P300 auditory event-related potentials in children with obesity: is childhood obesity related to impairment in cognitive functions?

The Association of Obesity and Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Relation to Cognitive Flexibility: An Event-Related Potential Study

This study investigates an association between obesity and cardiorespiratory fitness concerning their potential effects on cognitive flexibility in young adults from behavioral and neuroelectrical perspectives. Eligible young adults (N = 140, 18–25 years) were assigned into one of four groups, according to their status of obesity (i.e., body mass index) and cardiorespiratory fitness levels (i.e., estimated maximal oxygen uptake), namely, normal weight with high cardiorespiratory fitness (NH), obese with high cardiorespiratory fitness (OH), normal weight with low cardiorespiratory fitness (NL), and obese with low cardiorespiratory fitness (OL). The task-switching test was utilized, and its induced endogenous (P3) and exogenous (N1) event-related potential components were recorded. Concerning behavioral indices, the NH demonstrated superior behavioral performance across global switching and local switching of the task-switching test compared to individuals with lower cardiorespiratory fitness and obesity (i.e., NL, OH, and OL). Additionally, the OH demonstrated better performance than the OL during the heterogeneous condition. For neuroelectrical indices, the NH had larger mean P3 amplitudes during global and local switching than the other three groups. A larger N1 amplitude was also observed in the NH during local switching than in the OH group. The findings suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness has beneficial effects on cognitive flexibility, attentional resource allocation, and sensory evaluation in young adults. Furthermore, our research provided novel evidence showing that cardiorespiratory fitness might potentially alleviate the adverse effects of obesity on cognitive flexibility in young adults.

A Study of Response Inhibition in Overweight/Obesity People Based on Event-Related Potential

Objective

To investigate the characteristics of response inhibition of overweight/obese people, using behavior experiments combine with neural electrophysiological technology and discussing the difference in impulse level between obesity/overweight and normal-weight people through EEG data, questionnaire, and behavior experiment.

Method

(1) All participants completed the Go/Nogo task; meanwhile, behavior data and 64 channel EEG data were recorded. (2) Participants completed the Stop-Signal task and behavior date was recorded.

Results

(1) During Go/Nogo task, no significant differences were found in reaction time, omission errors of the Go task between the two groups, while commission errors of the Nogo task of the control group were significantly greater than the overweight/obesity group. (2) About SSRT during the Stop-Signal Task, the interaction of stimulus type (high-calorie food picture, low-calorie food picture) and group (control group, overweight/obesity group) was significant (p = 0.008). (3) No significant differences were found between the two groups in amplitude and latency of N2. About the amplitude of P3, the interaction of task type (Go task, Nogo task), electrode point (Cz, CPz, Pz), and groups were significant (p = 0.041), the control group P3 amplitude was significantly greater than overweight/obesity group during the Nogo task. Regarding about latency of P3, the interaction of group and electrode point were not significant (p = 0.582), but the main effect of task type was significant (p = 0.002).

Conclusion

(1) In terms of behavioral outcomes, overweight-obese subjects had lower dominant response inhibition and response cessation compared to normal-weight subjects. (2) In terms of EEG results, overweight-obese subjects showed no difference in processing speed and level of conflict monitoring for early inhibitory processing compared to normal-weight subjects, but there was a deficit in behavioral control for late inhibitory processing.

Association of Circulating Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor with Cognition among Adult Obese Population

Background

Obesity has a strong association with the risk of developing cognitive impairment and dementia at a later age. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its receptor appear to be important components in cognitive function and are also involved in energy homeostasis. The level of circulating BDNF and its association with cognition has yet to be delineated clearly. In this work we studied the association of circulating BDNF with cognition among the adult obese population.

Methods

The study involved 132 healthy participants between 18 and 40 years of age and of both sexes. The participants were categorized into an obesity group (n=66) and a non-obese group (n=66) based on their body mass index (Asian criteria). The level of cognitive performance was assessed by the event-related potentials P300 (ERPs-P300), mini-mental state examination (MMSE), both visual and auditory reaction times (VRT and ART, respectively), and other pen and paper tests related to memory and executive function. Serum BDNF, glycemic and lipid profiles were estimated.

