Human mast cell mediator cocktail excites neurons in human and guinea-pig enteric nervous system

From bite to brain: Neuro-immune interactions in food allergy

Immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated food allergies are reported to affect around 3.5% of children and 2.4% of adults, with symptoms varying in range and severity. While being the gold standard for diagnosis, oral food challenges are burdensome, and diagnostic tools based on specific IgE can be flawed. Furthering our understanding of the mechanisms behind food allergy onset, severity and persistence could help reveal immune profiles associated with the disease, to ultimately aid in diagnosis. Alterations to cytokine levels and immune cell ratios have been identified, though further research is needed to fully capture the heterogenous nature of food allergy. Moreover, the existence of such immune alterations also raises the question of potential wider systemic effects. For example, recent research has emphasised the existence and impact of neuro-immune interactions and implicated behavioural and neurological changes associated with food allergy. This review will provide an overview of such food allergy-driven neuro-immune interactions, with the aim of emphasising the importance of furthering our understanding of the immune mechanisms underlying IgE-mediated food allergy.

Biopsy samples from patients with irritable bowel syndrome, but not from those with mastocytosis or unspecific gastrointestinal complaints reveal unique nerve activation in all gut regions independent of mast cell density, histamine content or specific gastrointestinal symptoms

Introduction

We previously showed enteric nerve activation after application of colonic mucosal biopsy supernatants from patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The question remains whether this is a region-specific or a generalized sensitization. We tested the nerve-activating properties of supernatants from large and small intestinal regions of IBS patients with diarrhea (IBS-D) in comparison to those from mastocytosis patients with diarrhea (MC-D) or non-IBS/non-MC patients with GI-complaints. MC-D patients were included to test samples from patients with an established, severe mast cell disorder, because mast cells are suggested to play a role in IBS.

Methods

Voltage-sensitive dye imaging was used to record the effects of mucosal biopsy supernatants from IBS-D, MC-D, and non-IBS/non-MC on guinea pig submucous neurons. Mast cell density and histamine concentrations were measured in all samples.

Results

The median neuroindex (spike frequency × % responding neurons in Hz × %) was significantly (all p < 0.001) increased for IBS-D (duodenum and colon, proximal and distal each, 49.3; 50.5; 63.7; 71.9, respectively) compared to non-IBS/non-MC (duodenum and colon, proximal and distal each, 8.7; 4.9; 6.9; 5.4, respectively) or MC-D supernatants (duodenum and colon, proximal and distal each, 9.4; 11.9; 0.0; 7.9, respectively). Nerve activation by MC-D and non-IBS/non-MC supernatants was comparable (p>0.05). Mast cell density or histamine concentrations were not different between IBS-D, MC-D, and non-IBS/non-MC samples.

Discussion

Nerve activation by biopsy supernatants is an IBS hallmark that occurs throughout the gut, unrelated to mast cell density or histamine concentration. At least as important is our finding that GI complaints per se were not associated with biopsy supernatant-induced nerve activation, which further stresses the relevance of altered nerve behavior in IBS.

Understanding food allergy through neuroimmune interactions in the gastrointestinal tract

Food allergies are adverse immune reactions to food proteins in the absence of oral tolerance, and the incidence of allergies to food, including peanut, cow's milk, and shellfish, has been increasing globally. Although advancements have been made toward understanding the contributions of the type 2 immune response to allergic sensitization, crosstalk between these immune cells and neurons of the enteric nervous system is an area of emerging interest in the pathophysiology of food allergy, given the close proximity of neuronal cells of the enteric nervous system and type 2 effector cells, including eosinophils and mast cells. At mucosal sites, such as the gastrointestinal tract, neuroimmune interactions contribute to the sensing and response to danger signals from the epithelial barrier. This communication is bidirectional, as immune cells express receptors for neuropeptides and transmitters, and neurons express cytokine receptors, allowing for the detection of and response to inflammatory insults. In addition, it seems that neuromodulation of immune cells including mast cells, eosinophils, and innate lymphoid cells is critical for amplification of the type 2 allergic immune response. As such, neuroimmune interactions may be critical targets for future food allergy therapies. This review evaluates the contributions of local enteric neuroimmune interactions to the underlying immune response in food allergy and discusses considerations for future investigations into targeting neuroimmune pathways for treatment of food allergies.

The enteric nervous system

Of all the organ systems in the body, the gastrointestinal tract is the most complicated in terms of the numbers of structures involved, each with different functions, and the numbers and types of signaling molecules utilized. The digestion of food and absorption of nutrients, electrolytes, and water occurs in a hostile luminal environment that contains a large and diverse microbiota. At the core of regulatory control of the digestive and defensive functions of the gastrointestinal tract is the enteric nervous system (ENS), a complex system of neurons and glia in the gut wall. In this review, we discuss 1) the intrinsic neural control of gut functions involved in digestion and 2) how the ENS interacts with the immune system, gut microbiota, and epithelium to maintain mucosal defense and barrier function. We highlight developments that have revolutionized our understanding of the physiology and pathophysiology of enteric neural control. These include a new understanding of the molecular architecture of the ENS, the organization and function of enteric motor circuits, and the roles of enteric glia. We explore the transduction of luminal stimuli by enteroendocrine cells, the regulation of intestinal barrier function by enteric neurons and glia, local immune control by the ENS, and the role of the gut microbiota in regulating the structure and function of the ENS. Multifunctional enteric neurons work together with enteric glial cells, macrophages, interstitial cells, and enteroendocrine cells integrating an array of signals to initiate outputs that are precisely regulated in space and time to control digestion and intestinal homeostasis.

Advanced Glycation End-Products and Their Effects on Gut Health

Dietary advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are a heterogeneous group of compounds formed when reducing sugars are heated with proteins, amino acids, or lipids at high temperatures for a prolonged period. The presence and accumulation of AGEs in numerous cell types and tissues are known to be prevalent in the pathology of many diseases. Modern diets, which contain a high proportion of processed foods and therefore a high level of AGE, cause deleterious effects leading to a multitude of unregulated intracellular and extracellular signalling and inflammatory pathways. Currently, many studies focus on investigating the chemical and structural aspects of AGEs and how they affect the metabolism and the cardiovascular and renal systems. Studies have also shown that AGEs affect the digestive system. However, there is no complete picture of the implication of AGEs in this area. The gastrointestinal tract is not only the first and principal site for the digestion and absorption of dietary AGEs but also one of the most susceptible organs to AGEs, which may exert many local and systemic effects. In this review, we summarise the current evidence of the association between a high-AGE diet and poor health outcomes, with a special focus on the relationship between dietary AGEs and alterations in the gastrointestinal structure, modifications in enteric neurons, and microbiota reshaping.

Integrative transcriptomic analysis in human and mouse model of anaphylaxis identifies gene signatures associated with cell movement, migration and neuroinflammatory signalling

Background

Anaphylaxis is an acute life-threatening allergic reaction and a concern at a global level; therefore, further progress in understanding the underlying mechanisms and more effective strategies for diagnosis, prevention and management are needed.

Objective

We sought to identify the global architecture of blood transcriptomic features of anaphylaxis by integrating expression data from human patients and mouse model of anaphylaxis.

Methods

Bulk RNA-sequencings of peripheral whole blood were performed in: i) 14 emergency department (ED) patients with acute anaphylaxis, predominantly to Hymenoptera venom, ii) 11 patients with peanut allergy undergoing double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge (DBPCFC) to peanut, iii) murine model of IgE-mediated anaphylaxis. Integrative characterisation of differential gene expression, immune cell-type-specific gene expression profiles, and functional and pathway analysis was undertaken.

Results

1023 genes were commonly and significantly dysregulated during anaphylaxis in ED and DBPCFC patients; of those genes, 29 were also dysregulated in the mouse model. Cell-type-specific gene expression profiles showed a rapid downregulation of blood basophil and upregulation of neutrophil signature in ED and DBPCFC patients and the mouse model, but no consistent and/or significant differences were found for other blood cells. Functional and pathway analysis demonstrated that human and mouse blood transcriptomic signatures of anaphylaxis follow trajectories of upregulation of cell movement, migration and neuroinflammatory signalling, and downregulation of lipid activating nuclear receptors signalling.

