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Langhammer PF, Bull JW, Bicknell JE, Oakley JL, Brown MH, Bruford MW, Butchart SHM, Carr JA, Church D, Cooney R, Cutajar S, Foden W, Foster MN, Gascon C, Geldmann J, Genovesi P, Hoffmann M, Howard-McCombe J, Lewis T, Macfarlane NBW, Melvin ZE, Merizalde RS, Morehouse MG, Pagad S, Polidoro B, Sechrest W, Segelbacher G, Smith KG, Steadman J, Strongin K, Williams J, Woodley S, Brooks TM. The positive impact of conservation action. Science 2024; 384:453-458. [PMID: 38662833 DOI: 10.1126/science.adj6598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Governments recently adopted new global targets to halt and reverse the loss of biodiversity. It is therefore crucial to understand the outcomes of conservation actions. We conducted a global meta-analysis of 186 studies (including 665 trials) that measured biodiversity over time and compared outcomes under conservation action with a suitable counterfactual of no action. We find that in two-thirds of cases, conservation either improved the state of biodiversity or at least slowed declines. Specifically, we find that interventions targeted at species and ecosystems, such as invasive species control, habitat loss reduction and restoration, protected areas, and sustainable management, are highly effective and have large effect sizes. This provides the strongest evidence to date that conservation actions are successful but require transformational scaling up to meet global targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penny F Langhammer
- Re:wild, PO Box 129, Austin, TX 78767, USA
- Arizona State University, School of Life Sciences, PO Box 874501, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Joseph W Bull
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Rd, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE), School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NR, UK
- Wild Business Ltd, London, UK
| | - Jake E Bicknell
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE), School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NR, UK
| | | | | | - Michael W Bruford
- School of Biosciences and Sustainable Places Research Institute, Cathays Park, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK
- IUCN SSC Conservation Genetics Specialist Group, 28 rue Mauverney, 1196 Gland, Switzerland
| | - Stuart H M Butchart
- BirdLife International, David Attenborough Building, Pembroke Street, Cambridge CB2 3QZ, UK
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Jamie A Carr
- Leverhulme Centre for Anthropocene Biodiversity, University of York, York YO10 15DD, UK
- Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
- IUCN SSC Climate Change Specialist Group, 28 rue Mauverney, 1196 Gland, Switzerland
| | - Don Church
- Re:wild, PO Box 129, Austin, TX 78767, USA
| | - Rosie Cooney
- CEESP/SSC IUCN Sustainable Use and Livelihoods Specialist Group, 28 rue Mauverney, 1196 Gland, Switzerland
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, ACT 2601, Australia
| | | | - Wendy Foden
- IUCN SSC Climate Change Specialist Group, 28 rue Mauverney, 1196 Gland, Switzerland
- South African National Parks, Cape Research Centre, Tokai, Cape Town, 7966, South Africa
- FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7701, South Africa
- Global Change Biology Group, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | | | - Claude Gascon
- The Global Environment Facility, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA
| | - Jonas Geldmann
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
- Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, GLOBE Institute, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, 2100 Copenhagen E, Denmark
| | - Piero Genovesi
- Institute for Environmental Protection and Research, Via Vitaliano Brancati 48, 00144 Rome, Italy
- IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group, 00144 Rome, Italy
- Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Michael Hoffmann
- IUCN Species Survival Commission, 28 rue Mauverney, 1196 Gland, Switzerland
- Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London NW1 4RY, UK
| | - Jo Howard-McCombe
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, The Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
- RZSS WildGenes, Conservation Department, Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, Edinburgh EH12 6TS, UK
| | - Tiffany Lewis
- Arizona State University, 427 E. Tyler Mall, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA
| | | | - Zoe E Melvin
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, The Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
- Bangor University, School of Natural Sciences, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales LL57 2UW, UK
| | | | - Meredith G Morehouse
- LLaves: Keys to Bilingual Conservation, LLC, 346 Mayberry Hill Road, Casco, Maine 04015, USA
| | - Shyama Pagad
- University of Auckland, Auckland 1072, New Zealand
| | - Beth Polidoro
- IUCN Species Survival Commission, 28 rue Mauverney, 1196 Gland, Switzerland
- Arizona State University, 4701 W. Thunderbird Rd, Glendale, AZ 85382, USA
| | | | - Gernot Segelbacher
- IUCN SSC Conservation Genetics Specialist Group, 28 rue Mauverney, 1196 Gland, Switzerland
- University Freiburg, Tennenbacher Str. 4, 79106 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Kevin G Smith
- IUCN, The David Attenborough Building, Pembroke St, Cambridge CB2 3QZ, UK
| | - Janna Steadman
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE), School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NR, UK
| | - Kyle Strongin
- Arizona State University, 800 S. Cady Mall, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA
| | - Jake Williams