Results

We found significant differences in the ERPs-P300 latency (P<0.001) and amplitude (P=0.002) between the non-obese and obese group. The MMSE score was significantly reduced while VRT (P=0.005) and ART (P=0.001) were larger in the obese group. BDNF levels (P<0.001) were significantly reduced and negatively associated with the obese group. ERPs-P300 latency was negatively associated (r=–0.674, P=0.001) whereas amplitude (r=0.507, P<0.001) was positively associated with the BDNF levels in the adult obese population.

Conclusion

We found reduced circulating BDNF levels in obese adults and that lower BDNF levels were strongly associated with cognitive decline in the obese adult population.

The Combined Effects of Obesity and Cardiorespiratory Fitness Are Associated with Response Inhibition: An ERP Study

Obesity and cardiorespiratory fitness exhibit negative and positive impacts, respectively, on executive function. Nevertheless, the combined effects of these two factors on executive function remain unclear. This study investigated the combined effects of obesity and cardiorespiratory fitness on response inhibition of executive function from both behavioral and neuroelectric perspectives. Ninety-six young adults aged between 18 and 25 years were recruited and assigned into four groups: the high cardiorespiratory fitness with normal weight (NH), high cardiorespiratory fitness with obesity (OH), low cardiorespiratory fitness with normal weight (NL), and low cardiorespiratory fitness with obesity (OL) groups. The stop-signal task and its induced P3 component of event-related potentials was utilized to index response inhibition. The participants with higher cardiorespiratory fitness (i.e., the NH and OH groups) demonstrated better behavioral performance (i.e., shorter response times and higher accuracy levels), as well as shorter stop-signal response times and larger P3 amplitudes than their counterparts with low cardiorespiratory fitness (i.e., the NL and OL groups). The study provides first-hand evidence of the substantial effects of cardiorespiratory fitness on the response inhibition, including evidence that the detrimental effects of obesity might be overcome by high cardiorespiratory fitness.

Increasing Objective Cardiometabolic Burden Associated With Attenuations in the P3b Event-Related Potential Component in Older Adults

Cardiometabolic diseases and risk factors increase the risk of late-life cognitive impairment and dementia and have also been associated with detrimental gray and white matter changes. However, the functional brain changes associated with cardiometabolic health in late-life are unclear. We sought to characterize these functional changes by recording event-related potentials (ERPs) during an n-back working memory task (0, 1, and 2 back) in 85 adults (60% female) between 50 and 80 years of age. Due to a stratified recruitment approach, participants varied widely in relation to cognitive function and cardiometabolic health. Standard and objective cut-offs for high blood glucose, waist to hip ratio (i.e., obesity), high blood cholesterol, and hypertension were employed to generate a summative score for cardiometabolic burden (none, one, or two or more above cut-off). Mixed effects modeling (covarying for age and gender) revealed no statistically significant associations between cardiometabolic burden and visual P1 and N1 component amplitudes. There was a significant effect for the P3b component: as cardiometabolic burden increased, P3b amplitude decreased. We show that cardiometabolic factors related to the development of cognitive impairment and dementia in late-life associate with brain activity, as recorded via ERPs. Findings have relevance for the monitoring of lifestyle interventions (typically targeting cardiometabolic factors) in aging, as ERPs may provide a more sensitive measure of change than cognitive performance. Further, our results raise questions related to the findings of a broad range of ERP studies where the groups compared may differ in their cardiometabolic health status (not only in psychological symptomatology).

