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Tripathi H, Bhalerao P, Singh S, Arya H, Alotaibi BS, Rashid S, Hasan MR, Bhatt TK. Malaria therapeutics: are we close enough? Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:130. [PMID: 37060004 PMCID: PMC10103679 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-05755-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a vector-borne parasitic disease caused by the apicomplexan protozoan parasite Plasmodium. Malaria is a significant health problem and the leading cause of socioeconomic losses in developing countries. WHO approved several antimalarials in the last 2 decades, but the growing resistance against the available drugs has worsened the scenario. Drug resistance and diversity among Plasmodium strains hinder the path of eradicating malaria leading to the use of new technologies and strategies to develop effective vaccines and drugs. A timely and accurate diagnosis is crucial for any disease, including malaria. The available diagnostic methods for malaria include microscopy, RDT, PCR, and non-invasive diagnosis. Recently, there have been several developments in detecting malaria, with improvements leading to achieving an accurate, quick, cost-effective, and non-invasive diagnostic tool for malaria. Several vaccine candidates with new methods and antigens are under investigation and moving forward to be considered for clinical trials. This article concisely reviews basic malaria biology, the parasite's life cycle, approved drugs, vaccine candidates, and available diagnostic approaches. It emphasizes new avenues of therapeutics for malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himani Tripathi
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, 305817, Rajasthan, India
| | - Preshita Bhalerao
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, 305817, Rajasthan, India
| | - Sujeet Singh
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, 305817, Rajasthan, India
| | - Hemant Arya
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, 305817, Rajasthan, India.
| | - Bader Saud Alotaibi
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Science, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Alquwayiyah, Shaqra University, Riyadh, 11971, Saudi Arabia
| | - Summya Rashid
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 173, Al-Kharj, 11942, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad Raghibul Hasan
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Science, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Alquwayiyah, Shaqra University, Riyadh, 11971, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Tarun Kumar Bhatt
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, 305817, Rajasthan, India.
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Alves E, Nakaya H, Guimarães E, Garcia CR. Combining IP 3 affinity chromatography and bioinformatics reveals a novel protein-IP 3 binding site on Plasmodium falciparum MDR1 transporter. CURRENT RESEARCH IN MICROBIAL SCIENCES 2022; 4:100179. [PMID: 36582189 PMCID: PMC9792294 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmicr.2022.100179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracellular Ca2+ mobilization induced by second messenger IP3 controls many cellular events in most of the eukaryotic groups. Despite the increasing evidence of IP3-induced Ca2+ in apicomplexan parasites like Plasmodium, responsible for malaria infection, no protein with potential function as an IP3-receptor has been identified. The use of bioinformatic analyses based on previously known sequences of IP3-receptor failed to identify potential IP3-receptor candidates in any Apicomplexa. In this work, we combine the biochemical approach of an IP3 affinity chromatography column with bioinformatic meta-analyses to identify potential vital membrane proteins that present binding with IP3 in Plasmodium falciparum. Our analyses reveal that PF3D7_0523000, a gene that codes a transport protein associated with multidrug resistance as a potential target for IP3. This work provides a new insight for probing potential candidates for IP3-receptor in Apicomplexa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Alves
- Life Science Department, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Helder Nakaya
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil,Computational Systems Biology Laboratory, INOVA, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Euzébio Guimarães
- Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Pharmacy Department, Health Science Center, Natal, Brazil
| | - Célia R.S. Garcia
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil,Corresponding author.
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Sanchez CP, Manson EDT, Moliner Cubel S, Mandel L, Weidt SK, Barrett MP, Lanzer M. The Knock-Down of the Chloroquine Resistance Transporter PfCRT Is Linked to Oligopeptide Handling in Plasmodium falciparum. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0110122. [PMID: 35867395 PMCID: PMC9431119 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01101-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The chloroquine resistance transporter, PfCRT, is an essential factor during intraerythrocytic development of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. PfCRT resides at the digestive vacuole of the parasite, where hemoglobin taken up by the parasite from its host cell is degraded. PfCRT can acquire several mutations that render PfCRT a drug transporting system expelling compounds targeting hemoglobin degradation from the digestive vacuole. The non-drug related function of PfCRT is less clear, although a recent study has suggested a role in oligopeptide transport based on studies conducted in a heterologous expression system. The uncertainty about the natural function of PfCRT is partly due to a lack of a null mutant and a dearth of functional assays in the parasite. Here, we report on the generation of a conditional PfCRT knock-down mutant in P. falciparum. The mutant accumulated oligopeptides 2 to at least 8 residues in length under knock-down conditions, as shown by comparative global metabolomics. The accumulated oligopeptides were structurally diverse, had an isoelectric point between 4.0 and 5.4 and were electrically neutral or carried a single charge at the digestive vacuolar pH of 5.2. Fluorescently labeled dipeptides and live cell imaging identified the digestive vacuole as the compartment where oligopeptides accumulated. Our findings suggest a function of PfCRT in oligopeptide transport across the digestive vacuolar membrane in P. falciparum and associated with it a role in nutrient acquisition and the maintenance of the colloid osmotic balance. IMPORTANCE The chloroquine resistance transporter, PfCRT, is important for the survival of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. It increases the tolerance to many antimalarial drugs, and it is essential for the development of the parasite within red blood cells. While we understand the role of PfCRT in drug resistance in ever increasing detail, the non-drug resistance functions are still debated. Identifying the natural substrate of PfCRT has been hampered by a paucity of functional assays to test putative substrates in the parasite system and the absence of a parasite mutant deficient for the PfCRT encoding gene. By generating a conditional PfCRT knock-down mutant, together with comparative metabolomics and uptake studies using fluorescently labeled oligopeptides, we could show that PfCRT is an oligopeptide transporter. The oligopeptides were structurally diverse and were electrically neutral or carried a single charge. Our data support a function of PfCRT in oligopeptide transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia P. Sanchez