- Imperial College London, Silwood Park, Ascot SL5 7PY, UK
| | - Stephen Woodley
- IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas, 64 Juniper Road, Chelsea, Quebec J9B 1T3, Canada
| | - Thomas M Brooks
- IUCN, 28 rue Mauverney, 1196 Gland, Switzerland
- World Agroforestry Center, University of The Philippines Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
- Institute for Marine & Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
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Rueda‐Cediel P, Galic N, Brain R, Pinto‐Ledezma JN, Rico A, Forbes V. Using life-history trait variation to inform ecological risk assessments for threatened and endangered plant species. INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 2023; 19:213-223. [PMID: 35373456 PMCID: PMC10083932 DOI: 10.1002/ieam.4615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Developing population models for assessing risks to terrestrial plant species listed as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) is challenging given a paucity of data on their life histories. The purpose of this study was to develop a novel approach for identifying relatively data-rich nonlisted species that could serve as representatives for species listed under the ESA in the development of population models to inform risk assessments. We used the USDA PLANTS Database, which provides data on plants present in the US territories, to create a list of herbaceous plants. A total of 8742 species was obtained, of which 344 were listed under the ESA. Using the most up-to-date phylogeny for vascular plants in combination with a database of matrix population models for plants (COMPADRE) and cluster analyses, we investigated how listed species were distributed across the plant phylogeny, grouped listed and nonlisted species according to their life history, and identified the traits distinguishing the clusters. We performed elasticity analyses to determine the relative sensitivity of population growth rate to perturbations of species' survival, growth, and reproduction and compared these across clusters and between listed and nonlisted species. We found that listed species were distributed widely across the plant phylogeny as well as clusters, suggesting that listed species do not share a common evolution or life-history characteristics that would make them uniquely vulnerable. Lifespan and age at maturity were more important for distinguishing clusters than were reproductive traits. For clusters that were intermediate in their lifespan, listed and nonlisted species responded similarly to perturbations of their life histories. However, for clusters at either extreme of lifespan, the response to survival perturbations varied depending on conservation status. These results can be used to guide the choice of representative species for population model development in the context of ecological risk assessment. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:213-223. © 2022 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Rueda‐Cediel
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and BehaviorUniversity of MinnesotaSt. PaulMinnesotaUSA
| | - Nika Galic
- Syngenta Crop Protection LLCGreensboroNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Richard Brain
- Syngenta Crop Protection LLCGreensboroNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Jesús N. Pinto‐Ledezma
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and BehaviorUniversity of MinnesotaSt. PaulMinnesotaUSA
| | - Andreu Rico
- IMDEA Water Institute, Science and Technology Campus of the University of AlcaláAlcalá de HenaresMadridSpain
- Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ValenciaPaternaValenciaSpain
| | - Valery Forbes
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and BehaviorUniversity of MinnesotaSt. PaulMinnesotaUSA
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De Vitis M, Havens K, Barak RS, Egerton-Warburton L, Ernst AR, Evans M, Fant JB, Foxx AJ, Hadley K, Jabcon J, O’Shaughnessey J, Ramakrishna S, Sollenberger D, Taddeo S, Urbina-Casanova R, Woolridge C, Xu L, Zeldin J, Kramer AT. Why are some plant species missing from restorations? A diagnostic tool for temperate grassland ecosystems. FRONTIERS IN CONSERVATION SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fcosc.2022.1028295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The U.N. Decade on Ecosystem Restoration aims to accelerate actions to prevent, halt, and reverse the degradation of ecosystems, and re-establish ecosystem functioning and species diversity. The practice of ecological restoration has made great progress in recent decades, as has recognition of the importance of species diversity to maintaining the long-term stability and functioning of restored ecosystems. Restorations may also focus on specific species to fulfill needed functions, such as supporting dependent wildlife or mitigating extinction risk. Yet even in the most carefully planned and managed restoration, target species may fail to germinate, establish, or persist. To support the successful reintroduction of ecologically and culturally important plant species with an emphasis on temperate grasslands, we developed a tool to diagnose common causes of missing species, focusing on four major categories of filters, or factors: genetic, biotic, abiotic, and planning & land management. Through a review of the scientific literature, we propose a series of diagnostic tests to identify potential causes of failure to restore target species, and treatments that could improve future outcomes. This practical diagnostic tool is meant to strengthen collaboration between restoration practitioners and researchers on diagnosing and treating causes of missing species in order to effectively restore them.