Associations between Subjective and Objective Measures of the Community Food Environment and Executive Function in Early Childhood

The present study utilized a cross-sectional design to assess whether two indicators of the community food environment, parent perceptions of the community food environment (i.e., as assessed by parent reports of access to, availability, and affordability of foods) and limited food access (via census data), were related to executive function in preschool children. Children were recruited during the 2014–2015 academic year from Head Start and community-based preschools (N = 102) and children’s executive function ability was tested using the Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders task. Multiple linear regression analysis was used, as well as adjusted standard errors to account for clustering at the classroom level. Parent reports of their food environment were significantly related to children’s executive function, such that children living in higher quality community food environments had better executive function. In contrast, limited food access using census data was not significantly related to executive function. The results suggest that parent reports of the community food environment in early childhood may contribute to young children’s cognitive outcomes more so than being in a limited food access area, as these data may not represent individual behaviors or capture the variability of the accessibility and affordability of healthy foods. Policy makers should consider correlations between the food environment and early executive functioning when developing new community health/wellness legislation.

Neurocognitive Inhibitory Control Ability Performance and Correlations with Biochemical Markers in Obese Women

Inhibitory control, the ability to suppress prepotent responses and resist irrelevant stimuli, is thought to play a critical role in the maintenance of obesity. However, electrophysiological performance related to different inhibitory control processes and their relationship with motor response inhibition and cognitive interference and potential biochemical mechanisms in middle-aged, obese women are as yet unclear. This work thus compared different neurocognitive Go/Nogo and Stroop task performance in healthy sedentary normal-weight and obese women, as well as their correlation with biochemical markers. Twenty-six healthy, sedentary obese women (obese group) and 26 age-matched (21–45 years old) normal-weight women (control group) were the participants, categorized by body mass index and percentage fat, as measured with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. They provided a fasting blood sample and performed two cognitive tasks (i.e., Go/Nogo and Stroop tasks) with concomitant electrophysiological recording. The N2 and P3 waveforms of event-related potential (ERP) were recorded. Although the between-group behavioral performance was comparable, the obese group relative to the control group showed significantly longer N2 latency and smaller P3 amplitude in the Stroop task and smaller N2 and P3 amplitudes in the Go/Nogo task. Significant inflammation response indices (e.g., CRP, leptin, adiponectin/leptin ratio) were observed in the obese group. The Nogo P3 amplitude was significantly correlated with the adiponectin/leptin ratio. These findings indicate that healthy obese women still exhibit deviant neurophysiological performance when performing Go/Nogo and Stroop tasks, where the adiponectin/leptin ratio could be one of the influencing factors for the deficit in neural processes of motor response inhibition.

Adiposity is related to neuroelectric indices of motor response preparation in preadolescent children

OBJECTIVE

Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) have been utilized to study the cognitive implications of health-related behaviors, although many questions remain regarding the neural correlates underlying the cognition and adiposity relationship in childhood. Specifically, it is unknown whether excess fat mass is associated with the neural correlates of motor preparation and activation. The present work examined interrelationships between adiposity and ERPs that index inhibition, stimulus evaluation, and motor planning.

METHOD

To further elucidate the neural components of inhibitory control that are sensitive to adiposity, N2, P3, and response- and stimulus-locked Lateralized Readiness Potential (LRPs) were measured while preadolescent children completed an attentional inhibition task. Whole body percent adiposity was measured via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA).

RESULTS

Adiposity was related to the response-locked LRP amplitudes and marginally to P3 amplitude during the incongruent trials, such that participants with less adiposity elicited larger LRP and P3 components. Furthermore, P3 was strongly related to participant reaction times, suggesting that while LRP is strongly associated with adiposity, P3 has a more direct relationship to behavioral task performance.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that while different cognitive functions may be affected by health-related characteristics, stimulus evaluation and motor activation may be particularly sensitive to excess adiposity in children. These findings extend previous work implicating adiposity in cognitive health in the pediatric population.

STUDY IMPORTANCE

Clinical Registry Number: NCT02630667 at https://clinicaltrials.gov.

Visual Hyper-vigilance But Insufficient Mental Representation in Children with Overweight/Obesity: Event-related Potential Study with Visual Go/NoGo Test

PURPOSE

The neural processing of children with overweight/obesity (CWO), may affect their eating behavior. We investigated the visual information processing of CWO under response control condition, by event-related potential (ERP) study, an electrophysiologic study for cognitive mechanism.

