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Safaei HA, Eftekhari SM, Aliomrani M. Analysis of platelet-derived growth factor receptor A and oligodendrocyte transcription factor 2 markers following Hydroxychloroquine administration in animal induced multiple sclerosis model. Metab Brain Dis 2021; 36:2101-2110. [PMID: 34342813 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-021-00802-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
It has been shown that following demyelination, Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Cells (OPCs) migrate to the lesion site and begin to proliferate, and differentiate. This study aimed to investigate the effects of Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) on the expression of OLIG-2 and PDGFR-α markers during the myelination process. C57BL/6 mice were fed cuprizone pellets for 5 weeks to induce demyelination and return to a normal diet for 1 week to stimulate remyelination. During the Phase I all of the animals except CPZ and Vehicle groups were exposed to HCQ (2.5, 10, and 100 mg/kg) via drinking water. At the end of the study, animals were euthanized, perfused and the brain samples were assessed for myelination and immunohistochemistry evaluation. What is remarkable is the high rate of Olig2 + cells in the groups treated with 10 and 100 mg/kg HCQ in the demyelination phase and its decreasing trend in the remyelination phase. However, there was no significant difference between groups during phase I and Phase II based on the percentage of olig-2+/total cells in the corpus callosum region. The number of PDGFR-α+ cells in the group treated with 10 mg/kg HCQ was significant in the first phase (p value < 0.05). Considering that the 100 mg/kg HCQ group had the highest level of PDGFR-α as well as the highest level of myelin repair in LFB staining, it could be inferred that it was the most effective dose in inducing proliferation and migration of OPCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajar Amin Safaei
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences and Health Services, Isfahan, Iran
| | | | - Mehdi Aliomrani
- Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Isfahan Pharmaceutical Science Research Center, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, I. R. of Iran.
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2
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Askarian F, Firoozi Z, Ebadollahi-Natanzi A, Bahrami S, Rahimi HR. A review on the pharmacokinetic properties and toxicity considerations for chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine to potentially treat coronavirus patients. Toxicol Res 2021; 38:137-148. [PMID: 34306523 PMCID: PMC8286988 DOI: 10.1007/s43188-021-00101-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 virus, caused a novel emerged coronavirus disease, is growing rapidly worldwide. Few studies have evaluated the efficacy and safety of Chloroquine (CQ), an old antimalarial drug, and Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) in the treatment of COVID-19 infection. HCQ is derived from CQ by adding a hydroxyl group into it and is a less toxic derivative of CQ for the treatment of COVID-19 infection because it is more soluble. This article summarizes pharmacokinetic properties and toxicity considerations for CQ and HCQ, drug interactions, and their potential efficacy against COVID-19. The authors also look at the biochemistry changes and clinical uses of CQ and HCQ, and supportive treatments following toxicity occurs. It was believed that CQ and HCQ may provide few benefits to COVID-19 patients. A number of factors should be considered to keep the drug safe, such as dose, in vivo animal toxicological findings, and gathering of metabolites in plasma and/or tissues. The main conclusion of this review is that CQ and HCQ with considered to their ADMET properties has major shortcomings and fully irresponsible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Askarian
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Zahra Firoozi
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Alireza Ebadollahi-Natanzi
- Medicinal Plants Department, Imam Khomeini Higher Education Center, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
| | - Solmaz Bahrami
- Department of Institutional Research, Westcliff University, Irvine, CA 92614 USA
| | - Hamid-Reza Rahimi
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
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3
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Martins YA, Gonçalves TM, Lopez RFV. HPLC methods for choloroquine determination in biological samples and pharmaceutical products. Daru 2021; 29:223-239. [PMID: 33738722 PMCID: PMC8149527 DOI: 10.1007/s40199-021-00391-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Review and assess pharmaceutical and clinical characteristics of chloroquine including high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-based methods used to quantify the drug in pharmaceutical products and biological samples. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION A literature review was undertaken on the PubMed, Science Direct, and Scielo databases using the following keywords related to the investigated subject: 'chloroquine', 'analytical methods', and 'HPLC'. RESULTS For more than seven decades, chloroquine has been used to treat malaria and some autoimmune diseases, such as lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. There is growing interest in chloroquine as a therapeutic alternative in the treatment of HIV, Q fever, Whipple's disease, fungal, Zika, Chikungunya infections, Sjogren's syndrome, porphyria, chronic ulcerative stomatitis, polymorphic light eruption, and different types of cancer. HPLC coupled to UV detectors is the most employed method to quantify chloroquine in pharmaceutical products and biological samples. The main chromatographic conditions used to identify and quantify chloroquine from tablets and injections, degradation products, and metabolites are presented and discussed. CONCLUSION Research findings reported in this article may facilitate the repositioning, quality control, and biological monitoring of chloroquine in modern pharmaceutical dosage forms and treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yugo Araújo Martins
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo (FCFRP-USP), Avenida do Café, s/n, Ribeirao Preto, São Paulo, 14040-903, Brazil
| | - Talita Mota Gonçalves
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco, Avenida José de Sá Maniçoba, s/n, Petrolina, Pernambuco, 56304-917, Brazil
| | - Renata F V Lopez
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo (FCFRP-USP), Avenida do Café, s/n, Ribeirao Preto, São Paulo, 14040-903, Brazil.