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Baillard V, Sulmon C, Bittebiere AK, Mony C, Couée I, Gouesbet G, Delignette-Muller ML, Devin S, Billoir E. Effect of interspecific competition on species sensitivity distribution models: Analysis of plant responses to chemical stress. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2020; 200:110722. [PMID: 32460047 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Species Sensitivity Distributions (SSD) are widely used in environmental risk assessment to predict the concentration of a contaminant that is hazardous for 5% of species (HC5). They are based on monospecific bioassays conducted in the laboratory and thus do not directly take into account ecological interactions. This point, among others, is accounted for in environmental risk assessment through an assessment factor (AF) that is applied to compensate for the lack of environmental representativity. In this study, we aimed to assess the effects of interspecific competition on the responses towards isoproturon of plant species representative of a vegetated filter strip community, and to assess its impact on the derived SSD and HC5 values. To do so, we realized bioassays confronting six herbaceous species to a gradient of isoproturon exposure in presence and absence of a competitor. Several modelling approaches were applied to see how they affected the results, using different critical effect concentrations and investigating different ways to handle multiple endpoints in SSD. At the species level, there was a strong trend toward organisms being more sensitive to isoproturon in presence of a competitor than in its absence. At the community level, this trend was also observed in the SSDs and HC5 values were always lower in presence of a competitor (1.12-11.13 times lower, depending on the modelling approach). Our discussion questions the relevance of SSD and AF as currently applied in environmental risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cécile Sulmon
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, Ecobio [(Ecosystèmes, Biodiversité, Évolution)] - Umr 6553, F-35000, Rennes, France
| | - Anne-Kristel Bittebiere
- Université de Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR 5023 LEHNA, 43 Boulevard Du 11 Novembre 1918, Villeurbanne, Cedex, 69622, France
| | - Cendrine Mony
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, Ecobio [(Ecosystèmes, Biodiversité, Évolution)] - Umr 6553, F-35000, Rennes, France
| | - Ivan Couée
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, Ecobio [(Ecosystèmes, Biodiversité, Évolution)] - Umr 6553, F-35000, Rennes, France
| | - Gwenola Gouesbet
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, Ecobio [(Ecosystèmes, Biodiversité, Évolution)] - Umr 6553, F-35000, Rennes, France
| | - Marie Laure Delignette-Muller
- Université de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, VetAgro Sup, UMR 5558, Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive, 69622, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Simon Devin
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LIEC, F-57000 Metz, France
| | - Elise Billoir
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LIEC, F-57000 Metz, France
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Schultz CB, Ferguson JA. Demographic costs and benefits of herbicide‐based restoration to enhance habitat for an endangered butterfly and a threatened plant. Restor Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/rec.13102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Do No Harm: Efficacy of a Single Herbicide Application to Control an Invasive Shrub While Minimizing Collateral Damage to Native Species. PLANTS 2019; 8:plants8100426. [PMID: 31635358 PMCID: PMC6843660 DOI: 10.3390/plants8100426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Control of invasive exotic species in restorations without compromising the native plant community is a challenge. Efficacy of exotic species control needs to consider collateral effects on the associated plant community. We asked (1) if short-term control of a dominant exotic invasive, Lespedeza cuneata in grassland restorations allows establishment of a more diverse native plant community, and (2) if control of the exotic and supplemental seed addition allows establishment of native species. A manipulative experiment tested the effects of herbicide treatments (five triclopyr and fluroxypyr formulations plus an untreated control) and seed addition (and unseeded control) on taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity, and community composition of restored grasslands in three sites over three years. We assessed response of L. cuneata through stem density counts, and response of the plant community through estimates of canopy cover. Herbicide treatments reduced the abundance of the exotic in the first field season leading to a less dispersed community composition compared with untreated controls, with the exotic regaining dominance by the third year. Supplemental seed addition did not provide extra resistance of the native community to reinvasion of the exotic. The communities were phylogenetically over-dispersed, but there was a short-term shift to lower phylogenetic diversity in response to herbicides consistent with a decrease in biotic filtering. Native plant communities in these grassland restorations were resilient to short-term reduction in abundance of a dominant invasive even though it was insufficient to provide an establishment window for native species establishment.