- Center of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - Sonia Moliner Cubel
- Center of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - Stefan K. Weidt
- Glasgow Polyomics, University of Glasgow, Wolfson Wohl Cancer Research Centre, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Michael P. Barrett
- Glasgow Polyomics, University of Glasgow, Wolfson Wohl Cancer Research Centre, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- The Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute for Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Lanzer
- Center of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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Huffman AM, Ayariga JA, Napier A, Robertson BK, Abugri DA. Inhibition of Toxoplasma gondii Growth by Dihydroquinine and Its Mechanisms of Action. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:852889. [PMID: 35646733 PMCID: PMC9131874 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.852889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic parasite that infects the brain of humans and causes cerebral toxoplasmosis. The recommended drugs for the treatment or prophylaxis of toxoplasmosis are pyrimethamine (PY) and sulfadiazine (SZ), which have serious side effects. Other drugs available for toxoplasmosis are poorly tolerated. Dihydroquinine (DHQ) is a compound closely related to quinine-based drugs that have been shown to inhibit Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium berghei in addition to its anti-arrhythmia properties. However, little is known about the effect of DHQ in T. gondii growth and its mechanism of action in vitro. In this study, we report the anti-Toxoplasma and anti-invasion properties of DHQ. DHQ significantly inhibited T. gondii tachyzoite growth with IC50s values of 0.63, 0.67, and 0.00137 µM at 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively. Under similar conditions, SZ and PY, considered as the gold standard drugs for the treatment of toxoplasmosis, had IC50s values of 1.29, 1.55, and 0.95 and 3.19, 3.52, and 2.42 µM, respectively. The rapid dose-dependent inhibition of T. gondii tachyzoites by DHQ compared to the standard drugs (SZ and PY) indicates that DHQ has high selective parasiticidal effects against tachyzoite proliferation. Remarkably, DHQ had an excellent selectivity index (SI) of 149- and 357-fold compared to 24- and 143-fold for PY and SZ, respectively, using fibroblast cells. In addition, DHQ disrupted T. gondii tachyzoite mitochondrial membrane potential and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production and elicited high reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Taking all these findings together, DHQ promises to be an effective and safe lead for the treatment of toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarin M. Huffman
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, United States
| | - Joseph A. Ayariga
- Department of Biological Sciences, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL, United States
- Biomedical Engineering Program, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL, United States
| | - Audrey Napier
- Department of Biological Sciences, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL, United States
| | - Boakai K. Robertson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL, United States
- Microbiology PhD Program, College of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, Montgomery, AL, United States
| | - Daniel A. Abugri
- Department of Biological Sciences, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL, United States
- Microbiology PhD Program, College of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, Montgomery, AL, United States
- Laboratory of Ethnomedicine, Parasitology, and Drug Discovery, College of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, Montgomery, AL, United States
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Lee A, Yang H, Kim T, Ha H, Hwang YH. Identification and pharmacokinetics of bioavailable anti-resorptive phytochemicals after oral administration of Psoralea corylifolia L. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 144:112300. [PMID: 34653758 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoporosis and resulting bone fractures are the major health issues associated with morbidity in the aging population; however, there is no effective treatment that does not cause severe side effects. In East Asia, dried seeds of Psoralea corylifolia L. (PC) have traditionally been used as an herbal medicine to manage urinary tract, cutaneous, and gastrointestinal disorders, as well as bone health. However, the mechanism of action and active biocomponents of PC are unclear. Here, we adopted a pharmacokinetic (PK) study aiming to identify the bioavailable phytochemicals in aqueous and ethanolic extracts of PC (APC) and (EPC), respectively. In addition, we aimed to determine anti-resorptive constituents of PC, which accounted for its beneficial effects on bone health. To this end, we used ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). A rapid, sensitive, and reliable UPLC-MS/MS method was developed and determined the 17 PC ingredients. In the PK study, nine components (two chalcones, two coumarins, one coumestan, two flavonoids, and two isoflavonoids) were observed between 36 and 48 h after oral administration of APC or EPC. Among the bioavailable ingredients, four PC constituents (psoralidin, isobavachin, corylifol A, and neobavaisoflavone) inhibited M-CSF-and RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation in bone marrow-derived macrophages. In addition, two chalcones and two isoflavonoids markedly inhibited cathepsin K activity, and their binding modes to cathepsin K were determined by molecular docking. In summary, our data suggest that bioavailable multicomponents of PC could contribute to the management of bone health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ami Lee
- Herbal Medicine Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 34054, Republic of Korea; University of Science & Technology (UST), Korean Convergence Medicine Major KIOM, Daejeon 34054, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Yang
- Herbal Medicine Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 34054, Republic of Korea
| | - Taesoo Kim
- Herbal Medicine Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 34054, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunil Ha
- Herbal Medicine Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 34054, Republic of Korea.
| | - Youn-Hwan Hwang
- Herbal Medicine Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 34054, Republic of Korea; University of Science & Technology (UST), Korean Convergence Medicine Major KIOM, Daejeon 34054, Republic of Korea.