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4
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Ippolito MM, Flexner C. Dose Optimization of Hydroxychloroquine for Coronavirus Infection 2019: Do Blood Concentrations Matter? Clin Infect Dis 2021; 71:2965-2967. [PMID: 32474576 PMCID: PMC7314247 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew M Ippolito
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine and Department of Pharmacology & Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.,Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunity, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Charles Flexner
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine and Department of Pharmacology & Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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5
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Abstract
Since in vitro studies and a preliminary clinical report suggested the efficacy of chloroquine for COVID-19-associated pneumonia, there is increasing interest in this old antimalarial drug. In this article, we discuss the pharmacokinetics and safety of chloroquine that should be considered in light of use in SARS-CoV-2 infections. Chloroquine is well absorbed and distributes extensively resulting in a large volume of distribution with an apparent and terminal half-life of 1.6 days and 2 weeks, respectively. Chloroquine is metabolized by cytochrome P450 and renal clearance is responsible for one third of total clearance. The lack of reliable information on target concentrations or doses for COVID-19 implies that for both adults and children, doses that proved effective and safe in malaria should be considered, such as ‘loading doses’ in adults (30 mg/kg over 48 h) and children (70 mg/kg over 5 days), which reported good tolerability. Here, plasma concentrations were < 2.5 μmol/L, which is associated with (minor) toxicity. While the influence of renal dysfunction, critical illness, or obesity seems small, in critically ill patients, reduced absorption may be anticipated. Clinical experience has shown that chloroquine has a narrow safety margin, as three times the adult therapeutic dosage for malaria can be lethal when given as a single dose. Although infrequent, poisoning in children is extremely dangerous where one to two tablets can potentially be fatal. In conclusion, the pharmacokinetic and safety properties of chloroquine suggest that chloroquine can be used safely for an acute virus infection, under corrected QT monitoring, but also that the safety margin is small, particularly in children.
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6
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Huang M, Li M, Xiao F, Pang P, Liang J, Tang T, Liu S, Chen B, Shu J, You Y, Li Y, Tang M, Zhou J, Jiang G, Xiang J, Hong W, He S, Wang Z, Feng J, Lin C, Ye Y, Wu Z, Li Y, Zhong B, Sun R, Hong Z, Liu J, Chen H, Wang X, Li Z, Pei D, Tian L, Xia J, Jiang S, Zhong N, Shan H. Preliminary evidence from a multicenter prospective observational study of the safety and efficacy of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19. Natl Sci Rev 2020; 7:1428-1436. [PMID: 34676087 PMCID: PMC7313782 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwaa113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Effective therapies are urgently needed for the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Chloroquine has been proved to have antiviral effect against coronavirus in vitro. In this study, we aimed to assess the efficacy and safety of chloroquine with different doses in COVID-19. In this multicenter prospective observational study, we enrolled patients older than 18 years old with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection excluding critical cases from 12 hospitals in Guangdong and Hubei Provinces. Eligible patients received chloroquine phosphate 500 mg, orally, once (half dose) or twice (full dose) daily. Patients treated with non-chloroquine therapy were included as historical controls. The primary endpoint is the time to undetectable viral RNA. Secondary outcomes include the proportion of patients with undetectable viral RNA by day 10 and 14, hospitalization time, duration of fever, and adverse events. A total of 197 patients completed chloroquine treatment, and 176 patients were included as historical controls. The median time to achieve an undetectable viral RNA was shorter in chloroquine than in non-chloroquine (absolute difference in medians −6.0 days; 95% CI −6.0 to −4.0). The duration of fever is shorter in chloroquine (geometric mean ratio 0.6; 95% CI 0.5 to 0.8). No serious adverse events were observed in the chloroquine group. Patients treated with half dose experienced lower rate of adverse events than with full dose. Although randomized trials are needed for further evaluation, this study provides evidence for safety and efficacy of chloroquine in COVID-19 and suggests that chloroquine can be a cost-effective therapy for combating the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingxing Huang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Man Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging and Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
- Center for Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Fei Xiao
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging and Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Pengfei Pang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging and Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
- Center for Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Jiabi Liang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Tiantian Tang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Shaoxuan Liu
- Clinical Research Center Office, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Binghui Chen
- Department of Radiology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Jingxian Shu
- Department of Pharmacy, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Yingying You
- Department of Stomatology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Yang Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging and Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