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Hinz HL, Winston RL, Schwarzländer M. How Safe Is Weed Biological Control? A Global Review of Direct Nontarget Attack. QUARTERLY REVIEW OF BIOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1086/702340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Lincoln AE, Brooks RK, Hamman ST. Off-Target Impacts of Graminoid-Specific Herbicide on Common Camas (Camassia quamash) Growth, Abundance, Reproduction, and Palatability to Herbivores. NORTHWEST SCIENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.3955/046.092.0304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra E. Lincoln
- Center for Natural Lands Management, 120 Union Street SE, #215, Olympia, Washington 98501
| | - Rachel K. Brooks
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington Fish and Wildlife Office, 510 Desmond Drive SE, Lacey, Washington 98503
| | - Sarah T. Hamman
- Center for Natural Lands Management, 120 Union Street SE, #215, Olympia, Washington 98501
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McManamen C, Nelson CR, Wagner V. Timing of seeding after herbicide application influences rates of germination and seedling biomass of native plants used for grassland restoration. Restor Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/rec.12679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christine McManamen
- W. A. Franke College of Forestry and Conservation; University of Montana; Missoula MT 59802 U.S.A
| | - Cara R. Nelson
- W. A. Franke College of Forestry and Conservation; University of Montana; Missoula MT 59802 U.S.A
| | - Viktoria Wagner
- Department of Botany and Zoology; Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2; Brno CZ 61137 Czech Republic
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Schmolke A, Kapo KE, Rueda-Cediel P, Thorbek P, Brain R, Forbes V. Developing population models: A systematic approach for pesticide risk assessment using herbaceous plants as an example. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 599-600:1929-1938. [PMID: 28549368 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Population models are used as tools in species management and conservation and are increasingly recognized as important tools in pesticide risk assessments. A wide variety of population model applications and resources on modeling techniques, evaluation and documentation can be found in the literature. In this paper, we add to these resources by introducing a systematic, transparent approach to developing population models. The decision guide that we propose is intended to help model developers systematically address data availability for their purpose and the steps that need to be taken in any model development. The resulting conceptual model includes the necessary complexity to address the model purpose on the basis of current understanding and available data. We provide specific guidance for the development of population models for herbaceous plant species in pesticide risk assessment and demonstrate the approach with an example of a conceptual model developed following the decision guide for herbicide risk assessment of Mead's milkweed (Asclepias meadii), a species listed as threatened under the US Endangered Species Act. The decision guide specific to herbaceous plants demonstrates the details, but the general approach can be adapted for other species groups and management objectives. Population models provide a tool to link population-level dynamics, species and habitat characteristics as well as information about stressors in a single approach. Developing such models in a systematic, transparent way will increase their applicability and credibility, reduce development efforts, and result in models that are readily available for use in species management and risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Pernille Thorbek
- Syngenta, Environmental Safety, Jealott's Hill International Research Centre, Bracknell, UK
| | | | - Valery Forbes
- College of Biological Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
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Abbas T, Zahir ZA, Naveed M, Aslam Z. Biological control of broad-leaved dock infestation in wheat using plant antagonistic bacteria under field conditions. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:14934-14944. [PMID: 28484980 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-9144-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Conventional weed management systems have produced many harmful effects on weed ecology, human health and environment. Biological control of invasive weeds may be helpful to minimize these harmful effects and economic losses incurred to crops by weeds. In our earlier studies, plant antagonistic bacteria were obtained after screening a large number of rhizobacteria for production of phytotoxic substances and effects on wheat and its associated weeds under laboratory conditions. In this study, five efficient strains inhibitory to broad-leaved dock and non-inhibitory to wheat were selected and applied to broad-leaved dock co-seeded with wheat both in pot trial and chronically infested field trial. Effects of plant antagonistic bacteria on the weed and infested wheat were studied at tillering, booting and harvesting stage of wheat. The applied strains significantly inhibited the germination and growth of the weed to variable extent. Similarly, variable recovery in losses of grain and straw yield of infested wheat from 11.6 to 68 and 13 to 72.6% was obtained in pot trial while from 17.3 to 62.9 and 22.4 to 71.3% was obtained in field trial, respectively. Effects of plant antagonistic bacteria were also evident from the improvement in physiology and nutrient contents of infested wheat. This study suggests the use of these plant antagonistic bacteria to biologically control infestation of broad-leaved dock in wheat under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tasawar Abbas
- Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry Laboratory, Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan.
