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Li T, Tian Y, Zhong Q, Chen P, Zhang J, Du G, Li L, Jiang Y, Jiang K. HCG supplement did not accelerate tunica albuginea remodeling to facilitate penile growth. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16519. [PMID: 37783699 PMCID: PMC10545796 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38888-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Penile size is closely concerned and short penis contributes serious sexual dysfunction and tremendous psychological problems to couples. Androgen is essential for penile development and testosterone replacement is recommended to patients with micropenis. We previously proved that inhibiting activity of lysyl oxidase (Anti-lysyl oxidase, Anti-LOX) combined with vacuum erectile device (VED) lengthened penis by remodeling tunica albuginea. We thus explored whether HCG supplement could accelerate tunica albuginea remodeling (induced by Anti-LOX + VED) to promote penile growth. Forty-two SD male rats (4 weeks old) were purchased and divided into 7 groups: control, Anti-LOX, HCG, VED (with a negative aspirated pressure of - 300 mmHg), Anti-LOX + VED, HCG + VED, and Anti-LOX + HCG + VED. After an intervention for 4 weeks, all rats' penile length, exposed penile length, and erectile function were measured. Serum samples were collected to detect hormone levels and penile corpus cavernosum were harvested for histo-pathological analysis. All intervention groups showed significantly longer penis than controlled rats. Anti-LOX sharply increased penile length and exposed length by 15% and 9% respectively, this lengthening effect was more obvious in Anti-LOX + VED group (26% and 19%, respectively). Although HCG promoted penile length by 8%, this effect was slight for exposed length (3%). Moreover, Anti-LOX + HCG + VED dramatically increased penile length and exposed length by 22% and 18%, respectively, which was similar with that in Anti-LOX + VED (26% and 19%, respectively). HCG dramatically stimulated testosterone and dihydrotestosterone secretions than control group, whether with or without Anti-LOX and VED; while it induced more AR expression than other groups. Finally, all procedures did not improve or deteriorate normal erectile function. Although we verified that Anti-LOX + VED lengthened penis by inducing tunica albuginea remodeling, however, HCG supplement did not synergize with Anti-LOX + VED to accelerate albuginea remodeling to facilitate penile growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Li
- Department of Urology, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, 184 Zhongshan East Road, Guiyang, 550002, Guizhou, People's Republic of China
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan Tian
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Quliang Zhong
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Chen
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Junhao Zhang
- Department of Urology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangshi Du
- Translational Medicine Research Center of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Li
- Gastrointestinal Surgery Center, Sichuan Cancer Hospital and Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiting Jiang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, People's Republic of China.
| | - Kehua Jiang
- Department of Urology, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, 184 Zhongshan East Road, Guiyang, 550002, Guizhou, People's Republic of China.
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Tan H, Zheng Z, Wang S, Yang L, Widelka M, Chen D. Neonatal exposure to bisphenol analogues disrupts genital development in male mice. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 330:121783. [PMID: 37164221 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The public concern and governmental regulations on bisphenol A (BPA) have stimulated the development and production of alternative analogues to replace BPA in a myriad of applications. Given the endocrine disrupting activities of BPA and potentially other analogues, the present study investigated and compared the effects of neonatal exposure to BPA, BPB, BPE, BPF, and BPS on the genital development in male mice. Pups were injected subcutaneously on the right shoulder in the mornings of postnatal days P0.5, P2, P4, and P6, resulting in a low dose of 0.05 μg/g body weight (bw)/day and a high dose of 10 μg/g bw/day. Mice were sacrificed at predetermined time and evaluated for gene expression levels (3 days after birth or P3), steroid hormone levels (P5), and morphological changes (P21). The results demonstrated that BPA, BPB, BPE, or BPF significantly shortened glans penis length and anogenital distance, while BPS didn't. Testis weight and anogenital distance were also significantly affected by BPA, BPE or BPF. The results also revealed that bisphenol analogues exposure significantly reduced testosterone levels, and altered the expression levels of developmental genes networks in developing penis of mice. Our data demonstrate that selected bisphenol analogues may possess similar endocrine disrupting effects compared to BPA, and exposure to these analogues could affect reproductive development of male mice. This raises the concern on the environmental and health safety of bisphenol analogues applied as industrial BPA replacements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongli Tan
- School of Environment, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Zhengui Zheng
- Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University, School of Medicine, Carbondale, IL, 62901, United States
| | - Shanshan Wang
- Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University, School of Medicine, Carbondale, IL, 62901, United States
| | - Liu Yang
- School of Environment, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Margaret Widelka
- Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University, School of Medicine, Carbondale, IL, 62901, United States
| | - Da Chen
- School of Environment, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
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3
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Monteiro GN, Monteiro DS, Oliveira RJ, Cunha-Laura AL, Amaral EA, Auharek SA. Testicular toxicity in mice exposed to terephthalic acid in utero and during lactation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:66050-66061. [PMID: 37097558 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-26849-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Terephthalic acid (TPA) is a worldwide aromatic compound widely used to manufacture resins and the raw material for the polymerization reaction with ethylene glycol to produce polyethylene terephthalate, known as PET. The use of TPA extends to the synthesis of phthalates, plasticizers used in various industrialized products such as toys and cosmetics. The present study aimed to evaluate the testicular toxicity of terephthalic acid on male mice exposed in utero and during lactation to TPA in different developmental windows. The animals were treated intragastric with TPA at stock dispersal dosages corresponding to 0.0014 g/ml and 0.56 g/ml of TPA in 0.5% v/v carboxymethylcellulose as well as the control dose, composed solely of dispersion of carboxymethylcellulose (0.5% v/v). Four experimental windows were established: group I-treatment in utero, in the fetal period (gestational day-GD 10.5-18.5), with euthanasia at GD 18.5; group II-treatment in utero, in the fetal period (GD 10.5-18.5) and the lactational period (postnatal day (PND-15)), with euthanasia at 15 days; group III-treatment in utero in the fetal period (DG 10.5-18.5) with euthanasia at 70 days (age of sexual maturity, PND 70); group IV-treatment in utero, in the fetal period (GD 10.5-18.5) and the lactational period (PND-15), with euthanasia at 70 days (PND70). The results indicate that TPA changes the reproductive parameters (testicular weight, GI, penis size, and anogenital index) only at the dose of 0.56 g/ml in the fetal period. Data on the volumetric ratio of the testis elements show that the dispersion with the highest concentration of TPA significantly altered the blood vessel/capillary, lymphatic vessel, and connective tissue percentages. Only at the dose of 0.56 g/ml TPA was it effective in decreasing the Leydig and Sertoli cell numbers of the euthanized animals at GD 18.5. In group II, TPA increased the diameter and lumen of seminiferous tubules, which indicates that TPA accelerated the maturation process of Sertoli cells without changing the number and the nuclear volume of these cells. The Sertoli and Leydig cell numbers of the 70-day animals exposed to TPA in the gestational and lactational period were similar to the control. Therefore, the present study is the first in the literature to show that TPA presents a testicular toxicity during fetal (DG18.5) and postnatal life (PND15), without repercussion in adulthood (70 days).
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Nazareno Monteiro
- Faculdade de Medicina Do Mucuri (FAMMUC), Universidade Federal Dos Vales Do Jequitinhonha E Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Instituto de Ciência, Engenharia E Tecnologia (ICET), Universidade Federal Dos Vales Do Jequitinhonha E Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Douglas Santos Monteiro
- Instituto de Ciência, Engenharia E Tecnologia (ICET), Universidade Federal Dos Vales Do Jequitinhonha E Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Juliano Oliveira
- Centro de Estudos Em Células Tronco, Terapia Celular E Genética Toxicológica (CeTroGen), Hospital Universitário Maria Aparecida Pedrossian (HUMAP), Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso Do Sul (UFMS), Campo Grande, Mato Grosso Do Sul, Brazil
| | - Andréa Luiza Cunha-Laura
- Instituto de Biologia (INBIO), Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso Do Sul (UFMS), Campo Grande, Mato Grosso Do Sul, Brazil
| | - Ernani Aloysio Amaral
- Faculdade de Medicina Do Mucuri (FAMMUC), Universidade Federal Dos Vales Do Jequitinhonha E Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Sarah Alves Auharek
- Faculdade de Medicina Do Mucuri (FAMMUC), Universidade Federal Dos Vales Do Jequitinhonha E Mucuri (UFVJM), Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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4
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Kajimoto M, Suzuki K, Ueda Y, Fujimoto K, Takeo T, Nakagata N, Hyuga T, Isono K, Yamada G. Androgen/Wnt/β-catenin signal axis augments cell proliferation of the mouse erectile tissue, corpus cavernosum. Congenit Anom (Kyoto) 2022; 62:123-133. [PMID: 35318743 DOI: 10.1111/cga.12465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The murine penile erectile tissues including corpus cavernosum (CC) are composed of blood vessels, smooth muscle, and connective tissue, showing marked sexual differences. It has been known that the androgens are required for sexually dimorphic organogenesis. It is however unknown about the features of androgen signaling during mouse CC development. It is also unclear how androgen-driven downstream factors are involved such processes. In the current study, we analyzed the onset of sexually dimorphic CC formation based on histological analyses, the dynamics of androgen receptor (AR) expression, and regulation of cell proliferation. Of note, we identified Dickkopf-related protein 2 (Dkk2), an inhibitor of β-catenin signaling, was predominantly expressed in female CC compared with male. Furthermore, administration of androgens resulted in activation of β-catenin signaling. We have found the Sox9 gene, one of the essential markers for chondrocyte, was specifically expressed in the developing CC. Hence, we utilized CC-specific, Sox9 CreERT2 , β-catenin conditional mutant mice. Such mutant mice showed defective cell proliferation. Furthermore, introduction of activated form of β-catenin mutation (gain of function mutation for Wnt/β-catenin signaling) in CC induced augmented cell proliferation. Altogether, we revealed androgen-Wnt/β-catenin signal dependent cell proliferation was essential for sexually dimorphic CC formation. These findings open new avenues for understanding developmental mechanisms of androgen-dependent cell proliferation during sexual differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mizuki Kajimoto
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Kentaro Suzuki
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Yuko Ueda
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Kota Fujimoto
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Toru Takeo
- Division of Reproductive Engineering, Center for Animal Resources and Development, Institute of Resource Development and Analysis, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Naomi Nakagata
- Division of Reproductive Biotechnology and Innovation, Institute of Resource Development and Analysis, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Taiju Hyuga
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan.,Department of Pediatric Urology, Jichi Medical University, Children's Medical Center Tochigi, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Kyoichi Isono
- Laboratory Animal Center, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Gen Yamada
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Institute of Advanced Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
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5
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Tarulli GA, Cripps SM, Pask AJ, Renfree MB. Spatiotemporal map of key signaling factors during early penis development. Dev Dyn 2021; 251:609-624. [PMID: 34697862 PMCID: PMC9539974 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The formation of the external genitalia is a highly complex developmental process, considering it involves a wide range of cell types and results in sexually dimorphic outcomes. Development is controlled by several secreted signalling factors produced in complex spatiotemporal patterns, including the hedgehog (HH), bone morphogenic protein (BMP), fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and WNT signalling families. Many of these factors act on or are influenced by the actions of the androgen receptor (AR) that is critical to masculinisation. This complexity of expression makes it difficult to conceptualise patterns of potential importance. Mapping expression during key stages of development is needed to develop a comprehensive model of how different cell types interact in formation of external genitalia, and the global regulatory networks at play. This is particularly true in light of the sensitivity of this process to environmental disruption during key stages of development. The goal of this review is to integrate all recent studies on gene expression in early penis development to create a comprehensive spatiotemporal map. This serves as a resource to aid in visualising potentially significant interactions involved in external genital development. Diagrams of published RNA and protein localisation data for key secreted signalling factors during early penis development. Unconventional expression patterns are identified that suggest novel signalling axes during development. Key research gaps and limitations are identified and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard A Tarulli