- Center for Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Meiwen Tang
- Department of Hematology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Jianhui Zhou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Guanmin Jiang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Jingfen Xiang
- Department of Emergency, Wuhan East West Lake Mobile Cabin Hospitals, Wuhan 430040, China
| | - Wenxin Hong
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Songmei He
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Dongguan Ninth People's Hospital, Dongguan 532016, China
| | - Zhaoqin Wang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Shenzhen Third People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518100, China
| | - Jianhua Feng
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Zhongshan Second People's Hospital, Zhongshan 528447, China
| | - Changqing Lin
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Huizhou Central People's Hospital, Huizhou 516001, China
| | - Yinong Ye
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Foshan First people's Hospital, Foshan 528000, China
| | - Zhilong Wu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Fourth People's Hospital of Foshan City, Foshan 528000, China
| | - Yaocai Li
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Maoming People's Hospital, Maoming 525000, China
| | - Bei Zhong
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Qingyuan People's Hospital, Qingyuan 511518, China
| | - Ruilin Sun
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine Department, Guangdong Second Provincial General Hospital, Guangzhou 510317, China
| | - Zhongsi Hong
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519099, China
| | - Huili Chen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Xiaohua Wang
- Intensive Care Unit, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519099, China
| | - Zhonghe Li
- Department of Nephrology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519099, China
| | - Duanqing Pei
- Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou 510700, China
- Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510700, China
| | - Lin Tian
- Center for Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Jinyu Xia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
| | - Shanping Jiang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Nanshan Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Health, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Hong Shan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomedical Imaging and Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Molecular Imaging, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
- Center for Interventional Medicine, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519000, China
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7
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Seethamchai S, Buppan P, Kuamsab N, Teeranaipong P, Putaporntip C, Jongwutiwes S. Variation in intronic microsatellites and exon 2 of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter gene during modification of artemisinin combination therapy in Thailand. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 65:35-42. [PMID: 30016713 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 07/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The amino acid substitution at residue 76 of the food vacuolar transmembrane protein encoded by the chloroquine resistance transporter gene of Plasmodium falciparum (Pfcrt) is an important, albeit imperfect, determinant of chloroquine susceptibility status of the parasite. Other mutations in Pfcrt can modulate susceptibility of P. falciparum to other antimalarials capable of interfering with heme detoxification process, and may exert compensatory effect on parasite growth rate. To address whether nationwide implementation of artemisinin combination therapy (ACT) in Thailand could affect sequence variation in exon 2 and introns of Pfcrt, we analyzed 136 P. falciparum isolates collected during 1997 and 2016 from endemic areas bordering Myanmar, Cambodia and Malaysia. Results revealed 6 haplotypes in exon 2 of Pfcrt with 2 novel substitutions at c.243A > G (p.R81) and c.251A > T (p.N84I). Positive selection was observed at amino acid residues 75, 76 and 97. Four, 3, and 2 alleles of microsatellite (AT/TA) repeats occurred in introns 1, 2 and 4, respectively, resulting in 7 different 3-locus haplotypes. The number of haplotypes and haplotype diversity of exon 2, and introns 1, 2 and 4 were significantly greater among isolates collected during 2009 and 2016 than those collected during 1997 and 2008 when 3-day ACT and 2-day ACT regimens were implemented nationwide, respectively (p < 0.05). By contrast, the number of haplotypes and haplotype diversity of the merozoite surface proteins 1 and 2 of these parasite populations did not differ significantly between these periods. Therefore, the Pfcrt locus of P. falciparum in Thailand continues to evolve and could have been affected by selective pressure from modification of ACT regimen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunee Seethamchai
- Department of Biology, Naresuan University, Pitsanulok Province 65000, Thailand
| | - Pattakorn Buppan
- Molecular Biology of Malaria and Opportunistic Parasites Research Unit, Department of Parasitology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Napaporn Kuamsab
- Molecular Biology of Malaria and Opportunistic Parasites Research Unit, Department of Parasitology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Phairote Teeranaipong
- Molecular Biology of Malaria and Opportunistic Parasites Research Unit, Department of Parasitology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Chaturong Putaporntip
- Molecular Biology of Malaria and Opportunistic Parasites Research Unit, Department of Parasitology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
| | - Somchai Jongwutiwes
- Molecular Biology of Malaria and Opportunistic Parasites Research Unit, Department of Parasitology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