| | - Zahir Ahmad Zahir
- Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry Laboratory, Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Naveed
- Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry Laboratory, Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan
| | - Zubair Aslam
- Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
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Lindenmayer DB, Wood J, MacGregor C, Hobbs RJ, Catford JA. Non‐target impacts of weed control on birds, mammals, and reptiles. Ecosphere 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- David B. Lindenmayer
- Fenner School of Environment and Society The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia
- National Environmental Science Program Threatened Species Recovery Hub The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia
- Long‐term Ecological Research Network Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia
| | - Jeff Wood
- Fenner School of Environment and Society The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia
- National Environmental Science Program Threatened Species Recovery Hub The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia
| | - Christopher MacGregor
- Fenner School of Environment and Society The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia
- National Environmental Science Program Threatened Species Recovery Hub The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia
- Long‐term Ecological Research Network Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia
| | - Richard J. Hobbs
- School of Plant Biology and ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions University of Western Australia Crawley Western Australia 6009 Australia
| | - Jane A. Catford
- Fenner School of Environment and Society The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions The Australian National University Canberra Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia
- Biological Sciences University of Southampton Highfield Campus Southampton SO17 1BJ UK
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13
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Schmolke A, Brain R, Thorbek P, Perkins D, Forbes V. Population modeling for pesticide risk assessment of threatened species-A case study of a terrestrial plant, Boltonia decurrens. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2017; 36:480-491. [PMID: 27497269 DOI: 10.1002/etc.3576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 04/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Although population models are recognized as necessary tools in the ecological risk assessment of pesticides, particularly for species listed under the Endangered Species Act, their application in this context is currently limited to very few cases. The authors developed a detailed, individual-based population model for a threatened plant species, the decurrent false aster (Boltonia decurrens), for application in pesticide risk assessment. Floods and competition with other plant species are known factors that drive the species' population dynamics and were included in the model approach. The authors use the model to compare the population-level effects of 5 toxicity surrogates applied to B. decurrens under varying environmental conditions. The model results suggest that the environmental conditions under which herbicide applications occur may have a higher impact on populations than organism-level sensitivities to an herbicide within a realistic range. Indirect effects may be as important as the direct effects of herbicide applications by shifting competition strength if competing species have different sensitivities to the herbicide. The model approach provides a case study for population-level risk assessments of listed species. Population-level effects of herbicides can be assessed in a realistic and species-specific context, and uncertainties can be addressed explicitly. The authors discuss how their approach can inform the future development and application of modeling for population-level risk assessments of listed species, and ecological risk assessment in general. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:480-491. © 2016 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Schmolke
- College of Biological Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
- Waterborne Environmental, Leesburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Richard Brain
- Syngenta Crop Protection, Greensboro, North Carolina, USA
| | - Pernille Thorbek
- Syngenta, Environmental Safety, Jealott's Hill International Research Centre, Bracknell, United Kingdom
| | | | - Valery Forbes
- College of Biological Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
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14
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Wagner V, Antunes PM, Irvine M, Nelson CR. Herbicide usage for invasive non-native plant management in wildland areas of North America. J Appl Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Wagner
- Department of Ecosystem and Conservation Sciences; College of Forestry and Conservation; University of Montana; Missoula MT 59812 USA
| | - Pedro M. Antunes
- Department of Biology; Algoma University; 1520 Queen Street East Sault Ste. Marie ON P6A 2G4 Canada
- Invasive Species Research Institute; Algoma University; 1520 Queen Street East Sault Ste. Marie ON P6A 2G4 Canada
| | - Michael Irvine
- Forest Guides and Silviculture Section; Crown Forests and Lands Policy Branch; Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry; 70 Foster Drive, Suite 400 Sault Ste. Marie ON P6A 6V5 Canada
| | - Cara R. Nelson
- Department of Ecosystem and Conservation Sciences; College of Forestry and Conservation; University of Montana; Missoula MT 59812 USA
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Rotchés-Ribalta R, Boutin C, Blanco-Moreno JM, Carpenter D, Sans FX. Herbicide impact on the growth and reproduction of characteristic and rare arable weeds of winter cereal fields. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2015; 24:991-1003. [PMID: 25736611 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-015-1440-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The decline of arable species characteristic of winter cereal fields has often been attributed to different factors related to agricultural intensification but most importantly to herbicide use. Herbicide phytotoxicity is most frequently assessed using short-term endpoints, primarily aboveground biomass. However, short-term sensitivity is usually not sufficient to detect actual effects because plants may or may not recover over time following sublethal herbicide exposures. Therefore, it is important to assess the long-term effects of herbicide applications. Annual species rely on renewable seed production to ensure their persistence; hence, assessment of herbicide sensitivity is more accurately estimated through effects on reproduction. Here we aim to assess the phytotoxicity of two commonly used herbicides: tribenuron and 2,4-D on eight plant species belonging to four families, each with one rare and one more common species. Specifically we examined the pattern of sensitivity using short-term and long-term endpoints (total aboveground biomass, total seed biomass and number of seeds) of these species; we determined the levels of and time to recovery in terms of stem length and fruit number, and assessed whether their rarity relates to their sensitivity to herbicide application. Our results suggest that although differences in herbicide sensitivity are not a direct cause of rarity for all species, it may be an important driver of declining arable plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roser Rotchés-Ribalta