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Yan R, Yang Y, Chen Y. Pharmacokinetics of Chinese medicines: strategies and perspectives. Chin Med 2018; 13:24. [PMID: 29743935 PMCID: PMC5930430 DOI: 10.1186/s13020-018-0183-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The modernization and internationalization of Chinese medicines (CMs) are hampered by increasing concerns on the safety and the efficacy. Pharmacokinetic (PK) study is indispensable to establish concentration-activity/toxicity relationship and facilitate target identification and new drug discovery from CMs. To cope with tremendous challenges rooted from chemical complexity of CMs, the classic PK strategies have evolved rapidly from PK study focusing on marker/main drug components to PK-PD correlation study adopting metabolomics approaches to characterize associations between disposition of global drug-related components and host metabolic network shifts. However, the majority of PK studies of CMs have adopted the approaches tailored for western medicines and focused on the systemic exposures of drug-related components, most of which were found to be too low to account for the holistic benefits of CMs. With an area under concentration-time curve- or activity-weighted approach, integral PK attempts to understand the PK-PD relevance with the integrated PK profile of multiple co-existing structural analogs (prototyes/metabolites). Cellular PK-PD complements traditional PK-PD when drug targets localize inside the cells, instead of at the surface of cell membrane or extracellular space. Considering the validated clinical benefits of CMs, reverse pharmacology-based reverse PK strategy was proposed to facilitate target identification and new drug discovery. Recently, gut microbiota have demonstrated multifaceted roles in drug efficacy/toxicity. In traditional oral intake, the presystemic interactions of CMs with gut microbiota seem inevitable, which can contribute to the holistic benefits of CMs through biotransforming CMs components, acting as the peripheral target, and regulating host drug disposition. Hence, we propose a global PK-PD approach which includes the presystemic interaction of CMs with gut microbiota and combines omics with physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling to offer a comprehensive understanding of the PK-PD relationship of CMs. Moreover, validated clinical benefits of CMs and poor translational potential of animal PK data urge more research efforts in human PK study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ru Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macao, China.,Zhuhai UM Science & Technology Research Institute, Zhuhai, 519080 China
| | - Ying Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macao, China
| | - Yijia Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macao, China
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Woodland JG, Hunter R, Smith PJ, Egan TJ. Shining new light on ancient drugs: preparation and subcellular localisation of novel fluorescent analogues of Cinchona alkaloids in intraerythrocytic Plasmodium falciparum. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 15:589-597. [PMID: 27785512 DOI: 10.1039/c6ob02110g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescent derivatives of the archetypal antimalarial quinine and its diastereomer, quinidine, suitable for cellular imaging have been synthesised by attaching the small extrinsic fluorophore, NBD. Interactions of these derivatives with ferriprotoporphyrin IX were evaluated to verify that insights generated by live-cell imaging were relevant to the parent molecules. These analogues are shown by confocal and super-resolution microscopy to accumulate selectively in Plasmodium falciparum. Localisation to the region corresponding to the digestive vacuole supports the putative primary role of these alkaloids as haemozoin inhibitors. Quantitative analysis revealed minimal accumulation within the nucleus, rejecting the disruption of DNA replication as a possible mode of action. While extensive localisation to phospholipid structures and associated organelles was observed, the analogues did not show evidence of association with neutral lipid bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- John G Woodland
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa.
| | - Roger Hunter
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa.
| | - Peter J Smith
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, 7925, South Africa
| | - Timothy J Egan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa.
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Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter is a H+-coupled polyspecific nutrient and drug exporter. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:3356-61. [PMID: 25733858 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1417102112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Extrusion of chloroquine (CQ) from digestive vacuoles through the Plasmodium falciparum CQ resistance transporter (PfCRT) is essential to establish CQ resistance of the malaria parasite. However, the physiological relevance of PfCRT and how CQ-resistant PfCRT gains the ability to transport CQ remain unknown. We prepared proteoliposomes containing purified CQ-sensitive and CQ-resistant PfCRTs and measured their transport activities. All PfCRTs tested actively took up tetraethylammonium, verapamil, CQ, basic amino acids, polypeptides, and polyamines at the expense of an electrochemical proton gradient. CQ-resistant PfCRT exhibited decreased affinity for CQ, resulting in increased CQ uptake. Furthermore, CQ competitively inhibited amino acid transport. Thus, PfCRT is a H(+)-coupled polyspecific nutrient and drug exporter.
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Temporal and seasonal changes of genetic polymorphisms associated with altered drug susceptibility to chloroquine, lumefantrine, and quinine in Guinea-Bissau between 2003 and 2012. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 59:872-9. [PMID: 25421474 DOI: 10.1128/aac.03554-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In 2008, artemether-lumefantrine was introduced in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa, but quinine has also been commonly prescribed for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. An efficacious high-dose chloroquine treatment regimen was used previously. Temporal and seasonal changes of genetic polymorphisms associated with altered drug susceptibility to chloroquine, lumefantrine, and quinine have been described. P. falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) K76T, pfmdr1 gene copy numbers, pfmdr1 polymorphisms N86Y and Y184F, and pfmdr1 sequences 1034 to 1246 were determined using PCR-based methods. Blood samples came from virtually all (n=1,806) children<15 years of age who had uncomplicated P. falciparum monoinfection and presented at a health center in suburban Bissau (from 2003 to 2012). The pfcrt K76T and pfmdr1 N86Y frequencies were stable, and seasonal changes were not seen from 2003 to 2007. Since 2007, the mean annual frequencies increased (P<0.001) for pfcrt 76T (24% to 57%), pfmdr1 N86 (72% to 83%), and pfcrt 76+pfmdr1 86 TN (10% to 27%), and pfcrt 76T accumulated during the high transmission season (P=0.001). The pfmdr1 86+184 NF frequency increased from 39% to 66% (from 2003 to 2011; P=0.004). One sample had two pfmdr1 gene copies. pfcrt 76T was associated with a lower parasite density (P<0.001). Following the discontinuation of an effective chloroquine regimen, probably highly artemether-lumefantrine-susceptible P. falciparum (with pfcrt 76T) accumulated, possibly due to suboptimal use of quinine and despite a fitness cost linked to pfcrt 76T. (The studies reported here were registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under registration no. NCT00137514 [PSB-2001-chl-amo], NCT00137566 [PSB-2004-paracetamol], NCT00426439 [PSB-2006-coartem], NCT01157689 [AL-eff 2010], and NCT01704508 [Eurartesim 2012].).