Conclusion

Our study highlights the matched and extensive blood transcriptomic changes and suggests the involvement of discrete cellular components and upregulation of migration and neuroinflammatory pathways during anaphylaxis.

Further Understanding of Neuro-Immune Interactions in Allergy: Implications in Pathophysiology and Role in Disease Progression

The complicated interaction between the central and the autonomic (sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric) nervous systems on the one hand and the immune system and its components, on the other hand, seems to substantially contribute to allergy pathophysiology, uncovering an under-recognized association that could have diagnostic and therapeutic potentials. Neurons connect directly with and regulate the function of many immune cells, including mast cells, the cells that have a leading role in allergic disorders. Proinflammatory mediators such as cytokines, neurotrophins, chemokines, and neuropeptides are released by immune cells, which stimulate sensory neurons. The release of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides caused by the activation of these neurons directly impacts the functional activity of immune cells and vice versa, playing a decisive role in this communication. Successful application of Pavlovian conditioning in allergic disorders supports the existence of a psychoneuroimmunological interplay in classical allergic hypersensitivity reactions. Activation of neuronal homeostatic reflexes, like sneezing in allergic rhinitis, coughing in allergic asthma, and vomiting in food allergy, offers additional evidence of a neuroimmunological interaction that aims to maintain homeostasis. Dysregulation of this interaction may cause overstimulation of the immune system that will produce profound symptoms and exaggerated hemodynamic responses that will lead to severe allergic pathophysiological events, including anaphylaxis. In this article, we have systematically reviewed and discussed the evidence regarding the role of the neuro-immune interactions in common allergic clinical modalities like allergic rhinitis, chronic rhinosinusitis, allergic asthma, food allergy, atopic dermatitis, and urticaria. It is essential to understand unknown – to most of the immunology and allergy experts – neurological networks that not only physiologically cooperate with the immune system to regulate homeostasis but also pathogenetically interact with more or less known immunological pathways, contribute to what is known as neuroimmunological inflammation, and shift homeostasis to instability and disease clinical expression. This understanding will provide recognition of new allergic phenotypes/endotypes and directions to focus on specialized treatments, as the era of personalized patient-centered medicine, is hastening apace.

Neuro-immune crosstalk and food allergy: Focus on enteric neurons and mucosal mast cells

The nervous system and the immune system individually play important roles in regulating the processes necessary to maintain physiological homeostasis, respond to acute stress and protect against external threats. These two regulating systems for maintaining the living body had often been assumed to function independently. Allergies develop as a result of an overreaction of the immune system to substances that are relatively harmless to the body, such as food, pollen and dust mites. Therefore, it has been generally supposed that the development and pathogenesis of allergies can be explained through an immunological interpretation. Recently, however, neuro-immune crosstalk has attracted increasing attention. Consequently, it is becoming clear that there is close morphological proximity and physiological and pathophysiological interactions between neurons and immune cells in various peripheral tissues. Thus, researchers are now beginning to appreciate that neuro-immune interactions may play a role in tissue homeostasis and the pathophysiology of immune-mediated disease, but very little information is available on the molecular basis of these interactions. Mast cells are a part of the innate immune system implicated in allergic reactions and the regulation of host-pathogen interactions. Mast cells are ubiquitous in the body, and these cells are often found in close proximity to nerve fibers in various tissues, including the lamina propria of the intestine. Mast cells and neurons are thought to communicate bidirectionally to modulate neurophysiological effects and mast cell functions, which suggests that neuro-immune interactions may be involved in the pathology of allergic diseases.

CNS-Sparing Histamine H3 Receptor Antagonist as a Candidate to Prevent the Diabetes-Associated Gastrointestinal Symptoms

Among the histamine receptors, growing evidence points to the histamine H₃ receptor as a pharmacological candidate to counteract the autonomic neuropathy associated with diabetes. The study aimed to evaluate the effect of PF00868087 (also known as ZPL-868), a CNS-sparing histamine H₃ receptor antagonist, on the autonomic neuropathy of the intestinal tract associated with diabetes. Diabetes was induced in male BALB/c mice by a single high dose of streptozotocin (150 mg/kg). Colorectal specimens from control and diabetic mice, randomized to vehicle or PF0086087 (10, 30, 100 mg/kg/day by oral gavage for 14 days), were processed for morphological and immunohistochemical analysis. A significant overproduction of mucus in the intestinal mucosa of diabetic mice compared to the controls was observed. PF0086087 at the highest dose prevented mucin overproduction. The immunohistochemistry analysis demonstrated that diabetes causes a decrease in the inhibitory component of enteric motility, measured as the percentage of neuronal nitric oxide synthase-positive neurons (p < 0.05) and a parallel increase in the excitatory component evaluated as substance P-positive fibres (p < 0.01). PF0086087 dose-dependently prevented these pathophysiological events. In conclusion, PF0086087 may be an essential tool in preventing nitrergic dysfunction in the myenteric plexus of the distal colon and diabetes-induced gastrointestinal complications.

A Survey of Methodologies for Assessing Mast Cell Density and Activation in Patients with Functional Abdominal Pain Disorders

The aim was to assess methods utilized in assessing mast cell involvement in functional abdominal pain disorders (FAPDs), specifically to describe variability in methods utilized to assess both mast cell density and activation and determine if a consensus exists. After a literature search identified 70 manuscripts assessing mast cell density, data were extracted including FAPD diagnosis, site of biopsy, selection of microscopic fields analyzed, selection of mucosal region analyzed, method of mast cell identification, method to assess mast cell density, and if performed, method to assess mast cell activation. There appears to be some consensus favoring inmmunohistochemical stains over histochemical stains for identifying mast cells. Otherwise, considerable variability exists in methodology for assessing mast cell density and activation. Regardless of method, approximately 80% of studies found increased mast cell density and/or activation in comparison to controls with no method being superior. A wide variety of methods have been employed to assess mast cell density and activation with no well-established consensus and inadequate data to recommend specific approaches. The current methodology providing physiologic information needs to be translated to a standard methodology providing clinical information with the development of criteria establishing abnormal density and/or activation, and more importantly, predicting treatment response.

Targeting Enteric Neurons and Plexitis for the Management of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD) are pathological conditions with an unknown aetiology that are characterised by severe inflammation of the intestinal tract and collectively referred to as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Current treatments are mostly ineffective due to their limited efficacy or toxicity, necessitating surgical resection of the affected bowel. The management of IBD is hindered by a lack of prognostic markers for clinical inflammatory relapse. Intestinal inflammation associates with the infiltration of immune cells (leukocytes) into, or surrounding the neuronal ganglia of the enteric nervous system (ENS) termed plexitis or ganglionitis. Histological observation of plexitis in unaffected intestinal regions is emerging as a vital predictive marker for IBD relapses. Plexitis associates with alterations to the structure, cellular composition, molecular expression and electrophysiological function of enteric neurons. Moreover, plexitis often occurs before the onset of gross clinical inflammation, which may indicate that plexitis can contribute to the progression of intestinal inflammation. In this review, the bilateral relationships between the ENS and inflammation are discussed. These include the effects and mechanisms of inflammation-induced enteric neuronal loss and plasticity. Additionally, the role of enteric neurons in preventing antigenic/pathogenic insult and immunomodulation is explored. While all current treatments target the inflammatory pathology of IBD, interventions that protect the ENS may offer an alternative avenue for therapeutic intervention.

Regulation of the gut barrier by carbohydrates from diet - Underlying mechanisms and possible clinical implications

The gut barrier has been recognized as being of relevance in the pathogenesis of multiple different diseases ranging from inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory joint disease, fatty liver disease, and cardiometabolic disorders. The regulation of the gut barrier is, however, poorly understood. Especially, the role of food components such as sugars and complex carbohydrates has been discussed controversially in this respect. More recently, the intestinal microbiota has been proposed as an important regulator of the gut barrier. Whether the microbiota affects the barrier by its own, or whether food components such as carbohydrates mediate their effects through alterations of the microbiota composition or its metabolites, is still not clear. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge on this topic derived from both animal and human studies and discuss data for possible clinical impact.