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8
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Current and Future Use of Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine in Infectious, Immune, Neoplastic, and Neurological Diseases: A Mini-Review. Clin Drug Investig 2018; 38:653-671. [DOI: 10.1007/s40261-018-0656-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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9
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Kodchakorn C, Kesara NB. A review of clinical pharmacokinetics of chloroquine and primaquine and their application in malaria treatment in Thai population. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.5897/ajpp2017.4828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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10
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Höglund R, Moussavi Y, Ruengweerayut R, Cheomung A, Äbelö A, Na-Bangchang K. Population pharmacokinetics of a three-day chloroquine treatment in patients with Plasmodium vivax infection on the Thai-Myanmar border. Malar J 2016; 15:129. [PMID: 26928448 PMCID: PMC4772585 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-016-1181-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A three-day course of chloroquine remains a standard treatment of Plasmodium vivax infection in Thailand with satisfactory clinical efficacy and tolerability although a continuous decline in in vitro parasite sensitivity has been reported. Information on the pharmacokinetics of chloroquine and its active metabolite desethylchloroquine are required for optimization of treatment to attain therapeutic exposure and thus prevent drug resistance development. Methods The study was conducted at Mae Tao Clinic for migrant worker, Tak province, Thailand. Blood samples were collected from a total of 75 (8 Thais and 67 Burmeses; 36 males and 39 females; aged 17–52 years) patients with mono-infection with P. vivax malaria [median (95 % CI) admission parasitaemia 4898 (1206–29,480)/µL] following treatment with a three-day course of chloroquine (25 mg/kg body weight chloroquine phosphate over 3 days). Whole blood concentrations of chloroquine and desethylchloroquine were measured using high performance liquid chromatography with UV detection. Concentration–time profiles of both compounds were analysed using a population-based pharmacokinetic approach. Results All patients showed satisfactory response to standard treatment with a three-day course of chloroquine with 100 % cure rate within the follow-up period of 42 days. Neither recurrence of P. vivax parasitaemia nor appearance of P. falciparum occurred. A total of 1045 observations from 75 participants were included in the pharmacokinetic analysis. Chloroquine disposition was most adequately described by the two-compartment model with one transit compartment absorption model into the central compartment and a first-order transformation of chloroquine into desethylchloroquine with an additional peripheral compartment added to desethylchloroquine. First-order elimination from the central compartment of chloroquine and desethylchloroquine was assumed. The model exhibited a strong predictive ability and the pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated with adequate precision. Conclusion The developed population-based pharmacokinetic model could be applied for future prediction of optimal dosage regimen of chloroquine in patients with P. vivax infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Höglund
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
| | - Younis Moussavi
- Unit for Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Department Pharmacology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | | | - Anurak Cheomung
- Center of Excellence for Molecular Biology and Pharmacology of Malaria and Cholangiocarcinoma, International College of Medicine, Thammasat University, Bangkok, Pathumtanee, Thailand.
| | - Angela Äbelö
- Unit for Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Department Pharmacology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Kesara Na-Bangchang
- Center of Excellence for Molecular Biology and Pharmacology of Malaria and Cholangiocarcinoma, International College of Medicine, Thammasat University, Bangkok, Pathumtanee, Thailand.
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Thapliyal N, Chiwunze TE, Karpoormath R, Goyal RN, Patel H, Cherukupalli S. Research progress in electroanalytical techniques for determination of antimalarial drugs in pharmaceutical and biological samples. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra05025e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The review focusses on the role of electroanalytical methods for determination of antimalarial drugs in biological matrices and pharmaceutical formulations with a critical analysis of published voltammetric and potentiometric methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeta Thapliyal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- College of Health Sciences
- University of KwaZulu-Natal
- Durban 4000
- South Africa
| | - Tirivashe E. Chiwunze
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- College of Health Sciences
- University of KwaZulu-Natal
- Durban 4000
- South Africa
| | - Rajshekhar Karpoormath
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- College of Health Sciences
- University of KwaZulu-Natal
- Durban 4000
- South Africa
| | - Rajendra N. Goyal
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
- Roorkee 247667
- India
| | - Harun Patel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- College of Health Sciences
- University of KwaZulu-Natal
- Durban 4000
- South Africa
| | - Srinivasulu Cherukupalli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- College of Health Sciences
- University of KwaZulu-Natal
- Durban 4000
- South Africa
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12