METHODS

Seventeen CWO (mean age: 10.6±1.9), and 17 age-matched non-obese children (NOC), participated in the study. Neurocognitive function tests and visual ERP under Go/NoGo conditions, were implemented. Area amplitudes of major ERP components (P1, N1, P2, N2, and P3) from four scalp locations (frontal, central, parietal, and occipital), were analyzed.

RESULTS

For Go and NoGo conditions, CWO had significantly greater occipital P1, fronto-central N1, and P2 amplitudes compared with NOC. P2 amplitude was significantly greater in CWO, than in NOC, at the frontal location. N2 amplitude was not significantly different, between CWO and NOC. For CWO and NOC, Go P3 amplitude was highest at the parietal location, and NoGo P3 amplitude was highest at the frontal location. In Go and NoGo conditions, P3 amplitude of CWO was significantly less than in NOC.

CONCLUSION

The greater P1, N1, and P2 suggested hyper-vigilance to visual stimuli of CWO, but the smaller P3 suggested insufficient mental representation of them. Such altered visual processing, may affect the eating behavior of CWO.

Attentional bias and response inhibition in severe obesity with food disinhibition: a study of P300 and N200 event-related potential

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

In obesity there is growing evidence for common mechanism between food intake regulation and substance use disorders, especially more attentional bias and less cognitive control. In the present study we investigated whether severely obese subjects with or without disordered eating exhibit electroencephalographic (EEG) event-related potential (ERP) modifications as observed in substance abusers.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

A total of 90 women were included; 30 in the normal-weight (NW) group (18.5 < BMI < 24.5 kg/m²; no food disinhibition or restriction on the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire) and 60 participants with BMI ≥ 35 kg/m² were separated into two groups (n = 30): without food disinhibition (disinhibition score ≤8; ObFD- group) and with food disinhibition (score >8; ObFD+). Clinical and metabolic parameters as well as compartmental aspects (Eating Disorders Inventory-2, EDI-2) were assessed. Participants underwent an ERP recording with an auditory oddball paradigm.

RESULTS

The mean ± SD P300 amplitudes in Pz were significantly (p < 0.05) lower in ObFD- (12.4 ± 4.6) and ObFD+ (12.5 ± 4.4) groups than in the NW group (15.8 ± 5.9). The mean ± SD N200 amplitude in Cz was significantly lower in the ObFD- group (-2.0 ± 5.4) than in the NW group (-5.2 ± 4.2 vs; p = 0.035). N200 Cz amplitude was correlated with EDI-2 Binge eating risk score (ρ = 0.331; p = 0.01), EDI-2 Body Dissatisfaction score (ρ = 0.351; p = 0.007), and Drive for Thinness score (ρ = 0.26; p = 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provides evidence for reduction of P300 and N200 amplitude in obese women and that N200 amplitude may be related to more disordered eating and eating disorder risk. This leads to consider attentional bias and response inhibition as core mechanisms in obesity and as possible targets for new therapeutic strategy.

Oral Glucose Tolerance is Associated with Neuroelectric Indices of Attention Among Adults with Overweight and Obesity

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to elucidate the relationship between glucose levels and insulin resistance and sensitivity obtained from oral glucose tolerance tests and neurophysiological indices of attention among adults with overweight and obesity.

METHODS

Forty adults with overweight or obesity (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m² ) underwent dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry to assess visceral adipose tissue. Repeated venous blood samples were collected during an oral glucose tolerance test to measure insulin resistance (homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance) and indices of insulin sensitivity (Matsuda index and Stumvoll metabolic clearance rate). Attention was assessed using event-related brain potentials recorded during a visual oddball task. Amplitude and latency of the P3 wave form in a central-parietal region of interest were used to index attentional resource allocation and information processing speed.