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Samuel M Cripps
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrew J Pask
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Marilyn B Renfree
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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6
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Jorgensen A, Svingen T, Miles H, Chetty T, Stukenborg JB, Mitchell RT. Environmental Impacts on Male Reproductive Development: Lessons from Experimental Models. Horm Res Paediatr 2021; 96:190-206. [PMID: 34607330 DOI: 10.1159/000519964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Male reproductive development in mammals can be divided into a gonadal formation phase followed by a hormone-driven differentiation phase. Failure of these processes may result in Differences in Sex Development (DSD), which may include abnormalities of the male reproductive tract, including cryptorchidism, hypospadias, infertility, and testicular germ cell cancer (TGCC). These disorders are also considered to be part of a testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS) in males. Whilst DSDs are considered to result primarily from genetic abnormalities, the development of TDS disorders is frequently associated with environmental factors. SUMMARY In this review, we will discuss the development of the male reproductive system in relation to DSD and TDS. We will also describe the experimental systems, including studies involving animals and human tissues or cells that can be used to investigate the role of environmental factors in inducing male reproductive disorders. We will discuss recent studies investigating the impact of environmental chemicals (e.g., phthalates and bisphenols), lifestyle factors (e.g., smoking) and pharmaceuticals (e.g., analgesics) on foetal testis development. Finally, we will describe the evidence, involving experimental and epidemiologic approaches, for a role of environmental factors in the development of specific male reproductive disorders, including cryptorchidism, hypospadias, and TGCC. Key Messages: Environmental exposures can impact the development and function of the male reproductive system in humans. Epidemiology studies and experimental approaches using human tissues are important to translate findings from animal studies and account for species differences in response to environmental exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Jorgensen
- Department of Growth and Reproduction, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Terje Svingen
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Harriet Miles
- Royal Hospital for Children and Young People, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Tarini Chetty
- Royal Hospital for Children and Young People, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Jan-Bernd Stukenborg
- NORDFERTIL Research Lab Stockholm, Childhood Cancer Research Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Rod T Mitchell
- Royal Hospital for Children and Young People, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.,MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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7
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Leite Leão D, Vasconcelos Sampaio W, da Cunha Sousa P, Oskam IC, Rodrigues Dos Santos R, Souza Domingues SF. The use of anogenital distance as a non-invasive predictor of seminal quality in captive squirrel monkey (Saimiri collinsi Osgood 1961). J Med Primatol 2021; 50:299-305. [PMID: 34476816 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anogenital distance is considered a non-invasive measure to assess the development and functionality of sexual organs in different animal species. Hence, this measurement could potentially be used during the selection of non-human primates for reproductive biotechnology programs. The aim of this study was to assess the correlation between anogenital distance and reproductive parameters in captive Saimiri collinsi. METHODS Eight mature S. collinsi males were evaluated. Body weight, reproductive hormone levels, testicular volume, and seminal parameters were determined, and their relationship with anogenital distance measurements was assessed. RESULTS Anogenital distance was correlated with seminal volume, sperm motility, vigor, and plasma membrane integrity, but not with body weight, reproductive hormones, and testicular volume. CONCLUSION The determination of anogenital distance is a non-invasive method to predict seminal quality. This procedure has the advantage of providing andrologic information without a negative impact on animal welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danuza Leite Leão
- Laboratory of Wild Animal Biotechnology and Medicine, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Brazil
| | - Wlaisa Vasconcelos Sampaio
- Laboratory of Wild Animal Biotechnology and Medicine, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Brazil.,Postgraduate Program in Animal Health and Production in the Amazon, Federal Rural University of the Amazon, Belém, Brazil.,Federal Rural University of the Amazon, Parauapebas, Brazil
| | - Patrícia da Cunha Sousa
- Laboratory of Wild Animal Biotechnology and Medicine, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Brazil
| | - Irma Caroline Oskam
- The Livestock Production Research Centre, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Sheyla Farhayldes Souza Domingues
- Laboratory of Wild Animal Biotechnology and Medicine, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Brazil.,Postgraduate Program in Animal Health and Production in the Amazon, Federal Rural University of the Amazon, Belém, Brazil
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8
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Amato CM, Yao HHC. Developmental and sexual dimorphic atlas of the prenatal mouse external genitalia at the single-cell level. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2103856118. [PMID: 34155146 PMCID: PMC8237666 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2103856118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Birth defects of the external genitalia are among the most common in the world. Proper formation of the external genitalia requires a highly orchestrated process that involves special cell populations and sexually dimorphic hormone signaling. It is clear what the end result of the sexually dimorphic development is (a penis in the male versus clitoris in the female); however, the cell populations involved in the process remain poorly defined. Here, we used single-cell messenger RNA sequencing in mouse embryos to uncover the dynamic changes in cell populations in the external genitalia during the critical morphogenetic window. We found that overall, male and female external genitalia are largely composed of the same core cellular components. At the bipotential stage of development (embryonic day or E14.5), few differences in cell populational composition exist between male and female. Although similar in cell population composition, genetic differences in key sexual differentiation developmental pathways arise between males and females by the early (E16.5) and late (E18.5) differentiation stages. These differences include discrete cell populations with distinct responsiveness to androgen and estrogen. By late sexual differentiation (E18.5), unique cell populations in both male and female genitalia become apparent and are enriched with androgen- and estrogen-responsive genes, respectively. These data provide insights into the morphogenesis of the external genitalia that could be used to understand diseases associated with defects in the external genitalia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciro Maurizio Amato
- Reproductive Developmental Biology Group, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
| | - Humphrey Hung-Chang Yao
- Reproductive Developmental Biology Group, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
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9
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Sexual fate of murine external genitalia development: Conserved transcriptional competency for male-biased genes in both sexes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2024067118. [PMID: 34074765 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2024067118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Testicular androgen is a master endocrine factor in the establishment of external genital sex differences. The degree of androgenic exposure during development is well known to determine the fate of external genitalia on a spectrum of female- to male-specific phenotypes. However, the mechanisms of androgenic regulation underlying sex differentiation are poorly defined. Here, we show that the genomic environment for the expression of male-biased genes is conserved to acquire androgen responsiveness in both sexes. Histone H3 at lysine 27 acetylation (H3K27ac) and H3K4 monomethylation (H3K4me1) are enriched at the enhancer of male-biased genes in an androgen-independent manner. Specificity protein 1 (Sp1), acting as a collaborative transcription factor of androgen receptor, regulates H3K27ac enrichment to establish conserved transcriptional competency for male-biased genes in both sexes. Genetic manipulation of MafB, a key regulator of male-specific differentiation, and Sp1 regulatory MafB enhancer elements disrupts male-type urethral differentiation. Altogether, these findings demonstrate conservation of androgen responsiveness in both sexes, providing insights into the regulatory mechanisms underlying sexual fate during external genitalia development.
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10
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Cargnelutti F, Di Nisio A, Pallotti F, Sabovic I, Spaziani M, Tarsitano MG, Paoli D, Foresta C. Effects of endocrine disruptors on fetal testis development, male puberty, and transition age. Endocrine 2021; 72:358-374. [PMID: 32757113 PMCID: PMC8128728 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-020-02436-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Endocrine disruptors (EDs) are exogenous substances able to impair endocrine system; consequently, they may cause numerous adverse effects. Over the last years, particular focus has been given to their harmful effects on reproductive system, but very little is known, especially in males. The aim of this review is to discuss the detrimental effects of EDs exposure on fetal testis development, male puberty, and transition age. METHODS A search for the existing literature focusing on the impact of EDs on fetal testis development, male puberty, andrological parameters (anogenital distance, penile length, and testicular volume), and testicular cancer with particular regard to pubertal age provided the most current information available for this review. Human evidence-based reports were given priority over animal and in vitro experimental results. Given the paucity of available articles on this subject, all resources were given careful consideration. RESULTS Information about the consequences associated with EDs exposure in the current literature is limited and often conflicting, due to the scarcity of human studies and their heterogeneity. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that current evidence does not clarify the impact of EDs on human male reproductive health, although severe harmful effects had been reported in animals. Despite controversial results, overall conclusion points toward a positive association between exposure to EDs and reproductive system damage. Further long-term studies performed on wide number of subjects are necessary in order to identify damaging compounds and remove them from the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Cargnelutti
- Laboratory of Seminology-Sperm Bank "Loredana Gandini", Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Di Nisio
- Department of Medicine, Operative Unit of Andrology and Medicine of Human Reproduction, University of Padova, Via Giustiniani, 2, 35128, Padua, Italy
| | - Francesco Pallotti
- Laboratory of Seminology-Sperm Bank "Loredana Gandini", Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Iva Sabovic
- Department of Medicine, Operative Unit of Andrology and Medicine of Human Reproduction, University of Padova, Via Giustiniani, 2, 35128, Padua, Italy
| | - Matteo Spaziani
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Tarsitano
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Donatella Paoli
- Laboratory of Seminology-Sperm Bank "Loredana Gandini", Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy.
| | - Carlo Foresta
- Department of Medicine, Operative Unit of Andrology and Medicine of Human Reproduction, University of Padova, Via Giustiniani, 2, 35128, Padua, Italy
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11
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Endocrine-sensitive physical endpoints in newborns: ranges and predictors. Pediatr Res 2021; 89:660-666. [PMID: 32396926 PMCID: PMC7657971 DOI: 10.1038/s41390-020-0950-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In neonates, endocrine-sensitive physical endpoints, including breast and reproductive tissues, may reflect effects of fetal environmental exposure. Studies using standardized measurement techniques that describe demographic and clinical variability in these endpoints are lacking. METHODS Three hundred and eighty-eight healthy term newborns <3 days old were evaluated, 69% African American and 25% White. Measures included breast bud diameter, anogenital distance (AGD), stretched penile length (SPL), and testicular volume (TV). RESULTS Breast buds were larger in females than males bilaterally (right: 13.0 ± 4.0 vs. 12.0 ± 4.0 mm, p = 0.008; left: 13.0 ± 4.0 vs. 11.0 ± 3.0 mm, p < 0.001). Breast bud size correlated positively with gestational age (regression coefficient = 0.46 ± 0.12 mm, p < 0.001) and weight Z-score (0.59 ± 0.24 mm, p = 0.02), and negatively with White race (-1.00 ± 0.30 mm, p = 0.001). AGD was longer in males (scrotum-to-anus) than females (fourchette-to-anus) (21.0 ± 4.0 vs. 13.0 ± 2.0 mm, p < 0.001) and did not differ by race. SPL was shorter in White infants (35.0 ± 5.0 vs. 36.0 ± 5.0 mm, p = 0.04). Median TV was 0.5 cm3, and larger in White males (odds ratio 1.71, 95% confidence interval: 1.02-2.88) CONCLUSIONS: This study provides a range of physical measurements of endocrine-sensitive tissues in healthy infants from the United States, and the associations with demographic and clinical characteristics. IMPACT This study reports physical measurements for endocrine-sensitive endpoints in healthy US newborns, including breast buds, AGD, SPL, and TV. Associations of measurements to demographic and clinical factors (including race, gestational age, and newborn length and weight) are presented. Contemporary ranges and identification of predictive factors will support further study on effects of pre- and postnatal exposures to endocrine-sensitive tissues in the infant.