Functional circuits and signal processing in the enteric nervous system

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is an extensive network comprising millions of neurons and glial cells contained within the wall of the gastrointestinal tract. The major functions of the ENS that have been most studied include the regulation of local gut motility, secretion, and blood flow. Other areas that have been gaining increased attention include its interaction with the immune system, with the gut microbiota and its involvement in the gut-brain axis, and neuro-epithelial interactions. Thus, the enteric circuitry plays a central role in intestinal homeostasis, and this becomes particularly evident when there are faults in its wiring such as in neurodevelopmental or neurodegenerative disorders. In this review, we first focus on the current knowledge on the cellular composition of enteric circuits. We then further discuss how enteric circuits detect and process external information, how these signals may be modulated by physiological and pathophysiological factors, and finally, how outputs are generated for integrated gut function.

Interactions between rat submucosal neurons and mast cells are modified by cytokines and neurotransmitters

The role of mast cells during inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) is discussed controversially. Whereas several studies report an increase in mast cell density during IBD, others found a decrease. Recently, we observed a reduced response to mast cell degranulation induced by antigen contact in a colitis model. As the effects of mast cell mediators on epithelial ion transport are mediated indirectly via stimulation of secretomotor neurons, we investigated in vitro whether proinflammatory cytokines change the response to mast cell degranulation. Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and a mix of proinflammatory cytokines caused an increase of short-circuit current (I_sc) and tissue conductance in rat colon. Anion secretion induced by histamine was downregulated in the presence of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and the cytokine mix, whereas the response to the mast cell stimulator compound 48/80 was not changed significantly. In a coculture of rat submucosal ganglionic cells with a mast cell line (RBL-2H3), TNFα preincubation for 1 d increased the percentage of neurons responding to mast cell degranulation with an increase of the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration and enhanced the amplitude of this response. Consequently, the downregulation of epithelial secretion is compensated by an increased sensitivity of secretomotor neurons leading to a constant response of the epithelium to compound 48/80. Furthermore, enteric neurons can modify mast cell functions as nicotine inhibited the increase in cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration of RBL-2H3 cells and the I_sc evoked by compound 48/80. Consequently, these in vitro models deliver new insights into cellular interactions in the gut wall under inflammatory conditions.

Imaging of mast cells

Mast cells are a part of the innate immune system implicated in allergic reactions and the regulation of host-pathogen interactions. The distribution, morphology and biochemical composition of mast cells has been studied in detail in vitro and on tissue sections both at the light microscopic and ultrastructural level. More recently, the development of fluorescent reporter strains and intravital imaging modalities has enabled first glimpses of the real-time behavior of mast cells in situ. In this review, we describe commonly used imaging approaches to study mast cells in cell culture as well as within normal and diseased tissues. We further describe the interrogation of mast cell function via imaging by providing a detailed description of mast cell-nerve plexus interactions in the intestinal tract. Together, visualizing mast cells has expanded our view of these cells in health and disease.

Sustained pain hypersensitivity in the stressed colon: Role of mast cell-derived nerve growth factor-mediated enteric synaptic plasticity

BACKGROUND

Sustained pain hypersensitivity is the hallmark of stressed colon which could be partially explained by central sensitization with synaptic plasticity, the key mechanism of memory. We previously identified that synaptic plasticity of enteric nerve system (ENS) contributed to peripheral pain maintaining in the gut. However, the mechanisms of enteric "memory" formation remain elusive.

METHODS

In this study, rats were exposed to water avoidance stress (WAS) or sham stress (SS), with cromolyn sodium or physiological saline injected intraperitoneally 30 minutes before stress every day. The abdominal withdrawal reflex scores, mesenteric afferent nerve activity, enteric neural c-fos expression, and enteric synaptic plasticity were assessed, and mast cell infiltration and degranulation. Furthermore, colonic mucosal mediators-induced enteric synaptic plasticity and the role of mast cell-derived nerve growth factor (NGF), tryptase, and histamine were investigated via ex vivo longitudinal muscle-myenteric plexus (LMMP) organotypic culture.

KEY RESULTS

It is shown that mast cell stabilizing inhibited WAS-induced visceral hypersensitivity through enhancing visceral pain threshold, decreasing spontaneous and distention-induced mesenteric afferent firing, and downregulating enteric neural activation (c-fos). Importantly, WAS led to evident enteric synaptic plasticity, but decreased by cromolyn. Water avoidance stress-derived mucosal supernatants markedly enhanced the c-fos expression and enteric synaptic plasticity in LMMP tissues, which could be eliminated by mast cell inhibition or NGF neutralization, but not tryptase or histamine blocking.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

In conclusion, mast cells/NGF pathway may be the key regulator of synaptic plasticity of ENS and participate in the formation of chronic stress-induced sustained visceral hypersensitivity.

Neuro-immune interactions in allergic diseases: novel targets for therapeutics

Recent studies have highlighted an emerging role for neuro-immune interactions in mediating allergic diseases. Allergies are caused by an overactive immune response to a foreign antigen. The peripheral sensory and autonomic nervous system densely innervates mucosal barrier tissues including the skin, respiratory tract and gastrointestinal (GI) tract that are exposed to allergens. It is increasingly clear that neurons actively communicate with and regulate the function of mast cells, dendritic cells, eosinophils, Th2 cells and type 2 innate lymphoid cells in allergic inflammation. Several mechanisms of cross-talk between the two systems have been uncovered, with potential anatomical specificity. Immune cells release inflammatory mediators including histamine, cytokines or neurotrophins that directly activate sensory neurons to mediate itch in the skin, cough/sneezing and bronchoconstriction in the respiratory tract and motility in the GI tract. Upon activation, these peripheral neurons release neurotransmitters and neuropeptides that directly act on immune cells to modulate their function. Somatosensory and visceral afferent neurons release neuropeptides including calcitonin gene-related peptide, substance P and vasoactive intestinal peptide, which can act on type 2 immune cells to drive allergic inflammation. Autonomic neurons release neurotransmitters including acetylcholine and noradrenaline that signal to both innate and adaptive immune cells. Neuro-immune signaling may play a central role in the physiopathology of allergic diseases including atopic dermatitis, asthma and food allergies. Therefore, getting a better understanding of these cellular and molecular neuro-immune interactions could lead to novel therapeutic approaches to treat allergic diseases.

Calcium Imaging of Nerve-Mast Cell Signaling in the Human Intestine

Introduction: It is suggested that an altered microenvironment in the gut wall alters communication along a mast cell nerve axis. We aimed to record for the first time signaling between mast cells and neurons in intact human submucous preparations. Methods: We used the Ca2+ sensitive dye Fluo-4 AM to simultaneously image changes in intracellular calcium [Ca+2]i (%ΔF/F) in neurons and mast cells. Data are presented as median with interquartile ranges (25/75%). Results: We recorded nerve responses in 29 samples upon selective activation of 223 mast cells by IgE receptor cross linking with the antibody mAb22E7. Mast cells responded to mAb22E7 with a median [Ca+2]i increase of 20% (11/39) peaking 90 s (64/144) after the application. Only very few neurons responded and the median percentage of responding neuronal area was 0% (0/5.9). Mast cell activation remained in the presence of the fast sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin. Specific neuronal activation by transmural electrical field stimulation (EFS) in 34 samples evoked instantaneously [Ca+2]i signals in submucous neurons. This was followed by a [Ca+2]i peak response of 8%ΔF/F (4/15) in 33% of 168 mast cells in the field of view. The mast cell response was abolished by the nerve blocker tetrododoxin, reduced by the Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide receptor 1 antagonist BIBN-4096 and the Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide receptor antagonist PG97-269, but not by blockade of the neurokinin receptors 1-3. Conclusion: The findings revealed bidirectional signaling between mast cells and submucous neurons in human gut. In our macroscopically normal preparations a nerve to mast cell signaling was very prominent whereas a mast cell to nerve signaling was rather rare.

