remains; are intestinal TLT generated by the immune infiltrated intestine to modulate immune responses and rebuild tolerance to the microbiota or are they playing a more sinister role by generating dysregulated responses that perpetuate disease? Herein, we discuss the main theories of intestinal TLT neogenesis and focus on the most recent findings that open new perspectives to their role in inflammatory bowel disease.

The Role of the Mesentery in Crohn's Disease: The Contributions of Nerves, Vessels, Lymphatics, and Fat to the Pathogenesis and Disease Course

Crohn's disease (CD) is a complex gastrointestinal disorder involving multiple levels of cross talk between the immunological, neural, vascular, and endocrine systems. The current dominant theory in CD is based on the unidirectional axis of dysbiosis-innate immunity-adaptive immunity-mesentery-body system. Emerging clinical evidence strongly suggests that the axis be bidirectional. The morphologic and/or functional abnormalities in the mesenteric structures likely contribute to the disease progression of CD, to a less extent the disease initiation. In addition to adipocytes, mesentery contains nerves, blood vessels, lymphatics, stromal cells, and fibroblasts. By the secretion of adipokines that have endocrine functions, the mesenteric fat tissue exerts its activity in immunomodulation mainly through response to afferent signals, neuropeptides, and functional cytokines. Mesenteric nerves are involved in the pathogenesis and prognosis of CD mainly through neuropeptides. In addition to angiogenesis observed in CD, lymphatic obstruction, remodeling, and impaired contraction maybe a cause and consequence of CD. Lymphangiogenesis and angiogenesis play a concomitant role in the progress of chronic intestinal inflammation. Finally, the interaction between neuropeptides, adipokines, and vascular and lymphatic endothelia leads to adipose tissue remodeling, which makes the mesentery an active participator, not a bystander, in the disease initiation and precipitation CD. The identification of the role of mesentery, including the structure and function of mesenteric nerves, vessels, lymphatics, and fat, in the intestinal inflammation in CD has important implications in understanding its pathogenesis and clinical management.

Presence of Granulomas in Mesenteric Lymph Nodes Is Associated with Postoperative Recurrence in Crohn's Disease

BACKGROUND

The association between the presence of granulomas in the mesenteric lymph node (MLN) and postoperative recurrent Crohn's disease (CD) is unknown. Our aim was to assess the predictive value of the presence of granulomas in MLN as well as in bowel wall for postoperative recurrence of CD.

METHODS

Patients with CD who underwent the index ileocolonic resection between 2004 and 2012 were included. Surgical pathology reports were reviewed for the presence and location of granulomas. The status of MLN granulomas was confirmed by re-review of surgical pathology specimen from randomly sampled patients by an expert pathologist. Both univariable and multivariable analyses were performed to assess the risk factors associated with postoperative recurrent CD.

RESULTS

A total of 194 patients were included. Granulomas were detected in the MLN in 23 patients (11.9%), and in the intestinal wall in 57 (29.4%). On Kaplan-Meier curve, the presence of granulomas in MLN was found to be a risk factor for postoperative endoscopic recurrence (P = 0.015) as well as surgical recurrence (P = 0.035). In contrast, granulomas in the bowel wall, which was not found to be associated with neither endoscopic recurrence (P = 0.94) or surgical recurrence (P = 0.56). On Cox proportional hazards regression analysis, the presence of MLN granulomas was independently associated with an increased risk for both postoperative endoscopic recurrence (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.91; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.06-3.45; P = 0.031) and surgical recurrence (HR = 3.43; 95% CI, 1.18-9.99; P = 0.023).

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of granulomas in MLN but not in intestine per se was found to be an independent risk factor for recurrence in CD patients undergoing ileocolonic resection.

Clinical Implications of Noncaseating Granulomas on Histology in Patients with Ileal Pouches

BACKGROUND

Granulomas are occasionally detected on biopsy specimen of the ileal pouch and their clinical implications are not clear. The aim of this study was to evaluate clinical implications of noncaseating granuloma on histology in patients with ileal pouches.

METHODS

All eligible patients with confirmed noncaseating granulomas on histology of the biopsy specimens of the pouch body, afferent limb, or cuff in our prospectively maintained Pouch Registry between 2002 and 2014 were evaluated. Demographic and clinical factors were analyzed. The disease course of those patients was evaluated.

RESULTS

Of 1564 patients in the Registry, 42 met the criteria and were included. The median duration from the pouch construction to the last visit was 9 years (range, 2-28 yr). Twenty-eight patients (66.7%) developed clinical Crohn's disease (CD) of the pouch, whereas 14 (33.3%) were classified as having histologic CD of the pouch. Six patients (21.4%) in the clinical CD of the pouch group and 4 (28.6%) in the histologic CD of the pouch group had granulomas on more than 1 endoscopy. Postoperative biological therapy was administered more in the clinical CD group than in the histologic CD group (39.3% versus 0%, P = 0.007). Pouch-related fistulae and presacral sinus were verified more in clinical CD group than the histologic CD group. However, Kaplan-Meier plot showed comparable pouch survival between clinical CD and histologic CD groups.

CONCLUSIONS

In our current study, one-third of the patients with noncaseating pouch granulomas did not develop clinical CD of the pouch. With proper medical therapy, long-term pouch outcomes appeared to be similar in those patients with clinical CD or histologic CD of the pouch.