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Slade AD, Christiansen AR, Keihani S, Brant WO, Hotaling JM. Stretched penile length and its associations with testosterone and infertility. Transl Androl Urol 2021; 10:49-55. [PMID: 33532295 PMCID: PMC7844491 DOI: 10.21037/tau-20-788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Male infertility can be associated with secondary sexual characteristics, hypogonadism, and several findings in the examination of external genitalia. We sought to identify if stretched penile length (SPL) is associated with infertility or baseline testosterone. Methods We performed a retrospective review of all males age 18–59 presenting to a Men’s health clinic from 2014 to 2017. SPL of patients with infertility were compared to patients with any other complaint. Patients with Peyronie’s disease, prior penile surgery, prostatectomy, on testosterone replacement, clomiphene or β-hCG were excluded from our study. Baseline characteristics were compared between the two groups (infertile vs. other). Linear regression was used to assess the association between infertility and testosterone with SPL after adjusting for patient age, BMI, and race. Scatterplot was used for correlation between testosterone and SPL. Results Six hundred and sixty-four men were included in our study (161 infertile, 503 other). The unadjusted mean SPL in the infertile group was 12.3 cm compared to 13.4 cm in the other group (P<0.001). The significance remained when adjusted for age, BMI, testosterone and race (12.4 vs. 13.3, P<0.001). Mean total testosterone in the infertile group was not significantly different than the other group (414 vs. 422, P=0.68). Infertile men were younger than the other group (33.2 vs. 42.1 years, P<0.001). BMI did not significantly differ (28.9 vs. 28.9 kg/m2, P=0.57). There was a weak positive correlation between testosterone and penile size in both the infertile group (r=0.20, P=0.01) and the other group (r=0.24, P<0.001). Conclusions Though SPL differed amongst our groups, adult testosterone levels did not. If developmental levels of testosterone exposure accounted for some of the differences in SPL between our two groups, these variations did not persist into adulthood. It remains unknown if reduced length is a result of genetic or congenital factors associated with infertility. Further investigation is needed to better understand the association of shorter SPL with male infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austen D Slade
- Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Andrew R Christiansen
- Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Sorena Keihani
- Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - William O Brant
- Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - James M Hotaling
- Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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13
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Johansson HK, Svingen T. Hedgehog signal disruption, gonadal dysgenesis and reproductive disorders: Is there a link to endocrine disrupting chemicals? Curr Res Toxicol 2020; 1:116-123. [PMID: 34345840 PMCID: PMC8320607 DOI: 10.1016/j.crtox.2020.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Developmental exposure to chemicals that can disrupt sex hormone signaling may cause a broad spectrum of reproductive disorders. This is because reproductive development is tightly regulated by steroid sex hormones. Consequently, non-animal screening methods currently used to test chemicals for potential endocrine disrupting activities typically include steroidogenesis and nuclear receptor assays. In many cases there is a correlation between in vitro and in vivo data examining endocrine disruption, for example between blocked androgen receptor activity and feminized male genitals. However, there are many examples where there is poor, or no, correlation between in vitro data and in vivo effect outcomes in rodent studies, for various reasons. One possible, and less studied, reason for discordance between in vitro and in vivo data is that the mechanisms causing the in vivo effects are not covered by those typically tested for in vitro. This knowledge gap must be addressed if we are to elaborate robust testing strategies that do not rely on animal experimentation. In this review, we highlight the Hedgehog (HH) signaling pathway as a target for environmental chemicals and its potential implications for reproductive disorders originating from early life exposure. A central proposition is that, by disrupting HH signal transduction during critical stages of mammalian development, the endocrine cells of the testes or ovaries fail to develop normally, which ultimately will lead to disrupted sex hormone synthesis and sexual development in both sexes. If this is the case, then such mechanism must also be included in future test strategies aimed at eliminating chemicals that may cause reproductive disorders in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna K.L. Johansson
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, DK-2800, Denmark
| | - Terje Svingen
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, DK-2800, Denmark
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14
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Teichroeb JA, Stead SM, Edwards PD, Landry F, Palme R, Boonstra R. Anogenital distance as a measure of male competitive ability in Rwenzori Angolan colobus. Am J Primatol 2020; 82:e23111. [PMID: 32083334 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Anogenital distance (AGD) is positively correlated to fetal androgen exposure and developmental masculinization in mammals. Independent of overall body size, AGD shows a strong positive correlation with male fertility and in rodents, AGD is a good indicator of male competitive ability and is associated with female choice. We hypothesized that AGD will also predict male competitive ability in non-human primates. To test this, we measured AGD noninvasively with a parallel laser in a wild population of Angolan colobus monkeys (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) in Uganda and correlated to it to their social structure. C. angolensis ruwenzorii form a multilevel society with both one-male/multifemale units (OMUs) and multimale/multifemale units (MMUs). We compared AGD in males from five OMUs and six MMUs and related it to their fecal androgen metabolite concentrations, dominance rank and body size, and to the number of females in their unit. Males in OMUs had greater access to females, so were predicted to have longer AGDs, but this was not found. AGD also did not correlate overall with mean fecal androgen metabolites in MMUs. However, AGD was correlated with dominance rank in MMUs, demonstrating that higher-ranking males in these multimale units had longer AGDs. Body size did not show the same relationship with dominance rank, suggesting that male rank was not just a reflection of absolute male size. Our findings indicate that AGD predicts male competitive ability in this species and that it may be a useful correlate throughout the non-human primates. These results also support the idea that prenatal androgen exposure increases the likelihood of the expression of behaviors that maintain high dominance rank.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Teichroeb
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Samantha M Stead
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Phoebe D Edwards
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Florence Landry
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rupert Palme
- Unit of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rudy Boonstra
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Hiremath DS, Geerling EC, Hai L, Narayan P. High levels of androgens cause chondrocyte accumulation and loss of smooth muscle in the mouse penile body†. Biol Reprod 2020; 102:1225-1233. [PMID: 32068232 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioaa023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgens are essential for penile development and for maintaining penile structural and functional integrity. Loss of androgen levels or function results in a decrease in smooth muscle content, accumulation of adipocytes in the corpora cavernosa, and inhibition of erectile function. Our previous studies with a mouse model (KiLHRD582G) of constitutive luteinizing hormone receptor activity also showed structural abnormalities in the penis caused by a decrease in smooth muscle content, accumulation of chondrocytes, and sexual dysfunction. As KiLHRD582G mice exhibit very high levels of testosterone at all postnatal ages, the goal of this study was to determine if the elevated androgen levels were responsible for the morphological changes in the penis. Implantation of testosterone capsules in wild-type mice at neonatal (2 weeks) and postpubertal (5 weeks) ages resulted in the accumulation of chondrocytes in the corpora cavernosa of the adult animals. Mice implanted with testosterone capsules at 2 weeks of age exhibited a 4-fold increase in serum testosterone with a 1.5-fold loss of smooth muscle at 24 weeks of age. Collagen content was unchanged. Only 57% of testosterone implanted mice were fertile at 24 weeks of age. Mice implanted with testosterone capsules at 5 weeks of age showed no decrease in smooth muscle content at 24 weeks, although serum testosterone levels were elevated 5-fold. Implantation with dihydrotestosterone also resulted in chondrocyte accumulation and a 2-fold loss in smooth muscle content. Together, these studies demonstrate that supraphysiological levels of androgens cause structural changes in the penile corpora cavernosa and impair fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepak S Hiremath
- Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Carbondale, IL, USA
| | - Elizabeth C Geerling
- Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Carbondale, IL, USA
| | - Lan Hai
- Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Carbondale, IL, USA
| | - Prema Narayan
- Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Carbondale, IL, USA
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Discrete Hedgehog Factor Expression and Action in the Developing Phallus. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21041237. [PMID: 32059607 PMCID: PMC7072906 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21041237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypospadias is a failure of urethral closure within the penis occurring in 1 in 125 boys at birth and is increasing in frequency. While paracrine hedgehog signalling is implicated in the process of urethral closure, how these factors act on a tissue level to execute closure itself is unknown. This study aimed to understand the role of different hedgehog signalling members in urethral closure. The tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii) provides a unique system to understand urethral closure as it allows direct treatment of developing offspring because mothers give birth to young before urethral closure begins. Wallaby pouch young were treated with vehicle or oestradiol (known to induce hypospadias in males) and samples subjected to RNAseq for differential expression and gene ontology analyses. Localisation of Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) and Indian Hedgehog (IHH), as well as the transcription factor SOX9, were assessed in normal phallus tissue using immunofluorescence. Normal tissue culture explants were treated with SHH or IHH and analysed for AR, ESR1, PTCH1, GLI2, SOX9, IHH and SHH expression by qPCR. Gene ontology analysis showed enrichment for bone differentiation terms in male samples compared with either female samples or males treated with oestradiol. Expression of SHH and IHH localised to specific tissue areas during development, akin to their compartmentalised expression in developing bone. Treatment of phallus explants with SHH or IHH induced factor-specific expression of genes associated with bone differentiation. This reveals a potential developmental interaction involved in urethral closure that mimics bone differentiation and incorporates discrete hedgehog activity within the developing phallus and phallic urethra.