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10
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Abstract
Although efforts to understand the basis for inter-strain phenotypic variation in the most virulent malaria species, Plasmodium falciparum, have benefited from advances in genomic technologies, there have to date been few metabolomic studies of this parasite. Using 1H-NMR spectroscopy, we have compared the metabolite profiles of red blood cells infected with different P. falciparum strains. These included both chloroquine-sensitive and chloroquine-resistant strains, as well as transfectant lines engineered to express different isoforms of the chloroquine-resistance-conferring pfcrt (P. falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter). Our analyses revealed strain-specific differences in a range of metabolites. There was marked variation in the levels of the membrane precursors choline and phosphocholine, with some strains having >30-fold higher choline levels and >5-fold higher phosphocholine levels than others. Chloroquine-resistant strains showed elevated levels of a number of amino acids relative to chloroquine-sensitive strains, including an approximately 2-fold increase in aspartate levels. The elevation in amino acid levels was attributable to mutations in pfcrt. Pfcrt-linked differences in amino acid abundance were confirmed using alternate extraction and detection (HPLC) methods. Mutations acquired to withstand chloroquine exposure therefore give rise to significant biochemical alterations in the parasite. The metabolite profiles of red blood cells infected with different malaria parasite strains were compared. Amino acid profiles varied with the chloroquine resistance status of the strain, and this was linked specifically to mutations in the parasite's chloroquine resistance transporter.
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Sanchez CP, Liu CH, Mayer S, Nurhasanah A, Cyrklaff M, Mu J, Ferdig MT, Stein WD, Lanzer M. A HECT ubiquitin-protein ligase as a novel candidate gene for altered quinine and quinidine responses in Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS Genet 2014; 10:e1004382. [PMID: 24830312 PMCID: PMC4022464 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2013] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The emerging resistance to quinine jeopardizes the efficacy of a drug that has been used in the treatment of malaria for several centuries. To identify factors contributing to differential quinine responses in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, we have conducted comparative quantitative trait locus analyses on the susceptibility to quinine and also its stereoisomer quinidine, and on the initial and steady-state intracellular drug accumulation levels in the F1 progeny of a genetic cross. These data, together with genetic screens of field isolates and laboratory strains associated differential quinine and quinidine responses with mutated pfcrt, a segment on chromosome 13, and a novel candidate gene, termed MAL7P1.19 (encoding a HECT ubiquitin ligase). Despite a strong likelihood of association, episomal transfections demonstrated a role for the HECT ubiquitin-protein ligase in quinine and quinidine sensitivity in only a subset of genetic backgrounds, and here the changes in IC50 values were moderate (approximately 2-fold). These data show that quinine responsiveness is a complex genetic trait with multiple alleles playing a role and that more experiments are needed to unravel the role of the contributing factors. Quinine, a natural product from cinchona bark, has been used in the treatment of malaria for centuries. Unfortunately, a progressive loss in responsiveness of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum to quinine has been observed, particularly in Southeast Asia, where cases of quinine treatment failure regularly occur. To better understand how P. falciparum defends itself against the cytotoxic activity of quinine, we have conducted comparative linkage analyses in the F1 progeny of a genetic cross where we assessed the susceptibility and the amount of intracellular accumulation of quinine and of its stereoisomer quinidine. These data identified a novel candidate gene encoding a HECT ubiquitin-protein ligase that might contribute to altered quinine responsiveness. The identification of this novel gene might improve the surveillance of quinine-resistant malaria parasites in the field and aid the preservation of this valuable antimalarial drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia P. Sanchez
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Chia-Hao Liu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sybille Mayer
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Astutiati Nurhasanah
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Laboratory for the Development of Agroindustrial and Biomedical Technology (LAPTIAB), Tangerang Selatan, Indonesia
| | - Marek Cyrklaff
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jianbing Mu
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Michael T. Ferdig
- The Eck Institute for Global Health, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Wilfred D. Stein
- Biological Chemistry, Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Michael Lanzer
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Hrycyna CA, Summers RL, Lehane AM, Pires MM, Namanja H, Bohn K, Kuriakose J, Ferdig M, Henrich PP, Fidock DA, Kirk K, Chmielewski J, Martin RE. Quinine dimers are potent inhibitors of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter and are active against quinoline-resistant P. falciparum. ACS Chem Biol 2014; 9:722-30. [PMID: 24369685 DOI: 10.1021/cb4008953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Chloroquine (CQ) resistance in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is primarily conferred by mutations in the "chloroquine resistance transporter" (PfCRT). The resistance-conferring form of PfCRT (PfCRT(CQR)) mediates CQ resistance by effluxing the drug from the parasite's digestive vacuole, the acidic compartment in which CQ exerts its antiplasmodial effect. PfCRT(CQR) can also decrease the parasite's susceptibility to other quinoline drugs, including the current antimalarials quinine and amodiaquine. Here we describe interactions between PfCRT(CQR) and a series of dimeric quinine molecules using a Xenopus laevis oocyte system for the heterologous expression of PfCRT and using an assay that detects the drug-associated efflux of H(+) ions from the digestive vacuole in parasites that harbor different forms of PfCRT. The antiplasmodial activities of dimers 1 and 6 were also examined in vitro (against drug-sensitive and drug-resistant strains of P. falciparum) and in vivo (against drug-sensitive P. berghei). Our data reveal that the quinine dimers are the most potent inhibitors of PfCRT(CQR) reported to date. Furthermore, the lead compounds (1 and 6) were not effluxed by PfCRT(CQR) from the digestive vacuole but instead accumulated to very high levels within this organelle. Both 1 and 6 exhibited in vitro antiplasmodial activities that were inversely correlated with CQ. Moreover, the additional parasiticidal effect exerted by 1 and 6 in the drug-resistant parasites was attributable, at least in part, to their ability to inhibit PfCRT(CQR). This highlights the potential for devising new antimalarial therapies that exploit inherent weaknesses in a key resistance mechanism of P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine A. Hrycyna
- Department