In situ proximity of CX3CR1-positive mononuclear phagocytes and VIP-ergic nerve fibers suggests VIP-ergic immunomodulation in the mouse ileum

Being continuously exposed to a plethora of antigens ranging from food antigens to potential pathogenic organisms, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract harbors the largest collection of immune cells in the mammalian body. This immune system has to maintain a delicate balance between mounting an active immune response and maintaining tolerance. The GI tract is also home to an elaborate intrinsic nervous system, the enteric nervous system (ENS). Various in vitro studies of neuro-immune communication have suggested that vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), an important GI neurotransmitter, modulates mononuclear phagocytes (MNPs), i.e., dendritic cells and macrophages. Using a combined approach of reverse transcription plus the polymerase chain reaction, immunofluorescence, three-dimensional maximum intensity projections and immunoelectron microscopy, we investigate the interaction between the enteric innervation and MNPs in the ileal lamina propria (LP). We demonstrate that VIP-ergic fibers of the ENS lie adjacent to CX3CR1⁺ MNPs and that VPAC1 is constitutively expressed on ileal CX3CR1+ cells in the LP of the mouse. We also identify, for the first time, CX3CR1⁺ immune cells in the LP at the ultrastructural level. Our data thus reveal the in situ presence of the molecular components that are necessary for a VIP-mediated neuro-immune interaction between the ENS and CX3CR1-expressing immune cells in the LP of the ileum.

Mast Cells and Irritable Bowel Syndrome: From the Bench to the Bedside

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is traditionally defined as a functional disorder since it lacks demonstrable pathological abnormalities. However, in recent years, low grade inflammatory infiltration, often rich in mast cells, in both the small and large bowel, has been observed in some patients with IBS. The close association of mast cells with major intestinal functions, such as epithelial secretion and permeability, neuroimmune interactions, visceral sensation, and peristalsis, makes researchers and gastroenterologists to focus attention on the key roles of mast cells in the pathogenesis of IBS. Numerous studies have been carried out to identify the mechanisms in the development, infiltration, activation, and degranulation of intestinal mast cells, as well as the actions of mast cells in the processes of mucosal barrier disruption, mucosal immune dysregulation, visceral hypersensitivity, dysmotility, and local and central stress in IBS. Moreover, therapies targeting mast cells, such as mast cell stabilizers (cromoglycate and ketotifen) and antagonists of histamine and serotonin receptors, have been tried in IBS patients, and have partially exhibited considerable efficacy. This review focuses on recent advances in the role of mast cells in IBS, with particular emphasis on bridging experimental data with clinical therapeutics for IBS patients.

Histochemical Study of Heparin-positive Mast Cells in the Terminal Part of Porcine Ductus Choledochus and Papilla Duodeni Major

The study presented in detail the localization and density of mast cells (MCs) in the intramural part of the common bile duct (CBD) and in the major duodenal papilla (MDP) of domestic swine. MCs' density (number/mm(2) ) in different layers of both of the duct and papilla was evaluated after toluidine blue staining. Their number was higher in the lamina propria mucosae than in the tunica muscularis of the studied structures. The localization of berberine-positive, (heparin containing) MCs and the ratio between them and toluidine blue-positive MCs with γ-ma metachromasia was also established. Ratios of heparin-containing MCs in comparison with all toluidine blue-positive MCs were found as follows: ductus choledochus - 32% in the subglandular connective tissue of lamina propria mucosae in the intramural part of the duct; m. sphincter ductus choledochus - 31% in the circular and 0.06% in the longitudinal muscle layer; subserosa - 59%; papilla duodeni major - 0.03% in the subepithelial connective tissue and 34% in the subglandular connective tissue of lamina propria mucosae, respectively. The established large difference in heparin-positive MCs in both the subepithelial and subglandular connective tissues of CBD and MDP, respectively, is an evidence for the existence of mucosal and connective tissue MCs.

Mast cell degranulation inhibits motor patterns of human ileum and sigmoid colon in vitro: relevance for postoperative ileus

BACKGROUND

Local release of mast cell proteases during gastrointestinal surgery is associated with the inhibition of motility and postoperative ileus (POI). We determined whether activation of intramuscular mast cell affects the motor patterns of the human ileum and colon and whether proteases are involved.

METHODS

Motor response of ileal and colonic circular muscle strips was measured in organ bath. Mast cell degranulation was induced by compound 48/80 (c48/80; 25-675 μg/mL). Motor response was quantified as tone, rhythmic phasic contractions (RPCs) and contractions to electric field stimulation (EFS; 40 Hz), and bethanechol-evoked contractions. Ketotifen (10(-6) mol/L) and a protease inhibitor cocktail (P8340) were used to evaluate the role of mast cell mediators.

KEY RESULTS

(a) c48/80 impaired the spontaneous and the electrically evoked motor response in small bowel and colonic strips (sigmoid colon EC50 : 460.0 μg/mL for RPCs and 8.9 μg/mL for electrically evoked contraction amplitudes) and bethanechol-evoked contractions. (b) Preincubation with ketotifen (10(-6) mol/L, 1 h) prevented the impairment of RPCs and EFS-evoked contractions in the sigmoid colon and ileum but not in the right colon. (c) Preincubation with P8340 also prevented the impairment of contractions in the sigmoid colon but not in the ileum or the right colon.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

Mast cell degranulation by c48/80 inhibits the spontaneous and the nerve-mediated motor response in the human ileum and colon. The effect is partially mediated by mast cell proteases and could be relevant in the pathophysiology of POI.

Reduced Responses of Submucous Neurons from Irritable Bowel Syndrome Patients to a Cocktail Containing Histamine, Serotonin, TNFα, and Tryptase (IBS-Cocktail)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Malfunctions of enteric neurons are believed to play an important role in the pathophysiology of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Our aim was to investigate whether neuronal activity in biopsies from IBS patients is altered in comparison to healthy controls (HC).

METHODS

Activity of human submucous neurons in response to electrical nerve stimulation and local application of nicotine or a mixture of histamine, serotonin, tryptase, and TNF-α (IBS-cocktail) was recorded in biopsies from 17 HC and 35 IBS patients with the calcium-sensitive-dye Fluo-4 AM. The concentrations of the mediators resembeled those found in biopsy supernatants or blood. Neuronal activity in guinea-pig submucous neurons was studied with the voltage-sensitive-dye di-8-ANEPPS.

RESULTS

Activity in submucous ganglia in response to nicotine or electrical nerve stimulation was not different between HC and IBS patients (P = 0.097 or P = 0.448). However, the neuronal response after application of the IBS-cocktail was significantly decreased (P = 0.039) independent of whether diarrhea (n = 12), constipation (n = 5) or bloating (n = 5) was the predominant symptom. In agreement with this we found that responses of submucous ganglia conditioned by overnight incubation with IBS mucosal biopsy supernatant to spritz application of this supernatant was significantly reduced (P = 0.019) when compared to incubation with HC supernatant.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated for the first time reduced neuronal responses in mucosal IBS biopsies to an IBS mediator cocktail. While excitability to classical stimuli of enteric neurons was comparable to HC, the activation by the IBS-cocktail was decreased. This was very likely due to desensitization to mediators constantly released by mucosal and immune cells in the gut wall of IBS patients.

Translational neuropharmacology: the use of human isolated gastrointestinal tissues

Translational sciences increasingly emphasize the measurement of functions in native human tissues. However, such studies must confront variations in patient age, gender, genetic background and disease. Here, these are discussed with reference to neuromuscular and neurosecretory functions of the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Tissues are obtained after informed consent, in collaboration with surgeons (surgical techniques help minimize variables) and pathologists. Given the difficulties of directly recording from human myenteric neurones (embedded between muscle layers), enteric motor nerve functions are studied by measuring muscle contractions/relaxations evoked by electrical stimulation of intrinsic nerves; responses are regionally dependent, often involving cholinergic and nitrergic phenotypes. Enteric sensory functions can be studied by evoking the peristaltic reflex, involving enteric sensory and motor nerves, but this has rarely been achieved. As submucosal neurones are more accessible (after removing the mucosa), direct neuronal recordings are possible. Neurosecretory functions are studied by measuring changes in short-circuit current across the mucosa. For all experiments, basic questions must be addressed. Because tissues are from patients, what are the controls and the influence of disease? How long does it take before function fully recovers? What is the impact of age- and gender-related differences? What is the optimal sample size? Addressing these and other questions minimizes variability and raises the scientific credibility of human tissue research. Such studies also reduce animal use. Further, the many differences between animal and human GI functions also means that human tissue research must question the ethical validity of using strains of animals with unproved translational significance.