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17
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O'Kelly F, DeCotiis K, Zu'bi F, Farhat WA, Koyle MA. Increased hand digit length ratio (2D:4D) is associated with increased severity of hypospadias in pre-pubertal boys. Pediatr Surg Int 2020; 36:247-253. [PMID: 31748946 DOI: 10.1007/s00383-019-04600-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hypospadias is a common congenital male disorder, with much research focusing on prenatal androgen exposure as a causative factor. Whilst digit length ratios were apparent in sexual dimorphism since the nineteenth century, their role in hypospadias remains unknown. The objective of our study was to determine the correlation between digit length (2D:4D) ratio, hypospadias severity, and anogenital distance. METHODS Pre-pubertal boys (<3 years old) seen intra/postoperatively following hypospadias repair (June 2018-January 2019 inc.) were included. These were age-matched to non-hypospadias controls. Anthropomorphic measurements of digit lengths, penile/glans width, and anogenital distance were measured using digital calipers. RESULTS Data measurements were collected for 105 boys with hypospadias (60 distal; 45 proximal) and 55 controls. There were significant differences in 2D:4D ratios in each hand (p < 0.001), as well as individual digits (p < 0.001), and a reduced anogenital distance (p < 0.001), when comparing the proximal group with distal or control groups. There were no significant differences in glans width, or between term- and preterm births. CONCLUSIONS This study is the first to demonstrate increased 2D:4D ratios with proximal hypospadias, which also correlate with a shortened anogenital distance. This may provide a non-invasive, potentially antenatal, anthropomorphic measurement, as an indirect indicator of aberrant urogenital development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fardod O'Kelly
- Division of Urology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, M5G1X8, Canada.
| | - Keara DeCotiis
- Division of Urology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, M5G1X8, Canada
| | - Fadi Zu'bi
- Division of Urology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, M5G1X8, Canada
| | - Walid A Farhat
- Division of Urology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, M5G1X8, Canada
| | - Martin A Koyle
- Division of Urology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, M5G1X8, Canada
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18
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Chen Y, Renfree MB. Hormonal and Molecular Regulation of Phallus Differentiation in a Marsupial Tammar Wallaby. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11010106. [PMID: 31963388 PMCID: PMC7017150 DOI: 10.3390/genes11010106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Congenital anomalies in phalluses caused by endocrine disruptors have gained a great deal of attention due to its annual increasing rate in males. However, the endocrine-driven molecular regulatory mechanism of abnormal phallus development is complex and remains largely unknown. Here, we review the direct effect of androgen and oestrogen on molecular regulation in phalluses using the marsupial tammar wallaby, whose phallus differentiation occurs after birth. We summarize and discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying phallus differentiation mediated by sonic hedgehog (SHH) at day 50 pp and phallus elongation mediated by insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) and insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3 (IGFBP3), as well as multiple phallus-regulating genes expressed after day 50 pp. We also identify hormone-responsive long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) that are co-expressed with their neighboring coding genes. We show that the activation of SHH and IGF1, mediated by balanced androgen receptor (AR) and estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) signalling, initiates a complex regulatory network in males to constrain the timing of phallus differentiation and to activate the downstream genes that maintain urethral closure and phallus elongation at later stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
- Correspondence: (Y.C.); (M.B.R.)
| | - Marilyn B. Renfree
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
- Correspondence: (Y.C.); (M.B.R.)
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19
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Cunha GR, Liu G, Sinclair A, Cao M, Glickman S, Cooke PS, Baskin L. Androgen-independent events in penile development in humans and animals. Differentiation 2020; 111:98-114. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2019.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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20
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Li T, Fu FD, Wu CJ, Qin F, Wang R, Yuan JH. Anti-lysyl oxidase combined with a vacuum device induces penile lengthening by remodeling the tunica albuginea. Asian J Androl 2019; 22:485-492. [PMID: 31736474 PMCID: PMC7523611 DOI: 10.4103/aja.aja_120_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to explore whether and how anti-lysyl oxidase (anti-LOX) combined with a vacuum device (VD) could promote penile lengthening and to evaluate the effect on erectile function. This study was performed on four groups of adult rats: control, anti-LOX, VD (negative pressure value of −300 mmHg), and anti-LOX + VD. Penile length was measured by a modified VD method and verified on exposed length data. Intracavernous pressure (ICP) and maximum ICP/mean arterial pressure (MAP) ratio were recorded to assess erectile function. For corpus cavernosum, LOX activity and concentrations of pyridinoline, desmosine, hydroxyproline, and elastin were analyzed; transmission electron microscope and Hart's elastin staining were performed to monitor microstructural changes. Anti-LOX and VD significantly lengthened the penis by 10.8% (3.75 mm) and 8.2% (2.48 mm) compared with the control group, respectively, while anti-LOX + VD achieved the longest penile size (40.58 ± 0.40 mm) which was 17.4% longer than the control group (34.58 ± 0.54 mm). After 1-week washout, no penile retraction was observed. Meanwhile, exposed penile length data confirmed that the penis in the anti-LOX + VD group was also significantly longer. Anti-LOX inhibited LOX activity to reduce pyridinoline level, which led the penile tunica albuginea remodeling. However, it had no effect on hydroxyproline, desmosine, and elastin levels. Moreover, anti-LOX had no impact on erectile function, which was determined by ICP and ICP/MAP ratio. These results suggest that anti-LOX elongates the penis by reducing pyridinoline, which induces tunica albuginea remodeling. This lengthening effect was more obvious when combined with a VD. All procedures had no impact on erectile function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Li
- Andrology Laboratory, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.,Department of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Fu-Dong Fu
- Andrology Laboratory, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Chang-Jing Wu
- Andrology Laboratory, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Feng Qin
- Andrology Laboratory, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Run Wang
- Department of Urology, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jiu-Hong Yuan
- Andrology Laboratory, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.,Department of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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21
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Chen Y, Yu H, Pask AJ, Fujiyama A, Suzuki Y, Sugano S, Shaw G, Renfree MB. Hormone-responsive genes in the SHH and WNT/β-catenin signaling pathways influence urethral closure and phallus growth. Biol Reprod 2019; 99:806-816. [PMID: 29767687 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioy117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental endocrine disruptors (EEDs) that affect androgen or estrogen activity may disrupt gene regulation during phallus development to cause hypospadias or a masculinized clitoris. We treated developing male tammar wallabies with estrogen and females with androgen from day 20-40 postpartum (pp) during the androgen imprinting window of sensitivity. Estrogen inhibited phallus elongation but had no effect on urethral closure and did not significantly depress testicular androgen synthesis. Androgen treatment in females did not promote phallus elongation but initiated urethral closure. Phalluses were collected for transcriptome sequencing at day 50 pp when they first become sexually dimorphic to examine changes in two signaling pathways, sonic hedgehog (SHH) and wingless-type MMTV integration site family (WNT)/β-catenin. SHH mRNA and β-catenin were predominantly expressed in the urethral epithelium in the tammar phallus, as in eutherian mammals. Estrogen treatment and castration of males induced an upregulation of SHH, while androgen treatment downregulated SHH. These effects appear to be direct since we detected putative estrogen receptor α (ERα) and androgen receptor (AR) binding sites near SHH. WNT5A, like SHH, was downregulated by androgen, while WNT4 was upregulated in female phalluses after androgen treatment. After estrogen treatment, WIF1 and WNT7A were both downregulated in male phalluses. After castration, WNT9A was upregulated. These results suggest that SHH and WNT pathways are regulated by both estrogen and androgen to direct the proliferation and elongation of the phallus during differentiation. Their response to exogenous hormones makes these genes potential targets of EEDs in the etiology of abnormal phallus development including hypospadias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Hongshi Yu
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrew J Pask
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Asao Fujiyama
- Advanced Genomics Center, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Yutaka Suzuki
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sumio Sugano
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Geoff Shaw
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Marilyn B Renfree
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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22
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Nguyen TV, Jutras B, Monnier P, Muckle G, Velez M, Arbuckle TE, Saint-Amour D. Prenatal masculinization of the auditory system in infants: The MIREC-ID study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2019; 104:33-41. [PMID: 30784903 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Sex differences in inner-ear function are detectable in infants, notably through the measurement of otoacoustic emissions (OAEs). Prevailing theories posit that prenatal exposure to high levels of androgens in boys may weaken OAEs, and that this phenomenon may predominantly affect the right ear/left hemisphere (Geschwind-Galaburda (GG) hypothesis). Yet, actual tests of these models have been difficult to implement in humans. Here we examined the relationship between markers of fetal androgen exposure collected at birth (anogenital distances (AGD); penile length/width, areolar/scrotal/vulvar pigmentation) and at 6 months of age (2nd to 4th digit ratio (2D:4D)) with two types of OAEs, click-evoked OAEs (CEOAEs) and distortion-product OAEs (DPOAEs) (n = 49; 25 boys; 24 girls). We found that, in boys, scrotal pigmentation was inversely associated with the amplitude and reproducibility of CEOAEs in the right ear at 4 kHz, with trends also present in the same ear for mean CEOAE amplitude and CEOAE amplitude at 2 kHz. Penile length was inversely associated with the mean amplitude of DPOAEs in both the right and left ears, as well as with DPOAE amplitude in the right ear at 2 kHz and the reproducibility of CEOAEs in the left ear at 2.8 kHz. Finally, AGD-scrotum in boys was positively associated in boys with the amplitude of DPOAEs in the left ear at 2.8 kHz. Unexpectedly, there were no sex differences in the amplitude or reproducibility of OAEs, nor, in girls, any associations between androgenic markers and auditory function. Nonetheless, these findings, reported for the first time in a sample of human infants, support both the prenatal-androgen-exposure and GG models as explanations for the masculinization of auditory function in male infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuong-Vi Nguyen
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal, Canada; Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology McGill University, Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal, Canada; Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre [RI-MUHC), Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal, Canada.
| | - Benoît Jutras
- Research Center, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montreal, Canada; School of Speech Language Pathology and Audiology, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada
| | - Patricia Monnier
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology McGill University, Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal, Canada; Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre [RI-MUHC), Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal, Canada
| | - Gina Muckle
- School of Psychology, Laval University, Quebec CHU Research Centre, Quebec City, Canada
| | - Maria Velez
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Tye E Arbuckle
- Population Studies Division, Environmental Health Science and Research Bureau, Health Canada, Ottawa Canada
| | - Dave Saint-Amour
- Research Center, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montreal, Canada; Department of Psychology, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Canada
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Androgenic and estrogenic indices in human newborns and infants: the MIREC-ID study. J Dev Orig Health Dis 2019; 10:578-586. [PMID: 30898182 DOI: 10.1017/s2040174419000059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal sex steroid exposure plays an important role in determining child development. Yet, measurement of prenatal hormonal exposure has been limited by the paucity of newborn/infant data and the invasiveness of fetal hormonal sampling. Here we provide descriptive data from the MIREC-ID study (n=173 girls; 162 boys) on a range of minimally invasive physical indices thought to reflect prenatal exposure to androgens [anogenital distances (AGDs); penile length/width, scrotal/vulvar pigmentation], to estrogens [vaginal maturation index (VMI) - the degree of maturation of vaginal wall cells] or to both androgens/estrogens [2nd-to-4th digit ratio (2D:4D); areolar pigmentation, triceps/sub-scapular skinfold thickness, arm circumference]. VMI was found to be associated with triceps skinfold thickness (β=0.265, P=0.005), suggesting that this marker may be sensitive to estrogen levels produced by adipose tissue in girls. Both estrogenic and androgenic markers (VMI: β=0.338, P=0.031; 2D:4D - right: β=-0.207, P=0.040; left: β=-0.276, P=0.006; AGD-fourchette - β=0.253, P=0.036) were associated with areolar pigmentation in girls, supporting a role for the latter as an index of both androgen and estrogen exposure. We also found AGD-penis (distance from the anus to the penis) to be associated with scrotal pigmentation (β=0.290, P=0.048), as well as right arm circumference (β=0.462, P<0.0001), supporting the notion that these indices may be used together as markers of androgen exposure in boys. In sum, these findings support the use of several physical indices at birth to convey a more comprehensive picture of prenatal exposure to sex hormones.