of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Robert L. Summers
- Research
School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
| | - Adele M. Lehane
- Research
School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
| | - Marcos M. Pires
- Department
of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Hilda Namanja
- Department
of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Kelsey Bohn
- Department
of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jerrin Kuriakose
- Department
of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Michael Ferdig
- Department
of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Philipp P. Henrich
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - David A. Fidock
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
- Division
of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Kiaran Kirk
- Research
School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
| | - Jean Chmielewski
- Department
of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Rowena E. Martin
- Research
School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia
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13
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Abstract
As it grows and replicates within the erythrocytes of its host the malaria parasite takes up nutrients from the extracellular medium, exports metabolites and maintains a tight control over its internal ionic composition. These functions are achieved via membrane transport proteins, integral membrane proteins that mediate the passage of solutes across the various membranes that separate the biochemical machinery of the parasite from the extracellular environment. Proteins of this type play a key role in antimalarial drug resistance, as well as being candidate drug targets in their own right. This review provides an overview of recent work on the membrane transport biology of the malaria parasite-infected erythrocyte, encompassing both the parasite-induced changes in the membrane transport properties of the host erythrocyte and the cell physiology of the intracellular parasite itself.
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14
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Summers RL, Nash MN, Martin RE. Know your enemy: understanding the role of PfCRT in drug resistance could lead to new antimalarial tactics. Cell Mol Life Sci 2012; 69:1967-95. [PMID: 22286067 PMCID: PMC11115045 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-011-0906-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Revised: 11/22/2011] [Accepted: 12/06/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
The prevention and treatment of malaria is heavily dependent on antimalarial drugs. However, beginning with the emergence of chloroquine (CQ)-resistant Plasmodium falciparum parasites 50 years ago, efforts to control the disease have been thwarted by failed or failing drugs. Mutations in the parasite's 'chloroquine resistance transporter' (PfCRT) are the primary cause of CQ resistance. Furthermore, changes in PfCRT (and in several other transport proteins) are associated with decreases or increases in the parasite's susceptibility to a number of other antimalarial drugs. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of CQ resistance and discuss these in the broader context of the parasite's susceptibilities to other quinolines and related drugs. We suggest that PfCRT can be viewed both as a 'multidrug-resistance carrier' and as a drug target, and that the quinoline-resistance mechanism is a potential 'Achilles' heel' of the parasite. We examine a number of the antimalarial strategies currently undergoing development that are designed to exploit the resistance mechanism, including relatively simple measures, such as alternative CQ dosages, as well as new drugs that either circumvent the resistance mechanism or target it directly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert L. Summers
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia
| | - Megan N. Nash
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia
| | - Rowena E. Martin
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia
- School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
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15
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de Villiers KA, Gildenhuys J, le Roex T. Iron(III) protoporphyrin IX complexes of the antimalarial Cinchona alkaloids quinine and quinidine. ACS Chem Biol 2012; 7:666-71. [PMID: 22276975 DOI: 10.1021/cb200528z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The antimalarial properties of the Cinchona alkaloids quinine and quinidine have been known for decades. Surprisingly, 9-epiquinine and 9-epiquinidine are almost inactive. A lack of definitive structural information has precluded a clear understanding of the relationship between molecular structure and biological activity. In the current study, we have determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction the structures of the complexes formed between quinine and quinidine and iron(III) protoporphyrin IX (Fe(III)PPIX). Coordination of the alkaloid to the Fe(III) center is a key feature of both complexes, and further stability is provided by an intramolecular hydrogen bond formed between a propionate side chain of Fe(III)PPIX and the protonated quinuclidine nitrogen atom of either alkaloid. These interactions are believed to be responsible for inhibiting the incorporation of Fe(III)PPIX into crystalline hemozoin during its in vivo detoxification. It is also possible to rationalize the greater activity of quinidine compared to that of quinine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A. de Villiers
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch
7602, South Africa
| | - Johandie Gildenhuys
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch
7602, South Africa
| | - Tanya le Roex
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch
7602, South Africa
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16
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Dos Santos SC, Teixeira MC, Cabrito TR, Sá-Correia I. Yeast toxicogenomics: genome-wide responses to chemical stresses with impact in environmental health, pharmacology, and biotechnology. Front Genet 2012; 3:63. [PMID: 22529852 PMCID: PMC3329712 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2012.00063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The emerging transdisciplinary field of Toxicogenomics aims to study the cell response to a given toxicant at the genome, transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome levels. This approach is expected to provide earlier and more sensitive biomarkers of toxicological responses and help in the delineation of regulatory risk assessment. The use of model organisms to gather such genomic information, through the exploitation of Omics and Bioinformatics approaches and tools, together with more focused molecular and cellular biology studies are rapidly increasing our understanding and providing an integrative view on how cells interact with their environment. The use of the model eukaryote Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the field of Toxicogenomics is discussed in this review. Despite the limitations intrinsic to the use of such a simple single cell experimental model, S. cerevisiae appears to be very useful as a first screening tool, limiting the use of animal models. Moreover, it is also one of the most interesting systems to obtain a truly global understanding of the toxicological response and resistance mechanisms, being in the frontline of systems biology research and developments. The impact of the knowledge gathered in the yeast model, through the use of Toxicogenomics approaches, is highlighted here by its use in prediction of toxicological outcomes of exposure to pesticides and pharmaceutical drugs, but also by its impact in biotechnology, namely in the development of more robust crops and in the improvement of yeast strains as cell factories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra C Dos Santos