Mechanisms underlying the neuronal-based symptoms of allergy

Persons with allergies present with symptoms that often are the result of alterations in the nervous system. Neuronally based symptoms depend on the organ in which the allergic reaction occurs but can include red itchy eyes, sneezing, nasal congestion, rhinorrhea, coughing, bronchoconstriction, airway mucus secretion, dysphagia, altered gastrointestinal motility, and itchy swollen skin. These symptoms occur because mediators released during an allergic reaction can interact with sensory nerves, change processing in the central nervous system, and alter transmission in sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric autonomic nerves. In addition, evidence supports the idea that in some subjects this neuromodulation is, for reasons poorly understood, upregulated such that the same degree of nerve stimulus causes a larger effect than seen in healthy subjects. There are distinctions in the mechanisms and nerve types involved in allergen-induced neuromodulation among different organ systems, but general principles have emerged. The products of activated mast cells, other inflammatory cells, and resident cells can overtly stimulate nerve endings, cause long-lasting changes in neuronal excitability, increase synaptic efficacy, and also change gene expression in nerves, resulting in phenotypically altered neurons. A better understanding of these processes might lead to novel therapeutic strategies aimed at limiting the suffering of those with allergies.

Functions and imaging of mast cell and neural axis of the gut

Close association between nerves and mast cells in the gut wall provides the microanatomic basis for functional interactions between these elements, supporting the hypothesis that a mast cell-nerve axis influences gut functions in health and disease. Advanced morphology and imaging techniques are now available to assess structural and functional relationships of the mast cell-nerve axis in human gut tissues. Morphologic techniques including co-labeling of mast cells and nerves serve to evaluate changes in their densities and anatomic proximity. Calcium (Ca(++)) and potentiometric dye imaging provide novel insights into functions such as mast cell-nerve signaling in the human gut tissues. Such imaging promises to reveal new ionic or molecular targets to normalize nerve sensitization induced by mast cell hyperactivity or mast cell sensitization by neurogenic inflammatory pathways. These targets include proteinase-activated receptor (PAR) 1 or histamine receptors. In patients, optical imaging in the gut in vivo has the potential to identify neural structures and inflammation in vivo. The latter has some risks and potential of sampling error with a single biopsy. Techniques that image nerve fibers in the retina without the need for contrast agents (optical coherence tomography and full-field optical coherence microscopy) may be applied to study submucous neural plexus. Moreover, the combination of submucosal dissection, use of a fluorescent marker, and endoscopic confocal microscopy provides detailed imaging of myenteric neurons and smooth muscle cells in the muscularis propria. Studies of motility and functional gastrointestinal disorders would be feasible without the need for full-thickness biopsy.

Colonic mucosal mediators from patients with irritable bowel syndrome excite enteric cholinergic motor neurons

BACKGROUND

Mediators released in the mucosal milieu have been suggested to be involved in visceral hypersensitivity and abdominal pain in patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). However, their impact on myenteric neurons remains unsettled.

METHODS

Mucosal biopsies were obtained from the descending colon of patients with IBS and controls. Mucosal mast cells were identified immunohistochemically. The impact of spontaneously released mucosal mediators on guinea pig electrically stimulated longitudinal muscle myenteric plexus (LMMP) preparations was assessed in vitro by means of selective receptor antagonists and inhibitors.

KEY RESULTS

Patients with IBS showed an increased mast cell count compared with controls. Application of mucosal mediators of IBS to LMMPs potentiated cholinergic twitch contractions, an effect directly correlated with mast cell counts. Enhanced contractions were inhibited by 50.3% with the prostaglandin D2 antagonist BW A868C, by 31.3% and 39% with the TRPV1 antagonists capsazepine and HC-030031, respectively, and by 60.5% with purinergic P2X antagonist pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid. Conversely, the serotonin1-4, histamine1-3, tachykinin1-3 receptor blockade, and serine protease inhibition had no significant effect.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

Colonic mucosal mediators from patients with IBS excite myenteric cholinergic motor neurons. These effects were correlated with mast cell counts and mediated by activation of prostanoid receptors, TRPV1, and P2X receptors. These results support the role of mucosal inflammatory mediators and mast cell activation in altered motor function of IBS.

Submucous rather than myenteric neurons are activated by mucosal biopsy supernatants from irritable bowel syndrome patients

BACKGROUND

We previously showed that colonic mucosal biopsy supernatants from patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) activate neurons of the human submucous plexus, an area with densely packed immune cells. Based on the concept that mucosa-nerve signaling is altered in IBS, we tested in this study whether the nerve sensitizing effect of IBS mucosal biopsy supernatants is more prominent in the submucous than myenteric plexus.

METHODS

Fast neuroimaging with the voltage-sensitive dye Di-8-ANEPPS was used to record activity of guinea-pig submucous and myenteric neurons after application of constipation (C)- and diarrhea (D)-IBS supernatants (three each) and four supernatants from healthy control subjects. Results are based on recordings from 4731 neurons.

KEY RESULTS

Control supernatants did not evoke significant responses in submucous or myenteric neurons. In contrast, all IBS supernatants evoked a significant spike discharge (median 3.6 Hz) in 46% of submucous neurons. This activation was significantly stronger than in the myenteric plexus where even twice the amount of supernatants evoked a lower spike frequency (median 2.1Hz) in only 8.5% of neurons. Pharmacological studies revealed serotonin, histamine, and proteases as components mediating neuronal activation. Individual application of these components revealed that only serotonin evoked a significantly stronger activation of submucous compared with myenteric neurons.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

Direct neuronal activation by IBS mucosal biopsy supernatants is primarily a feature of submucous rather than myenteric neurons. This is associated with a stronger excitation of submucous neurons by serotonin. The plexus-specific effects support the concept that altered mucosa-nerve signaling underlies disturbances in IBS.

Endoneurial pathology of the needlestick-nerve-injury model of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome, including rats with and without pain behaviors

Current rodent models of neuropathic pain produce pain hypersensitivity in almost all lesioned animals and not all identified experimental effects are pain specific. 18G needlestick-nerve-injury (NNI) to one tibial nerve of outbred Sprague-Dawley rats models the phenotype of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS), a post-traumatic neuropathic pain syndrome, leaving roughly half of NNI rats with hyperalgesia. We compared endoneurial data from these divergent endophenotypes searching for pathological changes specifically associated with pain-behaviors. Tibial, sural, and common sciatic nerves from 12 NNI rats plus 10 nerves from sham-operated controls were removed 14 days post-surgery for morphometric analysis. PGP9.5(+) unmyelinated-fibers were quantitated in plantar hindpaw skin. Distal tibial nerves of NNI rats had endoneurial edema, 30% fewer axons, twice as many mast cells, and thicker blood-vessel walls than uninjured tibial nerves. However the only significant difference between nerves from hyperalgesic versus non-hyperalgesic NNI rats was greater endoneurial edema in hyperalgesic rats (p < 0.01). We also discovered significant axonal losses in uninjured ipsilateral sural nerves of NNI rats, demonstrating spread of neuropathy to nearby nerves formerly thought spared. Tibial and sural nerves contralateral to NNI had significant changes in endoneurial blood-vessels. Similar pathological changes have been identified in CRPS-I patients. The current findings suggest that severity of endoneurial vasculopathy and inflammation may correlate better with neuropathic pain behaviors than degree of axonal loss. Spread of pathological changes to nearby ipsilateral and contralateral nerves might potentially contribute to extraterritorial pain in CRPS.

Activity of protease-activated receptors in the human submucous plexus

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Protease-activated receptors (PARs) are expressed in the enteric nervous system. Excessive release of proteases has been reported in functional and inflammatory bowel diseases. Studies in several animal models indicate the involvement of neural PARs. We studied the actions of different PAR-activating peptides (AP) in the human submucous plexus and performed comparative studies in guinea pig submucous neurons.

METHODS

We used voltage- and calcium-sensitive dye recordings to study the effects of PAR1-AP, PAR2-AP, PAR4-AP, the PAR1 activator thrombin, and the PAR2 activator tryptase on neurons and glia in human and guinea pig submucous plexus. Human preparations were derived from surgical resections. Levels of mucosal secretion evoked by PAR-APs were measured in Ussing chambers.