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Schwartz CL, Christiansen S, Vinggaard AM, Axelstad M, Hass U, Svingen T. Anogenital distance as a toxicological or clinical marker for fetal androgen action and risk for reproductive disorders. Arch Toxicol 2018; 93:253-272. [PMID: 30430187 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2350-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Male reproductive development is intricately dependent on fetal androgen action. Consequently, disrupted androgen action during fetal life can interfere with the development of the reproductive system resulting in adverse effects on reproductive function later in life. One biomarker used to evaluate fetal androgen action is the anogenital distance (AGD), the distance between the anus and the external genitalia. A short male AGD is strongly associated with genital malformations at birth and reproductive disorders in adulthood. AGD is therefore used as an effect readout in rodent toxicity studies aimed at testing compounds for endocrine activity and anti-androgenic properties, and in human epidemiological studies to correlate fetal exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals to feminization of new-born boys. In this review, we have synthesized current data related to intrauterine exposure to xenobiotics and AGD measurements. We discuss the utility of AGD as a retrospective marker of in utero anti-androgenicity and as a predictive marker for male reproductive disorders, both with respect to human health and rodent toxicity studies. Finally, we highlight four areas that need addressing to fully evaluate AGD as a biomarker in both a regulatory and clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Lindgren Schwartz
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Sofie Christiansen
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Anne Marie Vinggaard
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Marta Axelstad
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ulla Hass
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Terje Svingen
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
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Zhou Y, Peng J, Cao X, Yan C, Huang F, Shen L, Long C, Liu X, Wei G. Retardation of Preputial Wound Healing in Rats with Hypospadias Induced by Flutamide. J INVEST SURG 2018; 33:164-171. [PMID: 30380353 DOI: 10.1080/08941939.2018.1483448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zhou
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Jinpu Peng
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Xining Cao
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Chao Yan
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Fangyuan Huang
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Lianju Shen
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Chunlan Long
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- China International Science and Technology Cooperation base of Child development and Critical Disorders, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Pediatrics, Chongqing, China,
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Children Urogenital Development and Tissue Engineering, Chongqing, China
| | - Xing Liu
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
| | - Guanghui Wei
- Department of Pediatric Urology Surgery, Children′s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China,
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Picut CA, Ziejewski MK, Stanislaus D. Comparative Aspects of Pre- and Postnatal Development of the Male Reproductive System. Birth Defects Res 2017; 110:190-227. [PMID: 29063715 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 08/29/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
This review describes pre- and postnatal development of the male reproductive system in humans and laboratory animals, and highlights species differences in the timing and control of hormonal and morphologic events. Major differences are that the fetal testis is dependent on gonadotropins in humans, but is independent of such in rats; humans have an extended postnatal quiescent period, whereas rats exhibit no quiescence; and events such as secretion by the prostate and seminal vesicles, testicular descent, and the appearance of spermatogonia are all prenatal events in humans, but are postnatal events in rats. Major differences in the timing of the developmental sequence between rats and humans include: gonocyte transformation period (rat: postnatal day 0-9; human: includes gestational week 22 to 9 months of age); masculinization programming window (rat: gestational day 15.5-17.5; human: gestational week 9-14); and mini-puberty (rat: 0-6 hr after birth; human: 3-6 months of age). Endocrine disruptors can cause unique lesions in the prenatal and early postnatal testis; therefore, it is important to consider the differences in the timing of the developmental sequence when designing preclinical studies as identification of windows of sensitivity for endocrine disruption or toxicants will aid in interpretation of results and provide clues to a mode of action. Birth Defects Research 110:190-227, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A Picut
- Charles River Laboratories, Pathology Associates, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Mary K Ziejewski
- GlaxoSmithKline Research & Development, King of Prussia, Pennsylvania
| | - D Stanislaus
- GlaxoSmithKline Research & Development, King of Prussia, Pennsylvania
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Dibutyl phthalate induced testicular dysgenesis originates after seminiferous cord formation in rats. Sci Rep 2017; 7:2521. [PMID: 28566680 PMCID: PMC5451485 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-02684-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Administration of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) to pregnant rats causes reproductive disorders in male offspring, resulting from suppression of intratesticular testosterone, and is used as a model for human testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS). DBP exposure in pregnancy induces focal dysgenetic areas in fetal testes that appear between e19.5–e21.5, manifesting as focal aggregation of Leydig cells and ectopic Sertoli cells (SC). Our aim was to identify the origins of the ectopic SC. Time-mated female rats were administered 750 mg/kg/day DBP in three different time windows: full window (FW; e13.5–e20.5), masculinisation programming window (MPW; e15.5–e18.5), late window (LW; e19.5–e20.5). We show that DBP-MPW treatment produces more extensive and severe dysgenetic areas, with more ectopic SC and germ cells (GC) than DBP-FW treatment; DBP-LW induces no dysgenesis. Our findings demonstrate that ectopic SC do not differentiate de novo, but result from rupture of normally formed seminiferous cords beyond e20.5. The more severe testis dysgenesis in DBP-MPW animals may result from the presence of basally migrating GC and a weakened basal lamina, whereas GC migration was minimal in DBP-FW animals. Our findings provide the first evidence for how testicular dysgenesis can result after normal testis differentiation/development and may be relevant to understanding TDS in human patients.
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Flutamide-induced hypospadias in rats: A critical assessment. Differentiation 2017; 94:37-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Cox K, Kyriakou A, Amjad B, O'Toole S, Flett ME, Welsh M, Ahmed SF, Cascio S. Shorter anogenital and anoscrotal distances correlate with the severity of hypospadias: A prospective study. J Pediatr Urol 2017; 13:57.e1-57.e5. [PMID: 27670783 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpurol.2016.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Revised: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Anogenital distance (AGD) is a recognised marker of in utero androgen action. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between severity of hypospadias and AGD. STUDY DESIGN Boys undergoing hypospadias repair in a single tertiary centre between May 2012 and February 16 were included in the study. Anogenital distance was measured from the centre of the anus to the base of the penis, and anoscrotal distance (ASD) from the centre of the anus to the junction between the smooth perineal skin and scrotal skin. Trained paediatric urologists made all measurements using digital callipers. RESULTS Fifty-nine boys with hypospadias and 31 age-matched controls undergoing circumcision (median age 1.37 years, range 1.01-1.96) had AGD and ASD measured under anaesthetic. The patients were divided into two groups, according to hypospadias severity: group 1 - distal penile/subcoronal/glandular (n = 40); and group 2 - perineal/penoscrotal/midshaft (n = 19). The median AGD for controls was 74.0 mm (range 53.2-87.8) and for hypospadias it was 72.3 mm (range 50.7-90.0) (P = 0.816). The median ASD for controls was 42.3 mm (range 31.0-56.1) and for hypospadias it was 39.4 mm (range 20.7-77.0) (P = 0.224). Considering severity of hypospadias, the median AGD for group 1 and group 2 was 73.7 mm (range 50.7-90.0) and 63.3 mm (range 53.6-77.0), respectively (P < 0.001). The median ASD was also higher in group 1, at 41.3 mm (range 20.7-65.0), compared to 35.2 mm (range 23.5-77.0) in group 2 (P = 0.119) (Summary Fig.). DISCUSSION This study showed that more severe forms of hypospadias are associated with shorter AGD and ASD. These findings agree with two previous studies that identified reduced AGD in boys with hypospadias. However, these studies did not investigate an association with severity of hypospadias. As hypospadias is multifactorial, only a small proportion of cases are thought to be associated with impaired in utero androgen exposure. The shorter AGD in boys with severe hypospadias compared with mild hypospadias would indicate that AGD is a marker of the severity of androgen production. This may also suggest that less severe forms of hypospadias have a different aetiology involving a later stage of development, and that they are not the result of reduced androgen exposure in the male programming window between the 8-14 weeks gestation. CONCLUSION This study identified that boys with more severe hypospadias are more likely to have a shorter AGD and ASD than boys with mild hypospadias. This may indicate that there is a more profound impairment of in utero androgen action in severe hypospadias.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Cox
- Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Child Health, University of Glasgow, Royal Hospital for Children, 1345 Govan Street, Glasgow, G51 4TF, United Kingdom
| | - A Kyriakou
- Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Child Health, University of Glasgow, Royal Hospital for Children, 1345 Govan Street, Glasgow, G51 4TF, United Kingdom
| | - B Amjad
- Department of Paediatric Urology, Royal Hospital for Children, 1345 Govan Street, G51 4TF, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - S O'Toole
- Department of Paediatric Urology, Royal Hospital for Children, 1345 Govan Street, G51 4TF, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - M E Flett
- Department of Paediatric Urology, Royal Hospital for Children, 1345 Govan Street, G51 4TF, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - M Welsh
- School of Life Sciences, West Medical Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - S F Ahmed
- Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Child Health, University of Glasgow, Royal Hospital for Children, 1345 Govan Street, Glasgow, G51 4TF, United Kingdom
| | - S Cascio
- Department of Paediatric Urology, Royal Hospital for Children, 1345 Govan Street, G51 4TF, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
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Lejonklou MH, Christiansen S, Örberg J, Shen L, Larsson S, Boberg J, Hass U, Lind PM. Low-dose developmental exposure to bisphenol A alters the femoral bone geometry in wistar rats. CHEMOSPHERE 2016; 164:339-346. [PMID: 27592323 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.08.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical produced in large volumes for use in manufacturing of consumer products and industrial applications, and an endocrine disruptor known to affect several hormonal systems. Bone produces hormones and is additionally a sensitive hormone target tissue, and is thus potentially sensitive to low doses of endocrine disruptors such as BPA, especially during development. METHODS 110 pregnant Wistar rats were gavaged with 0; 25 μg; 250 μg; 5000 μg or 50,000 μg BPA/kg bodyweight (bw)/day from gestational day 7 until weaning at postnatal day 22. The three-month-old offspring were sacrificed and right femurs collected for length measurements, geometrical measurements by peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT), as well as for analyses of biomechanical properties using the three-point-bending method. RESULTS The femur was elongated in female offspring of dams exposed to 25 or 5000 μg BPA/kg bw/day (1.8% and 2.1%, respectively), and increased cortical thickness (4.7%) was observed in male offspring of dams exposed to 25 μg BPA/kg bw/day, compared to controls (p < 0.005). The biomechanical properties of the bone were not significantly altered. CONCLUSIONS In utero and lactational exposure to the lowest BPA dose used in this study altered femoral geometry in both male and female offspring. This was observed at 25 μg BPA/kg bw/day, a dose lower than the Human Equivalent Dose (HED) applied by EFSA to set a temporary TDI (609 μg BPA/kg bw/day), and far lower than the No-Observed-Adverse-Effect-Level (NOAEL) (5000 μg BPA/kg bw/day) on which the US FDA TDI is based.