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Mzayek F, Deng H, Mather FJ, Wasilevich EC, Liu H, Hadi CM, Chansolme DH, Murphy HA, Melek BH, Tenaglia AN, Mushatt DM, Dreisbach AW, Lertora JJL, Krogstad DJ. Randomized dose-ranging controlled trial of AQ-13, a candidate antimalarial, and chloroquine in healthy volunteers. PLOS CLINICAL TRIALS 2007; 2:e6. [PMID: 17213921 PMCID: PMC1764434 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pctr.0020006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2006] [Accepted: 11/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine: (1) the pharmacokinetics and safety of an investigational aminoquinoline active against multidrug-resistant malaria parasites (AQ-13), including its effects on the QT interval, and (2) whether it has pharmacokinetic and safety profiles similar to chloroquine (CQ) in humans. DESIGN Phase I double-blind, randomized controlled trials to compare AQ-13 and CQ in healthy volunteers. Randomizations were performed at each step after completion of the previous dose. SETTING Tulane-Louisiana State University-Charity Hospital General Clinical Research Center in New Orleans. PARTICIPANTS 126 healthy adults 21-45 years of age. INTERVENTIONS 10, 100, 300, 600, and 1,500 mg oral doses of CQ base in comparison with equivalent doses of AQ-13. OUTCOME MEASURES Clinical and laboratory adverse events (AEs), pharmacokinetic parameters, and QT prolongation. RESULTS No hematologic, hepatic, renal, or other organ toxicity was observed with AQ-13 or CQ at any dose tested. Headache, lightheadedness/dizziness, and gastrointestinal (GI) tract-related symptoms were the most common AEs. Although symptoms were more frequent with AQ-13, the numbers of volunteers who experienced symptoms with AQ-13 and CQ were similar (for AQ-13 and CQ, respectively: headache, 17/63 and 10/63, p = 0.2; lightheadedness/dizziness, 11/63 and 8/63, p = 0.6; GI symptoms, 14/63 and 13/63; p = 0.9). Both AQ-13 and CQ exhibited linear pharmacokinetics. However, AQ-13 was cleared more rapidly than CQ (respectively, median oral clearance 14.0-14.7 l/h versus 9.5-11.3 l/h; p < or = 0.03). QTc prolongation was greater with CQ than AQ-13 (CQ: mean increase of 28 ms; 95% confidence interval [CI], 18 to 38 ms, versus AQ-13: mean increase of 10 ms; 95% CI, 2 to 17 ms; p = 0.01). There were no arrhythmias or other cardiac AEs with either AQ-13 or CQ. CONCLUSIONS These studies revealed minimal differences in toxicity between AQ-13 and CQ, and similar linear pharmacokinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fawaz Mzayek
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Haiyan Deng
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Frances J Mather
- Department of Biostatistics, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth C Wasilevich
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Huayin Liu
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Christiane M Hadi
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - David H Chansolme
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Holly A Murphy
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Bekir H Melek
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Alan N Tenaglia
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - David M Mushatt
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Albert W Dreisbach
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Tulane–Louisiana State University–Charity Hospital General Clinical Research Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Juan J. L Lertora
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Tulane–Louisiana State University–Charity Hospital General Clinical Research Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Donald J Krogstad
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
- Tulane–Louisiana State University–Charity Hospital General Clinical Research Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
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Mockenhaupt FP, May J, Bergqvist Y, Ademowo OG, Olumese PE, Falusi AG, Grossterlinden L, Meyer CG, Bienzle U. Concentrations of chloroquine and malaria parasites in blood in Nigerian children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44:835-9. [PMID: 10722478 PMCID: PMC89779 DOI: 10.1128/aac.44.4.835-839.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/1999] [Accepted: 12/27/1999] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Consumption of chloroquine (CQ) and subtherapeutic drug levels in blood are considered to be widespread in areas where malaria is endemic. A cross-sectional study was performed with 405 Nigerian children to assess factors associated with the presence of CQ in blood and to examine correlations of drug levels with malaria parasite species and densities. Infections with Plasmodium species and parasite densities were determined by microscopy and PCR assays. Whole-blood CQ concentrations were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. Plasmodium falciparum, P. malariae, and P. ovale were observed in 80, 16, and 9% of the children, respectively, and CQ was detected in 52% of the children. CQ concentrations were >17 and <100 nmol/liter in 25% of the children, 100 to 499 nmol/liter in 14% of the children, and > or =500 nmol/liter in 13% of the children. Young age, attendance at health posts, and absence of parasitemia were factors independently associated with CQ in blood. With increasing concentrations of CQ, the prevalence of P. falciparum infection and parasite densities decreased. However, at concentrations corresponding to those usually attained during regular prophylaxis (> or =500 nmol/liter), 62% of children were still harboring P. falciparum parasites. In contrast, no infection with P. malariae and only one infection with P. ovale were observed in children with CQ concentrations of > or =100 nmol/liter. These data show the high prevalence of subcurative CQ concentrations in Nigerian children and confirm the considerable degree of CQ resistance in that country. Subtherapeutic drug levels are likely to further promote CQ resistance and may impair the development and maintenance of premunition in areas where malaria is endemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- F P Mockenhaupt
- Institute of Tropical Medicine and Medical Faculty Charité, Humboldt-University, Berlin, Germany.