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre for Biological and Chemical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Technical University of Lisbon Lisbon, Portugal
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17
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Sanchez CP, Mayer S, Nurhasanah A, Stein WD, Lanzer M. Genetic linkage analyses redefine the roles of PfCRT and PfMDR1 in drug accumulation and susceptibility in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol 2011; 82:865-78. [PMID: 21999470 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2011.07855.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to quinoline antimalarial drugs has emerged in different parts of the world and involves sets of discrete mutational changes in pfcrt and pfmdr1 in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. To better understand how the different polymorphic haplotypes of pfmdr1 and pfcrt contribute to drug resistance, we have conducted a linkage analysis in the F1 progeny of a genetic cross where we assess both the susceptibility and the amount of accumulation of chloroquine, amodiaquine, quinine and quinidine. Our data show that the different pfcrt and pfmdr1 haplotypes confer drug-specific responses which, depending on the drug, may affect drug accumulation or susceptibility or both. These findings suggest that PfCRT and PfMDR1 are carriers of antimalarial drugs, but that the interaction with a drug interferes with the carriers' natural transport function such that they are now themselves targets of these drugs. How well a mutant PfCRT and PfMDR1 type copes with its competing transport functions is determined by its specific sets of amino acid substitutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia P Sanchez
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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18
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Dos Santos SC, Sá-Correia I. A genome-wide screen identifies yeast genes required for protection against or enhanced cytotoxicity of the antimalarial drug quinine. Mol Genet Genomics 2011; 286:333-46. [PMID: 21960436 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-011-0649-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Quinine is used in the treatment of Plasmodium falciparum severe malaria. However, both the drug's mode of action and mechanisms of resistance are still poorly understood and subject to debate. In an effort to clarify these questions, we used the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model for pharmacological studies with quinine. Following on a previous work that examined the yeast genomic expression program in response to quinine, we now explore a genome-wide screen for altered susceptibility to quinine using the EUROSCARF collection of yeast deletion strains. We identified 279 quinine-susceptible strains, among which 112 conferred a hyper-susceptibility phenotype. The expression of these genes, mainly involved in carbohydrate metabolism, iron uptake and ion homeostasis functions, is required for quinine resistance in yeast. Sixty-two genes whose deletion leads to increased quinine resistance were also identified in this screen, including several genes encoding ribosome protein subunits. These well-known potential drug targets in Plasmodium are associated with quinine action for the first time in this study. The suggested involvement of phosphate signaling and transport in quinine tolerance was also studied, and activation of phosphate starvation-responsive genes was observed under a mild-induced quinine stress. Finally, P. falciparum homology searches were performed for a selected group of 41 genes. Thirty-two encoded proteins possess homologs in the parasite, including subunits of a parasitic vacuolar H(+)-ATPase complex, ion and phosphate importers, and several ribosome protein subunits, suggesting that the results obtained in yeast are good candidates to be transposed and explored in a P. falciparum context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra C Dos Santos
- IBB - Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre for Biological and Chemical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001, Lisbon, Portugal
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19
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Alumasa JN, Gorka AP, Casabianca LB, Comstock E, de Dios AC, Roepe PD. The hydroxyl functionality and a rigid proximal N are required for forming a novel non-covalent quinine-heme complex. J Inorg Biochem 2011; 105:467-75. [PMID: 20864177 PMCID: PMC3010338 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2010.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2010] [Revised: 08/17/2010] [Accepted: 08/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Quinoline antimalarial drugs bind both monomeric and dimeric forms of free heme, with distinct preferences depending on the chemical environment. Under biological conditions, chloroquine (CQ) appears to prefer to bind to μ-oxo dimeric heme, while quinine (QN) preferentially binds monomer. To further explore this important distinction, we study three newly synthesized and several commercially available QN analogues lacking various functional groups. We find that removal of the QN hydroxyl lowers heme affinity, hemozoin (Hz) inhibition efficiency, and antiplasmodial activity. Elimination of the rigid quinuclidyl ring has similar effects, but elimination of either the vinyl or methoxy group does not. Replacing the quinuclidyl N with a less rigid tertiary aliphatic N only partially restores activity. To further study these trends, we probe drug-heme interactions via NMR studies with both Fe and Zn protoporphyrin IX (FPIX, ZnPIX) for QN, dehydroxyQN (DHQN), dequinuclidylQN (DQQN), and deamino-dequinuclidylQN (DADQQN). Magnetic susceptibility measurements in the presence of FPIX demonstrate that these compounds differentially perturb FPIX monomer-dimer equilibrium. We also isolate the QN-FPIX complex formed under mild aqueous conditions and analyze it by mass spectrometry, as well as fluorescence, vibrational, and solid-state NMR spectroscopies. The data elucidate key features of QN pharmacology and allow us to propose a refined model for the preferred binding of QN to monomeric FPIX under biologically relevant conditions. With this model in hand, we also propose how QN, CQ, and amodiaquine (AQ) differ in their ability to inhibit Hz formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- John N. Alumasa
- Department of Chemistry, Georgetown University, 37 and O Streets, NW Washington, D.C. 20057
| | - Alexander P. Gorka
- Department of Chemistry, Georgetown University, 37 and O Streets, NW Washington, D.C. 20057
| | | | | | - Angel C. de Dios
- Department of Chemistry, Georgetown University, 37 and O Streets, NW Washington, D.C. 20057
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Georgetown University, 37 and O Streets, NW Washington, D.C. 20057
| | - Paul D. Roepe
- Department of Chemistry, Georgetown University, 37 and O Streets, NW Washington, D.C. 20057