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Affiliation(s)
- M H Lejonklou
- Department of Medical Sciences, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Box 256, Uppsala University, SE-751 85 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - S Christiansen
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, Technical University of Denmark, Mørkhøj Bygade 19, DK-2860 Søborg, Denmark
| | - J Örberg
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Box 256, Uppsala University, SE-75105 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - L Shen
- Department of Medical Sciences, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Box 256, Uppsala University, SE-751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - S Larsson
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Section of Orthopedics, Box 256, Uppsala University, SE-75185 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - J Boberg
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, Technical University of Denmark, Mørkhøj Bygade 19, DK-2860 Søborg, Denmark
| | - U Hass
- Division of Diet, Disease Prevention and Toxicology, Technical University of Denmark, Mørkhøj Bygade 19, DK-2860 Søborg, Denmark
| | - P M Lind
- Department of Medical Sciences, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Box 256, Uppsala University, SE-751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
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Martino-Andrade AJ, Liu F, Sathyanarayana S, Barrett ES, Redmon JB, Nguyen RHN, Levine H, Swan SH. Timing of prenatal phthalate exposure in relation to genital endpoints in male newborns. Andrology 2016; 4:585-93. [PMID: 27062102 DOI: 10.1111/andr.12180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Revised: 02/06/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Prior studies report that penile size and male anogenital distance (AGD), sensitive markers of androgen action in utero, may be shortened by prenatal exposure to certain phthalates, including diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), but no human study has investigated the importance of exposure timing in these associations. The aim of this study was to examine the significance of exposure timing on the action of prenatal phthalates in particular DEHP, on male infant penile size and AGD. In The Infant Development and the Environment Study (TIDES) we measured penile width (PW) as well as anoscrotal distance (AGDAS ) and anopenile distance (AGPAP ) in newborn males. We modeled these endpoints in relation to phthalate metabolite concentrations in maternal urine samples collected in each trimester (T1, T2, and T3) in a subset of TIDES mothers (N = 168). PW was inversely associated with T2 oxidized DEHP metabolites, mono-2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl (MEOHP, β=-0.48; 95% confidence interval, -0.93, -0.02), MEHHP (-0.48; -0.92, -0.05), mono-2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl (MECPP, -0.51; -1.01, -0.004), although no appreciable associations were seen between PW and T1 and T3 DEHP metabolite concentrations in this subset. Concentrations of DEHP metabolites in T1 urine samples were inversely related to male AGD. For example, in T1 samples in this subset of women mono-2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl (MEHHP) was inversely associated with male AGDAP (β = -1.73; 95% confidence interval, -3.45, 0.0004). However, no appreciable associations were seen between AGD measures and any DEHP metabolite in T2 and T3 samples. These data suggest that DEHP exposure is inversely associated with AGD and PW, with PW primarily associated with T2 exposure and AGD associations seen only for T1 exposure, but no associations were found between T3 DEHP metabolites and any of these genital endpoints. These findings are consistent with data on critical windows in rodent studies, supporting the biological plausibility of these associations in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Martino-Andrade
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.,Department of Physiology, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - F Liu
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - S Sathyanarayana
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.,Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - E S Barrett
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - J B Redmon
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - R H N Nguyen
- Department of Epidemiology & Community Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - H Levine
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.,Braun School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Hebrew University-Hadassah and the Hebrew University Center of Excellence in Agriculture and Environmental Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - S H Swan
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
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Becker D, Wain LM, Chong YH, Gosai SJ, Henderson NK, Milburn J, Stott V, Wheeler BJ. Topical dihydrotestosterone to treat micropenis secondary to partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (PAIS) before, during, and after puberty - a case series. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2016; 29:173-7. [PMID: 26352087 DOI: 10.1515/jpem-2015-0175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND X-linked partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (PAIS) causes under-virilization at all stages of development. In two thirds of males, this results in micropenis. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) is a potent androgen that is critical for male genital development, which when applied topically, has been shown to increase penile length with micropenis of varying etiologies. We present the first case series using topical DHT gel to treat micropenis in 46,XY males with PAIS, before, during, and after puberty. METHODS Three related 46,XY males with confirmed p.L712F androgen receptor mutations exhibited varying degrees of micropenis post-surgical correction. They were of pre-pubertal, peri-pubertal and adult ages, respectively. Following baseline clinical and laboratory assessments all completed a 4-month course of daily DHT gel 2.5% (androstanolone) topically to penis (0.3 mg/kg body weight), with monitoring for adverse effects. Primary outcome was change in stretched penile length (SPL) following treatment. RESULTS Mixed results were obtained following topical DHT therapy. In the pre- and peri- pubertal patients, SPL changed from 2.5 cm to 3.5 cm (+40%), and 3.5 cm to 5.7 cm (+63%), respectively. In the adult patient with 1 year of prior high-dose weekly testosterone therapy, no additional change in SPL was seen. No adverse effects of topical DHT were reported or observed throughout the 4 months of treatment. CONCLUSIONS Topical DHT treatment appears to be a safe and well-tolerated method of virilising micropenis both prior to and during puberty in children with PAIS. Questions remain about long-term outcomes into adulthood, and efficacy in adults with prior lengthy exposure to high-dose testosterone.
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Sinclair AW, Glickman SE, Baskin L, Cunha GR. Anatomy of mole external genitalia: Setting the record straight. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2016; 299:385-99. [PMID: 26694958 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Anatomy of male and female external genitalia of adult mice (Mus musculus) and broad-footed moles (Scapanus latimanus) was re-examined to provide more meaningful anatomical terminology. In the past the perineal appendage of male broad-footed moles has been called the penis, while the female perineal appendage has been given several terms (e.g. clitoris, penile clitoris, peniform clitoris and others). Histological examination demonstrates that perineal appendages of male and female broad-footed moles are the prepuce, which in both sexes are covered externally with a hair-bearing epidermis and lacks erectile bodies. The inner preputial epithelium is non-hair-bearing and defines the preputial space in both sexes. The penis of broad-footed moles lies deep within the preputial space, is an "internal organ" in the resting state and contains the penile urethra, os penis, and erectile bodies. The clitoris of broad-footed moles is defined by a U-shaped clitoral epithelial lamina. Residing within clitoral stroma encompassed by the clitoral epithelial lamina is the corpus cavernosum, blood-filled spaces and the urethra. External genitalia of male and female mice are anatomically similar to that of broad-footed moles with the exception that in female mice the clitoris contains a small os clitoridis and lacks defined erectile bodies, while male mice have an os penis and a prominent distal cartilaginous structure within the male urogenital mating protuberance (MUMP). Clitori of female broad-footed moles lack an os clitoridis but contain defined erectile bodies, while male moles have an os penis similar to the mouse but lack the distal cartilaginous structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriane Watkins Sinclair
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, California, 94143
| | - Stephen E Glickman
- Departments of Psychology and Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California, 94720
| | - Laurence Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, California, 94143
| | - Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, California, 94143
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Sinclair AW, Cao M, Baskin L, Cunha GR. Diethylstilbestrol-induced mouse hypospadias: "window of susceptibility". Differentiation 2016; 91:1-18. [PMID: 26810244 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2016.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This review presents published and novel results that define the programming window for diethylstilbestrol (DES)-induced abnormal development of the mouse penis. These data indicate that DES has its greatest effect during the period of most intense penile morphogenesis, namely postnatal days 0-15 (P0-P15). Pregnant mice and their neonatal pups were injected subcutaneously with 200 ng/gbw DES every other day from embryonic day 12-18 (DES E12-E18), postnatal day 0-10 (DES P0-P10), embryonic day 12 to postnatal day 10 (DES E12-P10), postnatal day 5-15 (DES P5-P15), and postnatal day 10-20 (DES P10-P20). Aged-matched controls received sesame oil vehicle. After euthanasia at 10, 15, 20 and 60 days, penises were analyzed by gross morphology, histology and morphometry. Penises of all 5 groups of DES-treated mice were reduced in size, which was confirmed by morphometric analysis of internal penile structures. The most profound effects were seen in the DES E12-P10, DES P0-P10, and DES P5-P15 groups, thus defining a DES "programming window". For all parameters, DES treatment from P10 to P20 showed the most mild of effects. Adverse effects of DES on the MUMP cartilage and erectile bodies observed shortly after the last DES injection reverted to normality in the DES P5-P15, but not in the E12-P10 and P0-P10 groups, in which MUMP cartilage and erectile body malformations persisted into adulthood, again emphasizing a "window of susceptibility" in the early neonatal period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriane Watkins Sinclair
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Mei Cao
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Laurence Baskin
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States
| | - Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, Box A610, San Francisco, CA 94143, United States.
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Lenschow C, Copley S, Gardiner JM, Talbot ZN, Vitenzon A, Brecht M. Sexually Monomorphic Maps and Dimorphic Responses in Rat Genital Cortex. Curr Biol 2015; 26:106-13. [PMID: 26725197 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.11.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Revised: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian external genitals show sexual dimorphism [1, 2] and can change size and shape upon sexual arousal. Genitals feature prominently in the oldest pieces of figural art [3] and phallic depictions of penises informed psychoanalytic thought about sexuality [4, 5]. Despite this longstanding interest, the neural representations of genitals are still poorly understood [6]. In somatosensory cortex specifically, many studies did not detect any cortical representation of genitals [7-9]. Studies in humans debate whether genitals are represented displaced below the foot of the cortical body map [10-12] or whether they are represented somatotopically [13-15]. We wondered what a high-resolution mapping of genital representations might tell us about the sexual differentiation of the mammalian brain. We identified genital responses in rat somatosensory cortex in a region previously assigned as arm/leg cortex. Genital responses were more common in males than in females. Despite such response dimorphism, we observed a stunning anatomical monomorphism of cortical penis and clitoris input maps revealed by cytochrome-oxidase-staining of cortical layer 4. Genital representations were somatotopic and bilaterally symmetric, and their relative size increased markedly during puberty. Size, shape, and erect posture give the cortical penis representation a phallic appearance pointing to a role in sexually aroused states. Cortical genital neurons showed unusual multi-body-part responses and sexually dimorphic receptive fields. Specifically, genital neurons were co-activated by distant body regions, which are touched during mounting in the respective sex. Genital maps indicate a deep homology of penis and clitoris representations in line with a fundamentally bi-sexual layout [16] of the vertebrate brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constanze Lenschow
- Neural Systems and Behavior, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA; Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstrasse 13, Haus 6, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sean Copley
- Neural Systems and Behavior, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA; Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, 2080 Adelbert Road, Room 108, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Jayne M Gardiner
- Neural Systems and Behavior, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA; Division of Natural Sciences, New College of Florida, 5800 Bayshore Road, Sarasota, FL 34243-2109, USA
| | - Zoe N Talbot
- Neural Systems and Behavior, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA; Graduate Program of Neuroscience and Physiology, New York University School of Medicine, 522 First Avenue, Smilow, Room 501, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Ariel Vitenzon
- Neural Systems and Behavior, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA; Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1410 Pelham Parkway South, Suite 506, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Michael Brecht
- Neural Systems and Behavior, Marine Biological Laboratory, 7 MBL Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA; Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstrasse 13, Haus 6, 10115 Berlin, Germany.