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Ducharme J, Farinotti R. Rapid and simple method to determine chloroquine and its desethylated metabolites in human microsomes by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY. B, BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES AND APPLICATIONS 1997; 698:243-50. [PMID: 9367214 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(97)00273-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
A sensitive and selective method was developed for the simultaneous determination of chloroquine (CQ) and its desethylated metabolites monodesethylchloroquine (DCQ) and bisdesethylchloroquine (BDCQ) in human liver microsomes. Analytes were separated on a C1 column using methanol-water (70:30, v/v) and triethylamine (0.1% v/v) as the mobile phase. The fluorescence detector was set at 250 (excitation) and 380 nm (emission). Following protein precipitation with ice-cold acetonitrile, microsomal incubation supernatants were directly injected into the HPLC system. Typically, 200 microl of incubate were diluted with 200 microl of acetonitrile and 15 microl were injected. The limit of quantitation was 78 nM of CQ or metabolite. Intra-day variability averaged 2.9% for CQ, 1.5% for DCQ and 2.5% for BDCQ. Inter-day variability was 3.1% for CQ, 3.5% for DCQ and 3.7% for BDCQ. Mean accuracies were 100% for CQ and BDCQ and 102% for DCQ.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ducharme
- Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Paris XI, Chatenay-Malabry, France
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Ducharme J, Farinotti R. Clinical pharmacokinetics and metabolism of chloroquine. Focus on recent advancements. Clin Pharmacokinet 1996; 31:257-74. [PMID: 8896943 DOI: 10.2165/00003088-199631040-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents the current state of knowledge on chloroquine disposition, with special emphasis on stereoselectivity and microsomal metabolism. In addition, the impact of the patient's physiopathological status and ethnic origin on chloroquine pharmacokinetics is discussed. In humans, chloroquine concentrations decline multiexponentially. The drug is extensively distributed, with a volume of distribution of 200 to 800 L/kg when calculated from plasma concentrations and 200 L/kg when estimated from whole blood data (concentrations being 5 to 10 times higher). Chloroquine is 60% bound to plasma proteins and equally cleared by the kidney and liver. Following administration chloroquine is rapidly dealkylated via cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP) into the pharmacologically active desethylchloroquine and bisdesethylchloroquine. Desethylchloroquine and bisdesethylchloroquine concentrations reach 40 and 10% of chloroquine concentrations, respectively; both chloroquine and desethylchloroquine concentrations decline slowly, with elimination half-lives of 20 to 60 days. Both parent drug and metabolite can be detected in urine months after a single dose. In vitro and in vivo, chloroquine and desethylchloroquine competitively inhibit CYP2D1/6-mediated reactions. Limited in vitro studies and preliminary data from clinical experiments and observations point to CYP3A and CYP2D6 as the 2 major isoforms affected by or involved in chloroquine metabolism. In vitro efficacy studies did not detect any difference in potency between chloroquine enantiomers but, in vivo in rats, S(+)-chloroquine had a lower dose that elicited 50% of the maximal effect (ED950) than that of R(-)-chloroquine. Stereoselectivity in chloroquine body disposition could be responsible for this discrepancy. Chloroquine binding to plasma proteins is stereoselective, favouring S(+)-chloroquine (67% vs 35% for the R-enantiomer). Hence, unbound plasma concentrations are higher for R(-)-chloroquine. Following separate administration of the individual enantiomers, R(-)-chloroquine reached higher and more sustained blood concentrations. The shorter half-life of S(+)-chloroquine appears secondary to its faster clearance. Blood concentrations of the S(+)-forms of desethylchloroquine always exceeded those of the R(-)-forms, pointing to a preferential metabolism of S(+)-chloroquine.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ducharme
- Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Paris XI, Chatenay-Malabry, France
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Abstract
Malaria is associated with a reduction in the systemic clearance and apparent volume of distribution of the cinchona alkaloids; this reduction is proportional to the disease severity. There is increased plasma protein binding, predominantly to alpha 1-acid glycoprotein, and elimination half-lives (in healthy adults quinine t1/2z = 11 hours, quinidine t1/2z = 8 hours) are prolonged by 50%. Systemic clearance is predominantly by hepatic biotransformation to more polar metabolites (quinine 80%, quinidine 65%) and the remaining drug is eliminated unchanged by the kidney. Quinine is well absorbed by mouth or following intramuscular injection even in severe cases of malaria (estimated bioavailability more than 85%). Quinine and chloroquine may cause potentially lethal hypotension if given by intravenous injection. Chloroquine is extensively distributed with an enormous total apparent volume of distribution (Vd) more than 100 L/kg, and a terminal elimination half-life of 1 to 2 months. As a consequence, distribution rather than elimination processes determine the blood concentration profile of chloroquine in patients with acute malaria. Parenteral chloroquine should be given either by continuous intravenous infusion, or by frequent intramuscular or subcutaneous injections of relatively small doses. Oral bioavailability exceeds 75%. Amodiaquine is a pro-drug for the active antimalarial metabolite desethylamodiaquine. Its pharmacokinetic properties are similar to these of chloroquine although the Vd is smaller (17 to 34 L/kg) and the terminal elimination half-life is 1 to 3 weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Krishna