- Departament de Biologia Vegetal, IRBio, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 643, 08028, Barcelona, Spain,
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16
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Scientific Opinion addressing the state of the science on risk assessment of plant protection products for non-target terrestrial plants. EFSA J 2014. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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17
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Godoy O, Levine JM. Phenology effects on invasion success: insights from coupling field experiments to coexistence theory. Ecology 2014; 95:726-36. [PMID: 24804456 DOI: 10.1890/13-1157.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Ecologists have identified a growing number of functional traits that promote invasion. However, whether trait differences between exotic and native species promote invasion success by enhancing niche differences or giving invaders competitive advantages is poorly understood. We explored the mechanisms by which phenology determines invasion success in a California annual plant community by quantifying how the seasonal timing of growth relates to niche differences that stabilize coexistence, and the competitive ability differences that drive dominance and exclusion. We parameterized models of community dynamics from experimentally assembled annual communities in which exotic plants displayed earlier, coincident, or later phenology than native residents. Using recent theoretical advances from the coexistence literature, we found that differences in phenology promote stabilizing niche differences between exotic and native species. However, phenology was more strongly related to competitive ability differences, allowing later invaders to outcompete earlier native competitors and native residents to outcompete earlier invaders in field experiments. Few of these insights could be inferred by comparing the competitive outcomes across invaders, highlighting the need to quantify niche and competitive ability differences when disentangling how species differences drive invasion success.
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18
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Boutin C, Strandberg B, Carpenter D, Mathiassen SK, Thomas PJ. Herbicide impact on non-target plant reproduction: what are the toxicological and ecological implications? ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2014; 185:295-306. [PMID: 24316067 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Revised: 08/23/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Declining plant diversity and abundance have been widely reported in agro-ecosystems of North America and Europe. Intensive use of herbicides within cropfields and the associated drift in adjacent habitats are partly responsible for this change. The objectives of this work were to quantify the phenological stages of non-target plants in in-situ field situations during herbicide spray and to compare plant susceptibility at different phenological stages. Results demonstrated that a large number of non-target plants had reached reproductive stages during herbicide spray events in woodlots and hedgerows, both in Canada and Denmark where vegetation varies considerably. In addition, delays in flowering and reduced seed production occurred widely on plants sprayed at the seedling stage or at later reproductive periods, with plants sprayed at reproductive stages often exhibiting more sensitivity than those sprayed as seedlings. Ecological risk assessments need to include reproductive endpoints.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Boutin
- Environment Canada, Science & Technology Branch, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Raven Rd., Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1A 0H3, Canada.
| | - B Strandberg
- Aarhus Universitet, Department of Bioscience, Vejlsøvej 25, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark
| | - D Carpenter
- Environment Canada, Science & Technology Branch, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Raven Rd., Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1A 0H3, Canada.
| | - S K Mathiassen
- Aarhus Universitet, Department of Agroecology, Forsøgsvej 1, 4200 Slagelse, Denmark
| | - P J Thomas
- Environment Canada, Science & Technology Branch, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Raven Rd., Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1A 0H3, Canada
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Olszyk D, Blakeley-Smith M, Pfleeger T, Lee EH, Plocher M. Effects of low levels of herbicides on prairie species of the Willamette Valley, Oregon. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2013; 32:2542-51. [PMID: 23881750 DOI: 10.1002/etc.2331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Revised: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 07/17/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The relative sensitivity of 17 noncrop plant species from Oregon's Willamette Valley was determined in response to glyphosate, tribenuron methyl (tribenuron), and fluazifop-p-butyl (fluazifop) herbicides. For glyphosate, Elymus trachycaulus, Festuca arundinacea, Madia elegans, Potentilla gracilis, and Ranunculus occidentalis were the most sensitive species, based on a concentration calculated to reduce shoot dry weight by 25% (IC25 values) of 0.02 to 0.04 × a field application rate of 1112 g active ingredient (a.i.) per hectare. Clarkia amoena and Lupinus albicaulis were the most tolerant to glyphosate, with IC25 values near the field application rate. Clarkia amoena, Prunella vulgaris, and R. occidentalis were the most sensitive to tribenuron, with IC25 values of 0.001 to 0.004 × a field application rate of 8.7 g a.i. ha(-1) for shoot dry weight. Five grass species were tolerant to tribenuron with no significant IC25 values. For fluazifop, 2 native grasses, E. trachycaulus and Danthonia californica, were the most sensitive species, with IC25 values of 0.007 and 0.010 × a field application rate of 210 g a.i. ha(-1) , respectively, for shoot dry weight, while a native grass, Festuca roemeri, and nearly all forbs showed little or no response. These results also indicated that the 3 introduced species used in the present study may be controlled with 1 of the tested herbicides: glyphosate (F. arundinacea), tribenuron (Leucanthemum vulgare), and fluazifop (Cynosurus echinatus).