RESULTS

PAR1-AP and thrombin evoked a prominent spike discharge and intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca](i)) transients in most human submucous neurons and glia. PAR2-AP, tryptase, and PAR4-AP caused significantly weaker responses in a minor population. In contrast, PAR2-AP evoked much stronger responses in enteric neurons and glia of guinea pigs than did PAR1-AP or PAR4-AP. PAR1-AP, but not PAR2-AP or PAR4-AP, evoked a nerve-mediated secretion in human epithelium. The PAR1 antagonist SCH79797 inhibited the PAR1-AP, and thrombin evoked responses on neurons, glia, and epithelial secretion. In the submucous layer of human intestine, but not guinea pig intestine, PAR2-AP evoked [Ca](i) signals in CD68(+) macrophages.

CONCLUSIONS

In the human submucous plexus, PAR1, rather than PAR2 or PAR4, activates nerves and glia. These findings indicate that PAR1 should be the focus of future studies on neural PAR-mediated actions in the human intestine; PAR1 might be developed as a therapeutic target for gastrointestinal disorders associated with increased levels of proteases.

Diet-induced obesity has neuroprotective effects in murine gastric enteric nervous system: involvement of leptin and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor

Nutritional factors can induce profound neuroplastic changes in the enteric nervous system (ENS), responsible for changes in gastrointestinal (GI) motility. However, long-term effects of a nutritional imbalance leading to obesity, such as Western diet (WD), upon ENS phenotype and control of GI motility remain unknown. Therefore, we investigated the effects of WD-induced obesity (DIO) on ENS phenotype and function as well as factors involved in functional plasticity. Mice were fed with normal diet (ND) or WD for 12 weeks. GI motility was assessed in vivo and ex vivo. Myenteric neurons and glia were analysed with immunohistochemical methods using antibodies against Hu, neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), Sox-10 and with calcium imaging techniques. Leptin and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) were studied using immunohistochemical, biochemical or PCR methods in mice and primary culture of ENS. DIO prevented the age-associated decrease in antral nitrergic neurons observed in ND mice. Nerve stimulation evoked a stronger neuronal Ca(2+) response in WD compared to ND mice. DIO induced an NO-dependent increase in gastric emptying and neuromuscular transmission in the antrum without any change in small intestinal transit. During WD but not ND, a time-dependent increase in leptin and GDNF occurred in the antrum. Finally, we showed that leptin increased GDNF production in the ENS and induced neuroprotective effects mediated in part by GDNF. These results demonstrate that DIO induces neuroplastic changes in the antrum leading to an NO-dependent acceleration of gastric emptying. In addition, DIO induced neuroplasticity in the ENS is likely to involve leptin and GDNF.

The immune system in irritable bowel syndrome

The potential relevance of systemic and gastrointestinal immune activation in the pathophysiology and symptom generation in the irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is supported by a number of observations. Infectious gastroenteritis is the strongest risk factor for the development of IBS and increased rates of IBS-like symptoms have been detected in patients with inflammatory bowel disease in remission or in celiac disease patients on a gluten free diet. The number of T cells and mast cells in the small and large intestine of patients with IBS is increased in a large proportion of patients with IBS over healthy controls. Mediators released by immune cells and likely from other non-immune competent cells impact on the function of enteric and sensory afferent nerves as well as on epithelial tight junctions controlling mucosal barrier of recipient animals, isolated human gut tissues or cell culture systems. Antibodies against microbiota antigens (bacterial flagellin), and increased levels of cytokines have been detected systemically in the peripheral blood advocating the existence of abnormal host-microbial interactions and systemic immune responses. Nonetheless, there is wide overlap of data obtained in healthy controls; in addition, the subsets of patients showing immune activation have yet to be clearly identified. Gender, age, geographic differences, genetic predisposition, diet and differences in the intestinal microbiota likely play a role and further research has to be done to clarify their relevance as potential mechanisms in the described immune system dysregulation. Immune activation has stimulated interest for the potential identification of biomarkers useful for clinical and research purposes and the development of novel therapeutic approaches.

Effect of probiotics on gastrointestinal function: evidence from animal models

The digestive tract works through a complex net of integrative functions. At the level of the gut, this integration occurs between the immune, neuromotor and endocrine systems, the intestinal barrier and gut luminal contents. Gastrointestinal function is controlled and coordinated by the central nervous system to ensure effective motility, secretion, absorption and mucosal immunity. Thus, it is clear that the gut keeps a tightly regulated equilibrium between luminal stimuli, epithelium, immunity and neurotransmission in order to maintain homeostasis. It follows that perturbations of any of these systems may lead to gut dysfunction. While we acknowledge that the gut-brain axis is crucial in determining coordinated gut function, in this review we will focus on peripheral mechanisms that influence gastrointestinal physiology and pathophysiology. We will discuss the general hypothesis that the intestinal content is crucial in determining what we consider normal gastrointestinal physiology, and consequently that alteration in luminal content by dietary, antibiotic or probiotic manipulation can result in changes in gut function. This article focuses on lessons learned from animal models of gut dysfunction.

Recordings from human myenteric neurons using voltage-sensitive dyes

Voltage-sensitive dye (VSD) imaging became a powerful tool to detect neural activity in the enteric nervous system, including its routine use in submucous neurons in freshly dissected human tissue. However, VSD imaging of human myenteric neurons remained a challenge because of limited visibility of the ganglia and dye accessibility. We describe a protocol to apply VSD for recordings of human myenteric neurons in freshly dissected tissue and myenteric neurons in primary cultures. VSD imaging of guinea-pig myenteric neurons was used for reference. Electrical stimulation of interganglionic fiber tracts and exogenous application of nicotine or elevated KCl solution was used to evoke action potentials. Bath application of the VSDs Annine-6Plus, Di-4-ANEPPS, Di-8-ANEPPQ, Di-4-ANEPPDHQ or Di-8-ANEPPS revealed no neural signals in human tissue although most of these VSD worked in guinea-pig tissue. Unlike methylene blue and FM1-43, 4-Di-2-ASP did not influence spike discharge and was used in human tissue to visualize myenteric ganglia as a prerequisite for targeted intraganglionic VSD application. Of all VSDs, only intraganglionic injection of Di-8-ANEPPS by a volume controlled injector revealed neuronal signals in human tissue. Signal-to-noise ratio increased by addition of dipicrylamine to Di-8-ANEPPS (0.98±0.16 vs. 2.4±0.62). Establishing VSD imaging in primary cultures of human myenteric neurons led to a further improvement of signal-to-noise ratio. This allowed us to routinely record spike discharge after nicotine application. The described protocol enabled reliable VSD recordings from human myenteric neurons but may also be relevant for the use of other fluorescent dyes in human tissues.

Activation of adenosine low-affinity A3 receptors inhibits the enteric short interplexus neural circuit triggered by histamine

We tested the novel hypothesis that endogenous adenosine (eADO) activates low-affinity A3 receptors in a model of neurogenic diarrhea in the guinea pig colon. Dimaprit activation of H2 receptors was used to trigger a cyclic coordinated response of contraction and Cl(-) secretion. Contraction-relaxation was monitored by sonomicrometry (via intracrystal distance) simultaneously with short-circuit current (I(sc), Cl(-) secretion). The short interplexus reflex coordinated response was attenuated or abolished by antagonists at H2 (cimetidine), 5-hydroxytryptamine 4 receptor (RS39604), neurokinin-1 receptor (GR82334), or nicotinic (mecamylamine) receptors. The A1 agonist 2-chloro-N(6)-cyclopentyladenosine (CCPA) abolished coordinated responses, and A1 antagonists could restore normal responses. A1-selective antagonists alone [8-cyclopentyltheophylline (CPT), 1,3-dipropyl-8-(2-amino-4-chlorophenyl)xanthine (PACPX), or 8-cyclopentyl-N(3)-[3-(4-(fluorosulfonyl)benzoyloxy)propyl]-xanthine (FSCPX)] caused a concentration-dependent augmentation of crypt cell secretion or contraction and acted at nanomolar concentrations. The A3 agonist N(6)-(3-iodobenzyl)-adenosine-5'-N-methyluronamide (IB-MECA) abolished coordinated responses and the A3 antagonist 3-ethyl-5-benzyl-2-methyl-4-phenylethynyl-6-phenyl-1,4-(+/-)-dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarboxylate (MRS1191) could restore and further augment responses. The IB-MECA effect was resistant to knockdown of adenosine A1 receptor with the irreversible antagonist FSCPX; the IC(50) for IB-MECA was 0.8 microM. MRS1191 alone could augment or unmask coordinated responses to dimaprit, and IB-MECA suppressed them. MRS1191 augmented distension-evoked reflex I(sc) responses. Adenosine deaminase mimicked actions of adenosine receptor antagonists. A3 receptor immunoreactivity was differentially expressed in enteric neurons of different parts of colon. After tetrodotoxin, IB-MECA caused circular muscle relaxation. The data support the novel concept that eADO acts at low-affinity A3 receptors in addition to high-affinity A1 receptors to suppress coordinated responses triggered by immune-histamine H2 receptor activation. The short interplexus circuit activated by histamine involves adenosine, acetylcholine, substance P, and serotonin. We postulate that A3 receptor modulation may occur in gut inflammatory diseases or allergic responses involving mast cell and histamine release.