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Suzuki H, Suzuki K, Yamada G. Systematic analyses of murine masculinization processes based on genital sex differentiation parameters. Dev Growth Differ 2015; 57:639-47. [DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroko Suzuki
- Department of Developmental Genetics; Institute of Advanced Medicine; Wakayama Medical University; 811-1 Kimiidera Wakayama 641-8509 Japan
| | - Kentaro Suzuki
- Department of Developmental Genetics; Institute of Advanced Medicine; Wakayama Medical University; 811-1 Kimiidera Wakayama 641-8509 Japan
| | - Gen Yamada
- Department of Developmental Genetics; Institute of Advanced Medicine; Wakayama Medical University; 811-1 Kimiidera Wakayama 641-8509 Japan
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Investigations of putative reproductive toxicity of low-dose exposures to flutamide in Wistar rats. Arch Toxicol 2015; 89:2385-402. [PMID: 26525394 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1622-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The current investigation examines whether the model anti-androgenic substance flutamide is capable of disrupting endocrine homeostasis at very low doses. The data generated clarify whether a non-monotonic dose-response relationship exists to enhance the current debate about the regulation of endocrine disruptors. Moreover, it is part of a series of investigations assessing the dose-response relationship of single and combined administration of anti-androgenic substances. A pre-postnatal in vivo study design was chosen, which was compliant with regulatory testing protocols. The test design was improved by additional endpoints addressing hormone levels, morphology, and histopathological examinations. Doses were chosen to represent a clear effect level (2.5 mg/kg bw/d), a low endocrine effect level (LOAEL, 0.25 mg/kg bw/d), a NOAEL for endocrine effects (0.025 mg/kg bw/d), a further dose at 0.0025 mg/kg bw/d flutamide, as well as an "ADI" (0.00025 mg/kg bw/d or 100-fold below the NOAEL) for the detection of a possible non-monotonic dose-response curve. Anti-androgenic changes were observable at LOAEL and the clear effect dose level but not at lower exposures. Nipple retention appeared to be the most sensitive measure of anti-androgenic effects, followed by age at sexual maturation, anogenital distance/anogenital index and male sex organ weights, as well as gross and histopathological findings. The results of all five doses indicate the absence of evidence for effects at very low dose levels. A non-monotonic dose-response relationship was not evident for the anti-androgenic drug flutamide.
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Ma YM, Wu KJ, Dang Q, Shi Q, Gao Y, Guo P, Xu S, Wang XY, He DL, Gong YG. Testosterone regulates keratin 33B expression in rat penis growth through androgen receptor signaling. Asian J Androl 2015; 16:817-23. [PMID: 24994782 PMCID: PMC4236322 DOI: 10.4103/1008-682x.129935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Androgen therapy is the mainstay of treatment for the hypogonadotropic hypogonadal micropenis because it obviously enhances penis growth in prepubescent microphallic patients. However, the molecular mechanisms of androgen treatment leading to penis growth are still largely unknown. To clarify this well-known phenomenon, we successfully generated a castrated male Sprague Dawley rat model at puberty followed by testosterone administration. Interestingly, compared with the control group, testosterone treatment stimulated a dose-dependent increase of penis weight, length, and width in castrated rats accompanied with a dramatic recovery of the pathological changes of the penis. Mechanistically, testosterone administration substantially increased the expression of androgen receptor (AR) protein. Increased AR protein in the penis could subsequently initiate transcription of its target genes, including keratin 33B (Krt33b). Importantly, we demonstrated that KRT33B is generally expressed in the rat penis and that most KRT33B expression is cytoplasmic. Furthermore, AR could directly modulate its expression by binding to a putative androgen response element sequence of the Krt33b promoter. Overall, this study reveals a novel mechanism facilitating penis growth after testosterone treatment in precastrated prepubescent animals, in which androgen enhances the expression of AR protein as well as its target genes, such as Krt33b.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Da-Lin He
- Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Xi'an Jiaotong University; Oncology Research Lab, Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases, Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Yong-Guang Gong
- Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
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Bánszegi O, Szenczi P, Dúcs A, Hudson R, Altbäcker V. Long-term under-masculinization in male rabbits due to maternal stress is reversed by prenatal administration of testosterone. Behav Processes 2015; 115:156-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2015.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Mitchell RT, Mungall W, McKinnell C, Sharpe RM, Cruickshanks L, Milne L, Smith LB. Anogenital distance plasticity in adulthood: implications for its use as a biomarker of fetal androgen action. Endocrinology 2015; 156:24-31. [PMID: 25375036 PMCID: PMC4272396 DOI: 10.1210/en.2014-1534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Androgen action during the fetal masculinization programming window (MPW) determines the maximum potential for growth of androgen-dependent organs (eg, seminal vesicles, prostate, penis, and perineum) and is reflected in anogenital distance (AGD). As such, determining AGD in postnatal life has potential as a lifelong easily accessible biomarker of overall androgen action during the MPW. However, whether the perineum remains androgen responsive in adulthood and thus responds plastically to perturbed androgen drive remains unexplored. To determine this, we treated adult male rats with either the antiandrogen flutamide or the estrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES) for 5 weeks, followed by a 4-week washout period of no treatment. We determined AGD and its correlate anogenital index (AGI) (AGD relative to body weight) at weekly intervals across this period and compared these with normal adult rats (male and female), castrated male rats, and appropriate vehicle controls. These data showed that, in addition to reducing circulating testosterone and seminal vesicle weight, castration significantly reduced AGD (by ∼17%), demonstrating that there is a degree of plasticity in AGD in adulthood. Flutamide treatment increased circulating testosterone yet also reduced seminal vesicle weight due to local antagonism of androgen receptor. Despite this suppression, surprisingly, flutamide treatment had no effect on AGD at any time point. In contrast, although DES treatment suppressed circulating testosterone and reduced seminal vesicle weight, it also induced a significant reduction in AGD (by ∼11%), which returned to normal 1 week after cessation of DES treatment. We conclude that AGD in adult rats exhibits a degree of plasticity, which may be mediated by modulation of local androgen/estrogen action. The implications of these findings regarding the use of AGD as a lifelong clinical biomarker of fetal androgen action are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rod T Mitchell
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, University of Edinburgh, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom
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Anogenital distance as a measure of human male fertility. J Assist Reprod Genet 2014; 32:479-84. [PMID: 25533333 DOI: 10.1007/s10815-014-0410-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE In humans, recent studies have correlated anogenital distance (AGD) in adult men to testicular function. While studies of a group of men suggest an association, the utility of AGD in an infertility evaluation remains uncertain. We sought to determine the utility of AGD to predict male fertility. METHODS Between 2010 and 2011, men were recruited at a urology clinic to participate. AGD was measured using digital calipers in men being evaluated at a urology clinic. ANOVA and ROC analyses were used to determine correlations between AGD, fatherhood status, and semen parameters. RESULTS In all, 473 men were included in the analysis with a mean age of 43 ± 13 years. Anogenital distance was significantly longer in men with higher sperm concentration, total sperm count, and total motile sperm count. In order to evaluate the discriminating ability of AGD, ROC curves were created comparing AGD and total testis volume. The area under the curve (AUC) was significantly larger for total testis volume compared to AGD when evaluating fertility (0.71 vs 0.63, p = 0.02). Similarly, there was a trend towards a higher AUC for testis volume compared to AGD for sperm concentration and total sperm count. Stratification of men with long/short AGD and large/small testes also did not improve the predictive value of AGD. CONCLUSIONS While AGD is associated with sperm production on a population level, at the individual level the distinction based AGD alone cannot accurately estimate the efficiency of spermatogenesis.
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Eddie SL, Kim JJ, Woodruff TK, Burdette JE. Microphysiological modeling of the reproductive tract: a fertile endeavor. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2014; 239:1192-202. [PMID: 24737736 PMCID: PMC4156579 DOI: 10.1177/1535370214529387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Preclinical toxicity testing in animal models is a cornerstone of the drug development process, yet it is often unable to predict adverse effects and tolerability issues in human subjects. Species-specific responses to investigational drugs have led researchers to utilize human tissues and cells to better estimate human toxicity. Unfortunately, human cell-derived models are imperfect because toxicity is assessed in isolation, removed from the normal physiologic microenvironment. Microphysiological modeling often referred to as 'organ-on-a-chip' or 'human-on-a-chip' places human tissue into a microfluidic system that mimics the complexity of human in vivo physiology, thereby allowing for toxicity testing on several cell types, tissues, and organs within a more biologically relevant environment. Here we describe important concepts when developing a repro-on-a-chip model. The development of female and male reproductive microfluidic systems is critical to sex-based in vitro toxicity and drug testing. This review addresses the biological and physiological aspects of the male and female reproductive systems in vivo and what should be considered when designing a microphysiological human-on-a-chip model. Additionally, interactions between the reproductive tract and other systems are explored, focusing on the impact of factors and hormones produced by the reproductive tract and disease pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon L Eddie
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
| | - J Julie Kim
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Teresa K Woodruff
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Joanna E Burdette
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
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Abstract
The Wolffian ducts (WDs) are the progenitors of the epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicles. They form initially as nephric ducts that acquire connection to the developing testis as the mesonephros regresses. The development of the WDs is dependent on androgens. Conventionally, the active androgen is believed to be testosterone delivered locally rather than via the systemic circulation. However, recent studies in marsupials show that 5α-reduced steroids are essential and that these can induce virilisation even when they are delivered via the systemic circulation. The development of the WDs involves an interplay between the duct epithelium and underlying mesenchyme; androgen receptors in both the epithelium and mesenchyme are needed. The epidermal growth factor and epidermal growth factor receptor may play a role, possibly via activation of androgen receptor. The formation of the epididymis involves a complex morphogenetic program to achieve the normal pattern of coiling, formation of septae, and regional functional differentiation. In part, this process may be mediated by inhibin beta A as well as by genes from the HOX cluster. Whilst the development of the WD is androgen dependent, it is clear that there is a complex interplay between androgens, genes and growth factors in the tissues that leads to the formation of the complex anatomy of the male reproductive duct system in the adult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Shaw
- Department of Zoology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
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Håkonsen LB, Brath-Lund ML, Hounsgaard ML, Olsen J, Ernst A, Thulstrup AM, Bech BH, Ramlau-Hansen CH. In utero exposure to alcohol and puberty in boys: a pregnancy cohort study. BMJ Open 2014; 4:e004467. [PMID: 24916086 PMCID: PMC4067820 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Epidemiological studies have raised concerns about the reproductive consequences of in utero exposure to alcohol. Maternal lifestyle factors have been associated with altered pubertal development, but the impact of prenatal alcohol exposure on male puberty is unknown. Thus, the objective was to explore whether prenatal alcohol exposure alters pubertal development in boys. SETTING Follow-up of a Danish pregnancy cohort. PARTICIPANTS Sons (N=2522) of women who were enrolled in a Danish pregnancy cohort between 1984 and 1987. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES Indicators of pubertal development, assessed by age at first nocturnal emission, voice break, acne and regular shaving. RESULTS We found a tendency towards a later age at first nocturnal emission and voice break following in utero exposure to binge drinking. Boys exposed to ≥5 binge drinking episodes during pregnancy experienced their first nocturnal emission 7.3 months (95% CI -2.8 to 17.4) later and voice break 4.9 months (95% CI -0.6 to 10.4) later than the unexposed boys. Results for average weekly alcohol consumption were in the same direction, but differences were smaller and not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS We found no strong support for the hypothesis that in utero exposure to weekly alcohol consumption is a risk factor for altered pubertal development, but a tendency towards delayed pubertal development among boys exposed to binge drinking during fetal life was observed. Longitudinal studies, with data collected as children go through puberty, are needed to explore this further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linn Berger Håkonsen
- Department of Public Health, Section for Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Mette Louise Brath-Lund
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Danish Ramazzini Center, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Marie Louise Hounsgaard
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Danish Ramazzini Center, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Jørn Olsen
- Department of Public Health, Section for Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Andreas Ernst
- Department of Public Health, Section for Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Ane Marie Thulstrup
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Danish Ramazzini Center, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Bodil Hammer Bech
- Department of Public Health, Section for Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
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Christiansen S, Axelstad M, Boberg J, Vinggaard AM, Pedersen GA, Hass U. Low-dose effects of bisphenol A on early sexual development in male and female rats. Reproduction 2014; 147:477-87. [PMID: 24298045 DOI: 10.1530/rep-13-0377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) is widely detected in human urine and blood. BPA has been reported to impair many endpoints for reproductive and neurological development; however, it is controversial whether BPA has effects in the microgram per kilogram dose range. The aim of the current study was to examine the influence of BPA on early sexual development in male and female rats at dose levels covering both regulatory no observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) (5 and 50 mg/kg bw per day) as well as doses in the microgram per kilogram dose range (0.025 and 0.25 mg/kg bw per day). Time-mated Wistar rats (n=22) were gavaged during pregnancy and lactation from gestation day 7 to pup day 22 with 0, 0.025, 0.25, 5 or 50 mg/kg bw per day BPA. From 0.250 mg/kg and above, male anogenital distance (AGD) was significantly decreased, whereas decreased female AGD was seen from 0.025 mg/kg bw per day and above. Moreover, the incidence of nipple retention in males appeared to increase dose relatedly and the increase was statistically significant at 50 mg/kg per day. No significant changes in reproductive organ weights in the 16-day-old males and females and no signs of maternal toxicity were seen. The decreased AGD at birth in both sexes indicates effects on prenatal sexual development and provides new evidence of low-dose adverse effects of BPA in rats in the microgram per kilogram dose range. The NOAEL in this study is clearly below 5 mg/kg for BPA, which is used as the basis for establishment of the current tolerable daily intake (TDI) by EFSA; thus a reconsideration of the current TDI of BPA appears warranted.