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Affiliation(s)
- David Olszyk
- US Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, Corvallis, Oregon
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Crone EE, Ellis MM, Morris WF, Stanley A, Bell T, Bierzychudek P, Ehrlén J, Kaye TN, Knight TM, Lesica P, Oostermeijer G, Quintana-Ascencio PF, Ticktin T, Valverde T, Williams JL, Doak DF, Ganesan R, McEachern K, Thorpe AS, Menges ES. Ability of matrix models to explain the past and predict the future of plant populations. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2013; 27:968-978. [PMID: 23565966 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2012] [Accepted: 12/08/2012] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Uncertainty associated with ecological forecasts has long been recognized, but forecast accuracy is rarely quantified. We evaluated how well data on 82 populations of 20 species of plants spanning 3 continents explained and predicted plant population dynamics. We parameterized stage-based matrix models with demographic data from individually marked plants and determined how well these models forecast population sizes observed at least 5 years into the future. Simple demographic models forecasted population dynamics poorly; only 40% of observed population sizes fell within our forecasts' 95% confidence limits. However, these models explained population dynamics during the years in which data were collected; observed changes in population size during the data-collection period were strongly positively correlated with population growth rate. Thus, these models are at least a sound way to quantify population status. Poor forecasts were not associated with the number of individual plants or years of data. We tested whether vital rates were density dependent and found both positive and negative density dependence. However, density dependence was not associated with forecast error. Forecast error was significantly associated with environmental differences between the data collection and forecast periods. To forecast population fates, more detailed models, such as those that project how environments are likely to change and how these changes will affect population dynamics, may be needed. Such detailed models are not always feasible. Thus, it may be wiser to make risk-averse decisions than to expect precise forecasts from models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth E Crone
- Harvard Forest, Harvard University, 324 N Main Street, Petersham, MA, 01366, U.S.A..
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21
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Carpenter D, Boutin C, Allison JE. Effects of chlorimuron ethyl on terrestrial and wetland plants: Levels of, and time to recovery following sublethal exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2013; 172:275-282. [PMID: 23137550 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2012.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2012] [Revised: 08/17/2012] [Accepted: 09/08/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Current pesticide registration guidelines call for short-term testing of plants; long-term effects on vegetative parts and reproduction remain untested. The aims of our study were to determine level of recovery and recovery times for plants exposed to the sulfonylurea herbicide chlorimuron ethyl using data collected from single species, dose-response greenhouse experiments. The nine terrestrial and eight wetland species tested showed variable levels of recovery and recovery timeframes. Many species (six terrestrial and five wetland) were vegetatively stunted at sublethal doses and were reproductively impaired. Full recovery did not occur at all doses and maximum recovery times varied from 3 to 15 weeks in this controlled environment. In a complex community, affected species may be displaced by tolerant species, through interspecific competition, before they fully recover. It is plausible that individual populations could be diminished or eliminated through reduced seedbank inputs (annuals and perennials) and asexual reproduction (perennials).
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Affiliation(s)
- David Carpenter
- Environment Canada, Science & Technology Branch, National Wildlife Research Centre, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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Wang HH, Grant WE, Gan J, Rogers WE, Swannack TM, Koralewski TE, Miller JH, Taylor JW. Integrating spread dynamics and economics of timber production to manage Chinese tallow invasions in southern U.S. forestlands. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33877. [PMID: 22442731 PMCID: PMC3307772 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2011] [Accepted: 02/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Economic costs associated with the invasion of nonnative species are of global concern. We estimated expected costs of Chinese tallow (Triadica sebifera (L.) Small) invasions related to timber production in southern U.S. forestlands under different management strategies. Expected costs were confined to the value of timber production losses plus costs for search and control. We simulated management strategies including (1) no control (NC), and control beginning as soon as the percentage of invaded forest land exceeded (2) 60 (Low Control), (3) 25 (Medium Control), or (4) 0 (High Control) using a spatially-explicit, stochastic, bioeconomic model. With NC, simulated invasions spread northward and westward into Arkansas and along the Gulf of Mexico to occupy ≈1.2 million hectares within 20 years, with associated expected total costs increasing exponentially to ≈$300 million. With LC, MC, and HC, invaded areas reached ≈275, 34, and 2 thousand hectares after 20 years, respectively, with associated expected costs reaching ≈$400, $230, and $200 million. Complete eradication would not be cost-effective; the minimum expected total cost was achieved when control began as soon as the percentage of invaded land exceeded 5%. These results suggest the importance of early detection and control of Chinese tallow, and emphasize the importance of integrating spread dynamics and economics to manage invasive species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiao-Hsuan Wang
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America.