Activation of human enteric neurons by supernatants of colonic biopsy specimens from patients with irritable bowel syndrome

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Pathological features in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) include alterations in mucosal cell content and mediator release that might alter signaling to nearby submucosal neurons.

METHODS

Voltage sensitive dye imaging was used to record the effects of mediators, released from mucosal biopsies of IBS patients, on cell bodies of 1207 submucosal neurons from 76 human colonic tissue specimens. Supernatants, containing these mediators, were collected following incubation with colonic mucosal biopsies from 7 patients with diarrhea-predominant IBS (D-IBS), 4 with constipation-predominant IBS (C-IBS), and 4 healthy controls. Serotonin, histamine and tryptase concentrations in supernatants and lamina propria mast cell density were determined.

RESULTS

In contrast to controls, IBS supernatants significantly increased the rate of spike discharge in 58% of human submucosal neurons. Neurons that responded to IBS supernatant had a median spike frequency of 2.4 Hz compared to 0 Hz for control supernatants. Supernatants from C-IBS and D-IBS evoked similar spike discharge. The activation induced by IBS supernatants was inhibited by histamine receptor (H1-H3) antagonists, 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, and protease inhibition. Serotonin, histamine and tryptase levels in supernatants correlated with the spike discharge induced by the supernatants. Mast cells density as well as histamine and tryptase levels in supernatants were higher in IBS than in controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Mediators released from mucosal biopsies of IBS patients can activate human submucosal neurons. The activation required histamine, serotonin and proteases but was not associated with IBS subtype. Altered signaling between mucosa and the enteric nervous system might be involved in IBS pathogenesis.

Multifunctional rapidly adapting mechanosensitive enteric neurons (RAMEN) in the myenteric plexus of the guinea pig ileum

An important feature of the enteric nervous system (ENS) is its capability to respond to mechanical stimulation which, as currently suggested for the guinea-pig ileum, is encoded by specialized intrinsic primary afferent neurons (IPANs). We used von Frey hairs or intraganglionic volume injections to mimic ganglion deformation as observed in freely contracting preparations. Using fast voltage-sensitive dye imaging we identified rapidly adapting mechanosensitive enteric neurons (RAMEN, 25% of all neurons) in the myenteric plexus of the guinea pig ileum. RAMEN responded with phasic spike discharge to dynamic changes during ganglion deformation. This response was reproducible and increased with increasing forces. Deformation-evoked spike discharge was not changed by synaptic blockade with hexamethonium, omega-conotoxin or low Ca(2+)/high Mg(2+), defunctionalization of extrinsic afferents with capsaicin or muscle paralysis with nifedipine, suggesting direct activation of RAMEN. All RAMEN received hexamethonium-sensitive fast EPSPs, which were blocked by omega-conotoxin and low Ca(2+)/high Mg(2+). Seventy-two per cent of RAMEN were cholinergic, 22% nitrergic, and 44% were calbindin and NeuN negative, markers used to identify IPANs. Mechanosensitivity was observed in 31% and 47% of retrogradely traced interneurons and motor neurons, respectively. RAMEN belong to a new population of mechanosensitive neurons which differ from IPANs. We provided evidence for multifunctionality of RAMEN which may fulfil sensory, integrative and motor functions. In light of previously identified mechanosensitive neuron populations, mechanosensitivity appears to be a property of many more enteric neurons than generally assumed. The findings call for a revision of current concepts on sensory transmission within the ENS.

Mast cell-mediated long-lasting increases in excitability of vagal C fibers in guinea pig esophagus

Several esophageal pathologies are associated with an increased number of mast cells in the esophageal wall. We addressed the hypothesis that activation of esophageal mast cells leads to an increase in the excitability of local sensory C fibers. Guinea pigs were actively sensitized to ovalbumin. The mast cells in the esophagus were selectively activated ex vivo by superfusion with ovalbumin. Action potential discharge in guinea pig vagal nodose esophageal C-fiber nerve endings was monitored in the isolated (ex vivo) vagally innervated esophagus by extracellular recordings. Ovalbumin activated esophageal mast cells, leading to the rapid release of approximately 20% of the tissue histamine stores. This was associated with a consistent and significant increase in excitability of the nodose C fibers as reflected in a two- to threefold increase in action potential discharge frequency evoked by mechanical (increases in intraluminal pressure) stimulation. The increase in excitability persisted unchanged for at least 90 min (longest time period tested) after ovalbumin was washed from the tissue. This effect could be prevented by the histamine H1 receptor antagonist pyrilamine, but once the increase in excitability occurred, it persisted in the nominal absence of histamine and could not be reversed even with large concentrations of the histamine receptor antagonist. In conclusion, activation of esophageal mast cells leads to a pronounced and long-lived increase in nociceptive C-fiber excitability such that any sensation or reflex evoked via the vagal nociceptors will likely be enhanced. The effect is initiated by histamine acting via H1 receptor activation and maintained in the absence of the initiating stimulus.

Evolving concepts in the cellular control of gastrointestinal motility: neurogastroenterology and enteric sciences

The enteric nervous system is an independent nervous system with a complexity comparable with the central nervous system. This complex system is integrated into several other complex systems, such as interstitial cells of Cajal networks and immune cells. The result of these interactions is effective coordination of motility, secretion, and blood flow in the gastrointestinal tract. Loss of subsets of enteric nerves, of interstitial cells of Cajal, malfunction of smooth muscle, and alteration in immune cells have been identified as the basis of many motility disorders. The initial factors triggering these changes and how to intervene to prevent, halt, and reverse them needs to be understood.

5-HT receptors on interstitial cells of Cajal, smooth muscle and enteric nerves

The majority of the body's serotonin (5-HT) is produced by the gastrointestinal tract. 5-HT has several functions in the gastrointestinal tract. 5-HT is a paracrine signalling molecule released from enterochromaffin cells, a survival and proliferating factor and a neurotransmitter. The actions of 5-HT are transduced by a large family of 5-HT receptors, several of which are expressed on different gastrointestinal cell types including enteric nerves, smooth muscle and interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC). This review will summarize recent advances in understanding the role of 5-HT in regulating function of ICC, and the expression and function of 5-HT receptors on muscle and enteric nerves in human tissue. Rodent ICC express several 5-HT receptors including 5-HT(2B) receptors which regulate ICC survival and proliferation. Human smooth muscle and enteric neurons also express several 5-HT receptor subtypes. Expression and function of these receptors is significantly different from small laboratory animals. 5-HT(7) receptor activation causes relaxation of muscle, whereas 5-HT(2B) receptors increase muscle activity. The 5-HT(4) receptor appears to mediate both inhibition and activation of smooth muscle involving myogenic as well as neural actions. Despite the abundant expression of 5-HT(3) receptors in the human enteric nervous system no functional correlate has been as yet demonstrated.