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, St George's Hospital Medical School, London, England
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Barrett EJ, Jahn LA, Oliveras DM, Fryburg DA. Chloroquine does not exert insulin-like actions on human forearm muscle metabolism. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY 1995; 268:E820-4. [PMID: 7762633 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.1995.268.5.e820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Insulin's anabolic action on skeletal muscle and whole body protein is attributable to its action to slow tissue proteolysis. The antimalarial chloroquine inhibits lysosomal proteolysis and is reported to improve glycemia in poorly controlled diabetic patients. We infused chloroquine into the brachial artery of seven healthy postabsorptive volunteers over 3 h during a steady-state infusion of L-[ring-2,6-3H]phenylalanine (Phe) to study its effect on muscle glucose and protein turnover. Compared with basal, chloroquine increased forearm blood flow (P < 0.01) but did not change glucose uptake or lactate release. Neither Phe released from muscle by proteolysis (78 +/- 15 vs. 94 +/- 16 nmol Phe.min-1.100 ml-1) nor Phe balance (-37 +/- 7 vs. -50 +/- 6 nmol.min-1.100 ml-1) was reduced from basal. We conclude that in postabsorptive human skeletal muscle: 1) lysosomal proteolysis does not make a major contribution to proteolysis; and 2) chloroquine does not cause an acute increase in glucose uptake. These findings suggest that the inhibition of postabsorptive muscle protein degradation provoked by physiological increases in plasma insulin is likely mediated by a nonlysosomal proteolytic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Barrett
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Virginia Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville 22908, USA
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Valls V, Ena J, Enríquez-De-Salamanca R. Low-dose oral chloroquine in patients with porphyria cutanea tarda and low-moderate iron overload. J Dermatol Sci 1994; 7:169-75. [PMID: 7918235 DOI: 10.1016/0923-1811(94)90092-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE to assess the efficacy, tolerance and determinants for relapse in patients with porphyria cutanea tarda treated with low-dose oral chloroquine. DESIGN open trial with a median follow-up of 3 years. SETTING outpatient referral unit of a university hospital. PATIENTS 53 patients with low-moderate iron overload or intolerance to phlebotomies. INTERVENTION 250 mg twice weekly oral chloroquine diphosphate until remission or failure to respond. MEASUREMENTS porphyrin excretion, biochemical changes and development of side effects. RESULTS after administration of a median dose of 23.5 g of chloroquine (limits 12.6-56 g) during a median time of 8 months (limits: 1-26 months), 50 patients (94%) reached a metabolic remission (urinary uroporphyrin excretion < 100 micrograms/l). In 14 of these patients (28%), porphyrin excretion further decreased after finishing chloroquine therapy. Metabolic remission persisted during 24 months (limits 6-97 months). Side-effects (severe pruritus) appeared only in one patient. Twenty-two patients relapsed, the relapses being associated with greater basal values of serum AST, ALT, gammaglobulin, urinary uroporphyrin and to the time needed to achieve remission. One year and three years after finishing therapy the probabilities of relapse were 12% (95% C.I.: 5-27%) and 49% (95% C.I.: 34-67%), respectively. Time to achieve remission was the only independent predictor of relapse (hazard ratio: 1.2, 95% C.I.: 1.05-1.21, P < 0.01). CONCLUSION low-dose oral chloroquine is a safe therapy that promotes a high proportion of remission and sustained control of porphyria cutanea tarda associated with low-moderate iron overload.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Valls
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain
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Abstract
The pharmacokinetics of the slow acting antirheumatic drugs (SAARDs), hydroxychloroquine, chloroquine, penicillamine, the gold complexes and sulphasalazine, in humans have been studied. For all these drugs, both in controlled clinical trials and in empirical observations from rheumatological practice, delays of several months are reported before full clinical effects are achieved. Variability in response is also characteristic of these agents. Pharmacokinetic factors may partially explain these clinical observations. Delays in the achievement of steady-state concentrations or of concentrations likely to have a therapeutic benefit may occur because of slow drug accumulation. Variable concentrations may arise after standard administered doses because of interindividual pharmacokinetic variability. These factors are likely to contribute to the delay in response and the variable response, respectively. Pharmacokinetics of the antimalarials, hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine, are characterised by extensive tissue sequestration with reported volumes of distribution in the thousands of litres. Both drugs have reported elimination half-lives of greater than 1 month. A 2- to 3-fold range occurs in the fraction of an oral dose absorbed from a tablet formulation. Variable interindividual clearance is also reported. Hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine are administered as racemates. Enantioselective disposition of both compounds occurs, again with notable interindividual variability. Sulphasalazine is split in the large intestine into sulphapyridine, proposed to be the active compound in rheumatoid arthritis, and mesalazine (5-aminosalicylic acid). Sulphapyridine is metabolised partly by acetylation, the rate of which is under genetic control. A wide range of sulphapyridine steady-state concentrations are reported after standard doses of sulphasalazine. The gold complexes are administered either intramuscularly or in an oral form (auranofin). Gold is widely distributed in the body. Very long terminal elimination half-lives and slow accumulation rates are reported. Penicillamine is administered orally. Its bioavailability is variable and may decrease by as much as 70% in the presence of food, antacids and iron salts. Penicillamine forms disulphide bonds with many proteins in the blood and tissues, creating potential slow release reservoirs of the drug. Like the other SAARDs, gold complexes and penicillamine are found in a wide range of blood concentrations after administration in standard doses to different individuals. More research must be conducted into the concentration-effect relationships of the SAARDs before the pharmacokinetic characteristics of these drugs can be used effectively to optimise patient therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- S E Tett