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Schultz CB, Henry E, Carleton A, Hicks T, Thomas R, Potter A, Collins M, Linders M, Fimbel C, Black S, Anderson HE, Diehl G, Hamman S, Gilbert R, Foster J, Hays D, Wilderman D, Davenport R, Steel E, Page N, Lilley PL, Heron J, Kroeker N, Webb C, Reader B. Conservation of Prairie-Oak Butterflies in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. NORTHWEST SCIENCE 2011. [DOI: 10.3955/046.085.0221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Carpenter D, Boutin C. Sublethal effects of the herbicide glufosinate ammonium on crops and wild plants: short-term effects compared to vegetative recovery and plant reproduction. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2010; 19:1322-1336. [PMID: 20635139 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-010-0519-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/02/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Current guidelines for phytotoxicity testing rely heavily on short-term testing of primarily crop species to predict the sensitivity of non-target, wild plants to herbicides. However, little is known on how plants recover following initial growth inhibitions in standard 14-28 day greenhouse tests conducted for pesticide assessment and registration. The objectives of this study were to assess the ability of plant species to recover (biomass and reproduction) when tested at the juvenile stage (routine regulatory testing), comparing crop and wild species and using the herbicide glufosinate ammonium. Ten crops and 10 wild species were tested with a one-time exposure to glufosinate ammonium in a greenhouse. Half the plants of each species (9 doses × 6 replicates) were harvested 3 weeks after being sprayed (short-term). The remaining plants were harvested several weeks later, coinciding with seed set or natural senescence (long-term). Total aboveground biomass and several endpoints related to crop production and plant reproduction were measured. Calculated IC50 values (dosage that results in a 50% decrease in the biomass of a plant as compared to the untreated controls) based solely on aboveground biomass, for species harvested in the long-term were generally higher than those obtained in the short-term (with two exceptions), indicating recovery over time. Crop species did not differ from wild species in terms of sensitivity. However, in seven out of 12 cases where reproduction was measurable, reproductive endpoints were more sensitive than either short or long-term biomass endpoints, indicating the importance of examining these parameters in phytotoxicity testing. Glufosinate ammonium was found to be phytotoxic at low doses (2.64-7.74% g ai/ha of the label rate).
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Affiliation(s)
- David Carpenter
- Science & Technology, Environment Canada, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive (Raven Road), Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0H3, Canada
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Ezard THG, Bullock JM, Dalgleish HJ, Millon A, Pelletier F, Ozgul A, Koons DN. Matrix models for a changeable world: the importance of transient dynamics in population management. J Appl Ecol 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01801.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Weidenhamer JD, Callaway RM. Direct and indirect effects of invasive plants on soil chemistry and ecosystem function. J Chem Ecol 2010; 36:59-69. [PMID: 20077127 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-009-9735-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2009] [Revised: 12/10/2009] [Accepted: 12/15/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Invasive plants have a multitude of impacts on plant communities through their direct and indirect effects on soil chemistry and ecosystem function. For example, plants modify the soil environment through root exudates that affect soil structure, and mobilize and/or chelate nutrients. The long-term impact of litter and root exudates can modify soil nutrient pools, and there is evidence that invasive plant species may alter nutrient cycles differently from native species. The effects of plants on ecosystem biogeochemistry may be caused by differences in leaf tissue nutrient stoichiometry or secondary metabolites, although evidence for the importance of allelochemicals in driving these processes is lacking. Some invasive species may gain a competitive advantage through the release of compounds or combinations of compounds that are unique to the invaded community—the “novel weapons hypothesis.” Invasive plants also can exert profound impact on plant communities indirectly through the herbicides used to control them. Glyphosate, the most widely used herbicide in the world, often is used to help control invasive weeds, and generally is considered to have minimal environmental impacts. Most studies show little to no effect of glyphosate and other herbicides on soil microbial communities. However, herbicide applications can reduce or promote rhizobium nodulation and mycorrhiza formation. Herbicide drift can affect the growth of non-target plants, and glyphosate and other herbicides can impact significantly the secondary chemistry of plants at sublethal doses. In summary, the literature indicates that invasive species can alter the biogeochemistry of ecosystems, that secondary metabolites released by invasive species may play important roles in soil chemistry as well as plant-plant and plant-microbe interactions, and that the herbicides used to control invasive species can impact plant chemistry and ecosystems in ways that have yet to be fully explored.
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