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology & Cellular Biology, Georgetown University, 37 and O Streets, NW Washington, D.C. 20057
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Georgetown University, 37 and O Streets, NW Washington, D.C. 20057
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20
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Müller IB, Hyde JE. Antimalarial drugs: modes of action and mechanisms of parasite resistance. Future Microbiol 2010; 5:1857-73. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb.10.136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria represents one of the most serious threats to human health worldwide, and preventing and curing this parasitic disease still depends predominantly on the administration of a small number of drugs whose efficacy is continually threatened and eroded by the emergence of drug-resistant parasite populations. This has an enormous impact on the mortality and morbidity resulting from malaria infection, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where the lethal human parasite species Plasmodium falciparum accounts for approximately 90% of deaths recorded globally. Successful treatment of uncomplicated malaria is now highly dependent on artemisinin-based combination therapies. However, the first cases of artemisinin-resistant field isolates have been reported recently and potential replacement antimalarials are only in the developmental stages. Here, we summarize recent progress in tackling the problem of parasite resistance and discuss the underlying molecular mechanisms that confer resistance to current antimalarial agents as far as they are known, understanding of which should assist in the rational development of new drugs and the more effective deployment of older ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid B Müller
- Department of Biochemistry, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - John E Hyde
- Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK
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21
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Lehane AM, Kirk K. Efflux of a range of antimalarial drugs and 'chloroquine resistance reversers' from the digestive vacuole in malaria parasites with mutant PfCRT. Mol Microbiol 2010; 77:1039-51. [PMID: 20598081 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07272.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Chloroquine-resistant malaria parasites (Plasmodium falciparum) show an increased leak of H(+) ions from their internal digestive vacuole in the presence of chloroquine. This phenomenon has been attributed to the transport of chloroquine, together with H(+), out of the digestive vacuole (and hence away from its site of action) via a mutant form of the parasite's chloroquine resistance transporter (PfCRT). Here, using transfectant parasite lines, we show that a range of other antimalarial drugs, as well as various 'chloroquine resistance reversers' induce an increased leak of H(+) from the digestive vacuole of parasites expressing mutant PfCRT, consistent with these compounds being substrates for mutant forms, but not the wild-type form, of PfCRT. For some compounds there were significant differences observed between parasites having the African/Asian Dd2 form of PfCRT and those with the South American 7G8 form of PfCRT, consistent with there being differences in the transport properties of the two mutant proteins. The finding that chloroquine resistance reversers are substrates for mutant PfCRT has implications for the mechanism of action of this class of compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adele M Lehane
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Kiaran Kirk
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
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22
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Sanchez CP, Dave A, Stein WD, Lanzer M. Transporters as mediators of drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Int J Parasitol 2010; 40:1109-18. [PMID: 20399785 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2010.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2010] [Revised: 04/06/2010] [Accepted: 04/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Drug resistance represents a major obstacle in the radical control of malaria. Drug resistance can arise in many different ways, but recent developments highlight the importance of mutations in transporter molecules as being major contributors to drug resistance in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. While approximately 2.5% of the P. falciparum genome encodes membrane transporters, this review concentrates on three transporters, namely the chloroquine resistance transporter PfCRT, the multi-drug resistance transporter 1 PfMDR1, and the multi-drug resistance-associated protein PfMRP, which have been strongly associated with resistance to the major antimalarial drugs. The studies that identified these entities as contributors to resistance, and the possible molecular mechanisms that can bring about this phenotype, are discussed. A deep understanding of the underpinning mechanisms, and of the structural specificities of the players themselves, is a necessary basis for the development of the new drugs that will be needed for the future armamentarium against malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia P Sanchez
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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23
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dos Santos SC, Tenreiro S, Palma M, Becker J, Sá-Correia I. Transcriptomic profiling of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae response to quinine reveals a glucose limitation response attributable to drug-induced inhibition of glucose uptake. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53:5213-23. [PMID: 19805573 PMCID: PMC2786357 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00794-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2009] [Revised: 09/02/2009] [Accepted: 09/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Quinine has been employed in the treatment of malaria for centuries and is still used against severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria. However, its interactions with the parasite remain poorly understood and subject to debate. In this study, we used the Saccharomyces cerevisiae eukaryotic model to better understand quinine's mode of action and the mechanisms underlying the cell response to the drug. We obtained a transcriptomic profile of the yeast's early response to quinine, evidencing a marked activation of genes involved in the low-glucose response (e.g., CAT8, ADR1, MAL33, MTH1, and SNF3). We used a low inhibitory quinine concentration with no detectable effect on plasma membrane function, consistent with the absence of a general nutrient starvation response and suggesting that quinine-induced glucose limitation is a specific response. We have further shown that transport of [(14)C]glucose is inhibited by quinine, with kinetic data indicating competitive inhibition. Also, tested mutant strains deleted for genes encoding high- and low-affinity hexose transporters (HXT1 to HXT5, HXT8, and HXT10) exhibit resistance phenotypes, correlating with reduced levels of quinine accumulation in the mutants examined. These results suggest that the hexose transporters are facilitators of quinine uptake in S. cerevisiae, possibly through a competitive inhibition mechanism. Interestingly, P. falciparum is highly dependent on glucose uptake, which is mediated by the single-copy transporter PfHT1, a protein with high homology to yeast's hexose transporters. We propose that PfHT1 is an interesting candidate quinine target possibly involved in quinine import in P. falciparum, an uptake mechanism postulated in recent studies to occur through a still-unidentified importer(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra C. dos Santos