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, Australia
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Chloroquine pharmacokinetic data during chronic daily treatment. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1993. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00316485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Abstract
The antimalarials hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine remain established and effective agents for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Although the mechanisms of action remain uncertain, evidence is accumulating that the antirheumatic and immunological effects of the antimalarials are related to their massive distribution into the cellular acid-vesicle system. These drugs are attracting new interest because their relative safety recommends their use in early rheumatoid arthritis and as a component of second-line antirheumatic drug combinations. The absence of data examining the effect of antimalarials upon radiological progression of rheumatoid arthritis needs to be rectified. Recent understanding of the pharmacokinetics of these drugs reveals that steady-state concentrations are not achieved for at least 3-4 months. Preliminary information also suggests a relationship between blood concentrations and effect. Taken together, these data suggest that more effective dosage regimens will be possible when therapeutic concentration ranges are properly established.
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Abstract
With the increased spread of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria and mounting evidence of lack of efficacy and toxicity of alternative drugs, it has become extremely difficult to propose simple, widely applicable and uniformly acceptable recommendations for malaria chemoprophylaxis. With regard to specific drugs, it is clear that because of its toxicity amodiaquine should no longer be used for chemoprophylaxis, and that pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine should, for the most part, be used only as a presumptive therapy. The pyrimethamine/dapsone combination is promising, but data on its efficacy are limited. Although proguanil (chloroguanide) is recommended by several sources because of its safety, disturbing reports of chemoprophylaxis failure in Africa and a well-documented lack of efficacy in South East Asia would suggest that its usefulness may be limited. However, a recent study has documented the efficacy of a proguanil-sulphonamide combination in Thailand, an area of high grade chloroquine resistance. Although long term studies of drug safety are not yet available, doxycycline and mefloquine appear to be the drugs of choice in areas where P. falciparum shows multidrug resistance. Regardless of the drug regimen recommended for chemoprophylaxis, travellers must be informed that no present-day antimalarial agent guarantees protection against malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Keystone
- Tropical Disease Unit, Toronto General Hospital, Ontario, Canada
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Abstract
Malaria has become an increasingly common health problem in the 1970s and 1980s, both in areas where infection is endemic and in travellers returning to non-endemic areas. The severity of infection varies widely, depending on the plasmodial species involved, and there is an extensive chemotherapeutic armamentarium currently available to combat malarial infection. Drug chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanism of drug action and resistance, and toxicities are outlined for the cinchona alkaloids (quinine and quinidine), chloroquine, amodiaquine, pyrimethamine, the sulphonamides, pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine, mefloquine, pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine/mefloquine, the sesquiterpene lactones, primaquine, and other drugs. A knowledge of the distribution of drug resistance is vital for the provision of effective antimalarial therapy, and current information in this area is outlined. Chloroquine remains the mainstay of treatment for the erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and chloroquine-sensitive P. falciparum malaria. The dormant hepatic stages of P. vivax and P. ovale also require further treatment with primaquine. Quinine, alone or in combination with other drugs, is the primary agent used to treat chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. Falciparum infection can rapidly become fatal, therefore its complications of multiple organ failure, heavy parasitaemias, cerebral malaria, and hypoglycaemia must be recognised and managed promptly. Because these protozoal parasitic infections are now encountered throughout the world and can become life-threatening, a wide variety of practitioners must become more familiar with their correct treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Panisko
- Tropical Disease Unit, Toronto General Hospital, Ontario, Canada
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Affiliation(s)
- N J White
- Bangkok Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Thailand
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