Mast cells and nerves tickle in the tummy: implications for inflammatory bowel disease and irritable bowel syndrome

Mast cells are well known as versatile cells capable of releasing and producing a variety of inflammatory mediators upon activation and are often found in close proximity of neurons. In addition, inflammation leads to local activation of neurons resulting in the release neuropeptides, which also play an important immune modulatory role by stimulation of immune cells. In intestinal disorders like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), the number of mast cells is known to be much higher than in the normal intestine. Moreover, both these disorders are also reported to be associated with alterations in neuropeptide content and in neural innervation. Mutual association between mast cells and enteric nerves has been demonstrated to be increased in pathophysiological conditions and contribute to spreading and amplification of the response in IBD and IBS. In this review the focus lies on studies appointed to the direct interaction between mast cells and nerves in IBD, IBS, and animal models for these disorders so far.

Histamine excites neurones in the human submucous plexus through activation of H1, H2, H3 and H4 receptors

Histamine is a major mast cell mediator of immunoneural signalling in the gut and mast cells play a role in the pathophysiology of functional and inflammatory bowel diseases. Histamine receptors are therefore promising drug targets to treat gut disorders. We aimed to study the so far unknown effect of histamine on neural activity in the human enteric nervous system (ENS) and to identify the pharmacology of histamine response. We used fast imaging techniques in combination with the potentiometric dye di-8-ANEPPS to monitor directly membrane potential changes and thereby neuronal excitability in the human submucous plexus from surgical specimens of 110 patients (2137 neurones, 273 ganglia). Local microejection of histamine resulted in action potential discharge in 37% of neurones. This excitatory effect was mimicked by the H(1) agonist HTMT-dimaleat, H(2) agonist dimaprit, H(3) agonist (R)-(-)-alpha-methylhistamine and H(4) agonist 4-methylhistamine. The excitatory actions of the agonists were specifically and selectively blocked by the H(1), H(2), H(3) or H(4) receptor antagonists pyrilamine, ranitidine, clobenpropit or J1-[(5-chloro-1H-indol-2-yl)carbonyl]-4-methylpiperazine (JNJ 7777120), respectively. Clobenproprit reduced the excitatory response to histamine. Unlike in the guinea-pig ENS (R)-(-)-alpha-methylhistamine had no presynaptic actions in human submucous plexus. Application of agonists revealed receptor clustering which was as follows: 29% H(1)/H(3), 27% H(2), 20% H(1)/H(2)/H(3), 10% H(3), 7% H(1)/H(2) and 7% H(2)/H(3). Histamine excites human enteric neurones and this effect involves all four histamine receptors; most striking was the identification of an excitatory H(3) mediated component and the discovery of H(4) mediated neuronal excitation. These data may form the basis of identification of new targets to treat inflammatory and functional gut disorders.

[Stress-mast cell axis and regulation of gut mucosal inflammation: from intestinal health to an irritable bowel]

The functional gastrointestinal disorders and the irritable bowel syndrome, in particular, represent one of the commonest causes of medical consultation and the most frequent diagnosis raised by the gastroenterologists. Despite their high prevalence, the aetiology and pathophysiology of these functional digestive disorders remains unclear and specific diagnostic markers and clearly effective therapeutic options are lacking as well. These factors generate an important impairment in the quality of life in these patients and a growing sanitary burden. Recent studies showing the presence of low grade intestinal mucosal inflammation along with mast cell hyperplasia may contribute to the development and perpetuation of visceral hypersensitivity and dismotility patterns and epithelial barrier abnormalities, characteristic of the irritable bowel syndrome. In this article we will review the role of the stress-mast cell axis in the modulation of the gut mucosal inflammation and in the pathophysiology of the irritable bowel syndrome.

The bidirectional communication between neurons and mast cells within the gastrointestinal tract

Normal or disordered behaviour of the gastrointestinal tract is determined by a complex interplay between the epithelial barrier, immune cells, blood vessels, smooth muscle and intramurally located nerve elements. Mucosal mast cells (MMCs), which are able to detect noxious and antigenic threats and to generate or amplify signals to the other cells, are assigned a rather central position in this complex network. Signal input from MMCs to intrinsic enteric neurons is particularly crucial, because the enteric nervous system fulfils a pivotal role in the control of gastrointestinal functions. Activated enteric neurons are able to generate an alarm program involving alterations in motility and secretion. MMC signalling to extrinsic nerve fibres takes part in pathways generating visceral pain or extrinsic reflexes contributing to the disturbed motor and secretory function. Morphological and functional studies, especially studies concerning physiological stress, have provided evidence that, apart from the interaction between the enteric nervous system and MMCs, there is also a functional communication between the central nervous system and these mast cells. Psychological factors trigger neuronal pathways, which directly or indirectly affect MMCs. Further basic and clinical research will be needed to clarify in more detail whether basic patterns of this type of interactions are conserved between species including humans.

Hydrogen sulfide is a novel prosecretory neuromodulator in the Guinea-pig and human colon

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S) has been suggested as a novel gasomediator. We explored its unknown neuromodulatory role in human and guinea-pig colon.

METHODS

We used immunohistochemistry to detect H(2)S-producing enzymes cystathionine gamma-lyase (CSE) and cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) in enteric neurons, Ussing chambers to measure mucosal ion secretion, and neuroimaging with voltage- and Ca(++)-sensitive dyes to record H(2)S effects on guinea-pig and human enteric neurons.

RESULTS

More than 90% of guinea-pig and human submucous and myenteric neurons were colabeled for CSE and CBS. Myenteric interstitial cells of Cajal were CSE-immunoreactive. The exogenous H(2)S donor NaHS (0.2-2.5 mmol/L) concentration-dependently increased chloride secretion in human and guinea-pig submucosa/mucosa preparations, but not in the colonic epithelial cell line T84. The secretory response was reduced significantly by tetrodotoxin (0.5 micromol/L), capsaicin desensitization (10 micromol/L), and the transient receptor potentials vanilloid receptor 1 antagonist capsazepine (10 micromol/L). The endogenous H(2)S donor L-cysteine also induced secretion that was diminished significantly by capsaicin desensitization, the CBS inhibitor amino-oxyacetic acid, and the CSE inhibitor propargylglycine. NaHS increased spike discharge in 23% of guinea-pig and 36% of human submucous neurons, but had no effect on Ca(++) mobilization in cultured guinea-pig enteric neurons. This excitatory response was reduced significantly by capsaicin desensitization and capsazepine, but not by glibenclamide (10 micromol/L).

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of H(2)S-producing enzymes in human and guinea-pig enteric neurons, the excitatory action on enteric neurons, and the prosecretory effects of NaHS suggest H(2)S as a novel gut-signaling molecule. Its action mainly involves transient receptor potentials vanilloid receptor 1 receptors on extrinsic afferent terminals, which in turn activate enteric neurons.

Histamine-induced ion secretion across rat distal colon: involvement of histamine H1 and H2 receptors

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of histamine, a product of e.g. mast cells, on short-circuit current (I(sc)) across rat distal colon. Histamine concentration-dependently stimulated an increase in I(sc), which often was preceded by a transient negative current. Neither a release of neurotransmitters nor a release of prostaglandins contributed to the histamine response. The histamine-induced increase in I(sc) was blocked by the histamine H(1) antagonist, pyrilamine, but was resistant against the histamine H(2) antagonist, cimetidine. Conversely, the histamine H(1) agonist, TMPH (2-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)histamine), exclusively evoked an increase in I(sc), whereas the histamine H(2) agonist, amthamine, evoked only a decrease in I(sc) suggesting that stimulation of different types of histamine receptors is responsible for the two phases of the response evoked by native histamine. Histamine induces the opening of glibenclamide-sensitive Cl(-) channels and of charybdotoxin-sensitive K(+) channels in the apical membrane as demonstrated by experiments at basolaterally depolarized epithelia. A further action site is the basolateral membrane, because histamine stimulates a charybdotoxin- and tetrapentylammonium-sensitive K(+) conductance in this membrane as observed in tissues, in which the apical membrane was permeabilized with an ionophore, nystatin. The increase in I(sc) evoked by histamine was blocked after depletion of intracellular Ca(2+) stores with cyclopiazonic acid and after blockade of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) receptors, suggesting a release of stored Ca(2+). This was confirmed by the observation that the histamine H(1) agonist TMPH induced an increase in the fura-2 ratio signal of epithelial cells within isolated colonic crypts. Consequently, the mediator histamine seems to stimulate both histamine H(1) and H(2) receptors, from which the former seems to be prominently involved in the induction of epithelial chloride secretion.