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering (IBB), Centre for Biological and Chemical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal, Affymetrix Core Facility, Instituto Gulbenkian Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Sandra Tenreiro
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering (IBB), Centre for Biological and Chemical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal, Affymetrix Core Facility, Instituto Gulbenkian Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Margarida Palma
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering (IBB), Centre for Biological and Chemical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal, Affymetrix Core Facility, Instituto Gulbenkian Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Jorg Becker
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering (IBB), Centre for Biological and Chemical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal, Affymetrix Core Facility, Instituto Gulbenkian Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Isabel Sá-Correia
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering (IBB), Centre for Biological and Chemical Engineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal, Affymetrix Core Facility, Instituto Gulbenkian Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal
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24
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Virulence and drug resistance in malaria parasites. Trends Parasitol 2009; 25:441-3. [PMID: 19734096 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2009.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2009] [Revised: 06/08/2009] [Accepted: 07/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Virulence and drug resistance are traits that pathogens can acquire independently, albeit these traits can influence each other. A recent publication has reported on the co-evolution of virulence and pyrimethamine resistance in malaria parasites. Here, we discuss this finding in the context of the folate biosynthesis pathway and explain how mutational changes in this pathway can affect both parasite replication rates and the development of drug resistance.
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25
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Plasmodium falciparum Na+/H+ exchanger 1 transporter is involved in reduced susceptibility to quinine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53:1926-30. [PMID: 19273668 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01243-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymorphisms in the Plasmodium falciparum crt (Pfcrt), Pfmdr1, and Pfmrp genes were not significantly associated with quinine (QN) 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC(50)s) in 23 strains of Plasmodium falciparum. An increased number of DNNND repeats in Pfnhe-1 microsatellite ms4760 was associated with an increased IC(50) of QN (P = 0.0007). Strains with only one DNNND repeat were more susceptible to QN (mean IC(50) of 154 nM). Strains with two DNNND repeats had intermediate susceptibility to QN (mean IC(50) of 548 nM). Strains with three DNNND repeats had reduced susceptibility to QN (mean IC(50) of 764 nM). Increased numbers of NHNDNHNNDDD repeats were associated with a decreased IC(50) of QN (P = 0.0020). Strains with profile 7 for Pfnhe-1 ms4760 (ms4760-7) were significantly associated with reduced QN susceptibility (mean IC(50) of 764 nM). The determination of DNNND and NHNDNHNNDDD repeats in Pfnhe-1 ms4760 could be a good marker of QN resistance and provide an attractive surveillance method to monitor temporal trends in P. falciparum susceptibility to QN. The validity of the markers should be further supported by analyzing more isolates.
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26
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Abstract
The human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, has long been known to have a homologue of the human 'multidrug resistance' P-glycoprotein. P-glycoprotein is an ABC transporter that pumps drugs from multidrug-resistant cancer cells. The malaria parasite's P-glycoprotein homologue, Pgh1, is known to influence the sensitivity of malaria parasites to a diverse range of antimalarial drugs, but the mechanism by which it does so has remained obscure. In a new paper, Sanchez et al. report the successful functional expression of Pgh1 in Xenopus laevis oocytes and provide the first direct demonstration of the ability of Pgh1 to transport drugs. The work provides important new insights into the mechanism by which Pgh1 influences malaria parasite drug sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J Saliba
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.
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27
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Plasmodium falciparum: Growth response to potassium channel blocking compounds. Exp Parasitol 2008; 120:280-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2008.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2008] [Revised: 07/22/2008] [Accepted: 07/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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28
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Sanchez CP, Rotmann A, Stein WD, Lanzer M. Polymorphisms within PfMDR1 alter the substrate specificity for anti-malarial drugs in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol 2008; 70:786-98. [PMID: 18713316 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2008.06413.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to several anti-malarial drugs has been associated with polymorphisms within the P-glycoprotein homologue (Pgh-1, PfMDR1) of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Pgh-1, coded for by the gene pfmdr1, is predominately located at the membrane of the parasite's digestive vacuole. How polymorphisms within this transporter mediate alter anti-malarial drug responsiveness has remained obscure. Here we have functionally expressed pfmdr1 in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Our data demonstrate that Pgh-1 transports vinblastine, an established substrate of mammalian MDR1, and the anti-malarial drugs halofantrine, quinine and chloroquine. Importantly, polymorphisms within Pgh-1 alter the substrate specificity for the anti-malarial drugs. Wild-type Pgh-1 transports quinine and chloroquine, but not halofantrine, whereas polymorphic Pgh-1 variants, associated with altered drug responsivenesses, transport halofantrine but not quinine and chloroquine. Our data further suggest that quinine acts as an inhibitor of Pgh-1. Our data are discussed in terms of the model that Pgh-1-mediates, in a variant-specific manner, import of certain drugs into the P. falciparum digestive vacuole, and that this contributes to accumulation of, and susceptibility to, the drug in question.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia P Sanchez
- Hygiene Institut, Abteilung Parasitologie, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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