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Development of the external genitalia: perspectives from the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). Differentiation 2014; 87:4-22. [PMID: 24582573 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2013.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2013] [Revised: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 12/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
This review/research paper summarizes data on development of the external genitalia of the spotted hyena, a fascinating mammal noted for extreme masculinization of the female external genitalia. The female spotted hyena is the only extant mammal that mates and gives birth through a pendulous penis-like clitoris. Our studies indicate that early formation of the phallus in both males and females is independent of androgens; indeed the phallus forms before the fetal testes or ovaries are capable of synthesizing androgens. Likewise, pre- and postnatal growth in length of the penis and clitoris is minimally affected by "androgen status". Nonetheless, several internal morphologies, as well as external surface features of the phallus, are androgen-dependent and thus account for dimorphism between the penis and clitoris. Finally, estrogens play a critical role in penile and clitoral development, specifying the position of the urethral orifice, determining elasticity of the urethral meatus, and facilitating epithelial-epithelial fusion events required for proper formation of the distal urethra/urogenital sinus and prepuce. Accordingly, prenatal inhibition of estrogen synthesis via administration of letrozole (an aromatase inhibitor) leads to malformations of the glans as well as the prepuce (hypospadias). The effects of prenatal androgens, anti-androgens and impaired estrogen synthesis correlated with the tissue expression of androgen and estrogen receptors.
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Chew KY, Pask AJ, Hickford D, Shaw G, Renfree MB. A dual role for SHH during phallus development in a marsupial. Sex Dev 2014; 8:166-77. [PMID: 24480851 DOI: 10.1159/000357927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammalian phallus arises from identical primordia in both sexes and is patterned in part by the key morphogen Sonic hedgehog (SHH). We have investigated SHH and other morphogens during phallus development in the tammar wallaby. In this marsupial, testis differentiation and androgen production occurs just after birth, but it takes a further 50-60 days before the phallus becomes sexually dimorphic. One day before birth, SHH was expressed in both sexes in the urethral epithelium. In males, there was a marked upregulation of SHH, GLI2, and AR at day 50 postpartum, a time when testicular androgen production falls. SHH, GLI2, and AR were downregulated in female pouch young treated with androstanediol from days 24-50, but not when treatments were begun at day 29, suggesting an early window of androgen sensitivity. SHH, GLI2, and AR expression in the phallus of males castrated at day 23 did not differ from controls, but there was an increase in SHH and GLI2 and a decrease in FGF8 and BMP4 expression when the animals were castrated at day 29. These results suggest that the early patterning by SHH is androgen-independent followed by an androgen-dependent window of sensitivity and a sharp rise in SHH expression after androgen withdrawal at day 50.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Y Chew
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Kangaroo Genomics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
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Low androgen induced penile maldevelopment involves altered gene expression of biomarkers of smooth muscle differentiation and a key enzyme regulating cavernous smooth muscle cell tone. J Urol 2013; 192:267-73. [PMID: 24316094 DOI: 10.1016/j.juro.2013.11.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE We determined the effects of low androgens in the neonatal period on biomarkers of smooth muscle cell differentiation, Myh11 and Acta2, and on Pde5A expression in the penis. MATERIALS AND METHODS One-day-old pups were treated daily with the gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist antide with or without dihydrotestosterone for 1 to 6 days. Tissues were collected at age day 7 and at adulthood at age 120 days. Penes were examined by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, Western blot and immunohistochemistry. Testes were assayed for the intratesticular testosterone and steroidogenic enzymes Cyp17α1 and StAR. RESULTS Gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist exposure suppressed the neonatal testicular testosterone surge 70% to 80%. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction revealed 80% to 90% reductions in Cyp17α1 and StAR protein, and 40% to 60% reductions in Myh11 and ACTA2 as a result of gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist compared to controls. Dihydrotestosterone co-administration mitigated these decreases. Western blot confirmed the Myh11 decrease at the protein level. Immunohistochemistry of Acta2 confirmed cavernous smooth muscle cell loss at the tissue level. Also, gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist exposure decreased Pde5a expression and dihydrotestosterone co-administration mitigated the decrease. Comparison of data between 2 parts of the penis body (corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum) showed that antagonist induced decreases in Myh11, Acta2 and Pde5a expression occurred only in the corpora cavernosa, implying that the latter is the target site of low androgen action. CONCLUSIONS As evidenced by gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist induced suppression of the neonatal testosterone surge and reduced steroidogenesis, low androgens in the neonatal period altered gene expression of biomarkers of smooth muscle cell differentiation. This led to loss of cavernous smooth muscle cells and consequently to penile maldevelopment.
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Dean A, Sharpe RM. Clinical review: Anogenital distance or digit length ratio as measures of fetal androgen exposure: relationship to male reproductive development and its disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98:2230-8. [PMID: 23569219 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2012-4057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Male reproductive disorders evident at birth or in young adulthood are remarkably common. They are hypothesized to comprise a testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS), with a fetal origin involving mild androgen deficiency. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION Testing this hypothesis requires "seeing back in time." Two ways have been proposed: measurement of anogenital distance (AGD), or measurement of the 2:4 digit length ratio. This review assesses the evidence that they reflect fetal androgen exposure and might be used to provide insight into the origin of TDS disorders. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Supporting evidence for AGD derives from rat experimental studies that identified a fetal masculinization programming window, within which androgen action determines adult reproductive organ size, TDS disorders, and AGD. In humans, AGD is positively correlated to testis size, sperm count/fertility, penis length, and T levels, consistent with rat experimental data. The 2:4 digit ratio also shows associations with these parameters, but inconsistently between studies; evidence that the 2:4 digit ratio accurately reflects fetal androgen exposure is also equivocal. CONCLUSIONS AGD appears to provide a reliable guide to fetal androgen exposure, although available data are limited. The next steps are to: standardize AGD measurement; obtain age-specific population data; and use AGD to evaluate the importance of fetal androgens in determining reproductive disorders and variation in testis/penis size and sperm count in the normal population. These studies should identify what, if any, clinical applications of AGD measurement are feasible--for example, its ability to predict adult-onset reproductive function and disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afshan Dean
- Queen's Medical Research Institute, Medical Research Council/University of Edinburgh Centre for Reproductive Health, 47 Little France Crescent, Old Dalkeith Road, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, United Kingdom
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Dean A, Mungall W, McKinnell C, Sharpe RM. Prostaglandins, masculinization and its disorders: effects of fetal exposure of the rat to the cyclooxygenase inhibitor- indomethacin. PLoS One 2013; 8:e62556. [PMID: 23671609 PMCID: PMC3643956 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have established that masculinization of the male reproductive tract is programmed by androgens in a critical fetal ‘masculinization programming window’ (MPW). What is peculiar to androgen action during this period is, however, unknown. Studies from 20 years ago in mice implicated prostaglandin (PG)-mediation of androgen-induced masculinization, but this has never been followed up. We therefore investigated if PGs might mediate androgen effects in the MPW by exposing pregnant rats to indomethacin (which blocks PG production by inhibiting cyclooxygenase activity) during this period and then examining if androgen production or action (masculinization) was affected. Pregnant rats were treated with indomethacin (0.8 mg/kg/day; e15.5–e18.5) to encompass the MPW. Indomethacin exposure decreased fetal bodyweight (e21.5), testis weight (e21.5) and testicular PGE2 (e17.5, e21.5), but had no effect on intratesticular testosterone (ITT; e17.5) or anogenital index (AGI; e21.5). Postnatally, AGI, testis weight and blood testosterone were unaffected by indomethacin exposure and no cryptorchidism or hypospadias occurred. Penis length was normal in indomethacin-exposed animals at Pnd25 but was reduced by 26% (p<0.001) in adulthood, an effect that is unexplained. Our results demonstrate that indomethacin can effectively decrease intra-testicular PGE2 level. However, the resulting male phenotype does not support a role for PGs in mediating androgen-induced masculinization during the MPW in rats. The contrast with previous mouse studies is unexplained but may reflect a species difference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afshan Dean
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - William Mungall
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Chris McKinnell
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Richard M. Sharpe
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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