RESULTS

Following adjustment for visceral adipose tissue, reduced values of Matsuda index and Stumvoll metabolic clearance rate (indicating poor insulin sensitivity) were correlated with longer peak latency, whereas insulin area under the curve was positively related to peak latency, indicating slower information processing. Individuals with decreased insulin sensitivity (Matsuda index < 4.3) had significantly longer P3 latencies compared with individuals with normal insulin sensitivity.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher fasting glucose, but not homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance, and reduced indices of glucose sensivity are associated with decrements in attention characterized by slower reaction time and slower information processing speed among adults with overweight and obesity.

The Associations between Adiposity, Cognitive Function, and Achievement in Children

Although obesity has been related to measures of academic achievement and cognition in children, the influence of fat distribution, specifically visceral adiposity, on select aspects of achievement and cognitive function remains poorly characterized among preadolescent children.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the relation of adiposity, particularly visceral adipose tissue (VAT), on achievement and cognitive function among children.

METHODS

Children with obesity (ages 8-9 yr old, N = 55, 35 females) completed cognitive and academic tests. Normal weight children (N = 55, 35 females) were matched to this group on demographic characteristics and aerobic fitness. Covariate analyses included age, Brief Intellectual Ability, socioeconomic status, and fat-free V˙O2 (V˙O2 peak adjusted for lean mass; mL·kg lean·min). Adiposity (i.e., whole body percent fat, subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue, and VAT) was assessed using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry.

RESULTS

The results of this study revealed that, relative to their normal weight counterparts, children with obesity had significantly lower performance on tests of reading and math. Analyses revealed that among children with obesity, %Fat and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue were not related to cognitive abilities. However, higher VAT was associated with poorer intellectual abilities (Ps ≤ 0.04) and cognitive performance (i.e., thinking ability and cognitive efficiency, Ps ≤ 0.04). However, among normal weight children, VAT was positively associated with intellectual abilities and cognitive efficiency.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the results suggest that VAT was selectively and negatively related with cognition among children with obesity. Along with the dangerous metabolic nature of VAT, its detrimental relationship with obese children's intellectual and cognitive functioning is concerning.

The value of instability: an investigation of intrasubject variability in brain activity among obese adolescent girls

BACKGROUND

The present study investigated the value of intrasubject variability (ISV) as a metric for revealing differences in cognition and brain activation associated with an obese versus lean body mass.

METHODS

Ninety-six adolescents with a lean body mass (body mass index (BMI) percentile=5-85), and 92 adolescents with an obese body mass (BMI percentile ⩾95), performed two tasks (Stroop and Go/No-Go) challenging response inhibition skills. The s.d. values and averages of their reaction time and P300 electroencephalographic responses to task stimuli were computed across trials.

RESULTS

During the Go/No-Go task, the reaction times of subjects with an obese body mass were more variable than those of their lean body mass peers. Accompanying the greater ISV in reaction times was a group difference in P300 amplitude ISV in the opposite direction across both tasks. The effect sizes associated with these group differences in ISV were marginally greater than the effect sizes for the comparisons of the group means.

CONCLUSIONS

ISV may be superior to the mean as a tool for differentiating groups without significant cognitive impairment. The co-occurrence of reduced ISV in P300 amplitude and elevated ISV in reaction time may indicate a constraint among obese adolescent girls in the range of information processing strategies and neural networks that can compete to optimize response output. It remains to be determined whether this decrement in neural plasticity has implications for their problem solving skills as well as their response to weight management interventions.

Diet, gut microbiota and cognition

The consumption of a diet high in fat and sugar can lead to the development of obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), cardiovascular disease and cognitive decline. In the human gut, the trillions of harmless microorganisms harboured in the host's gastrointestinal tract are called the 'gut microbiota'. Consumption of a diet high in fat and sugar changes the healthy microbiota composition which leads to an imbalanced microbial population in the gut, a phenomenon known as "gut dysbiosis". It has been shown that certain types of gut microbiota are linked to the pathogenesis of obesity. In addition, long-term consumption of a high fat diet is associated with cognitive decline. It has recently been proposed that the gut microbiota is part of a mechanistic link between the consumption of a high fat diet and the impaired cognition of an individual, termed "microbiota-gut-brain axis". In this complex relationship between the gut, the brain and the gut microbiota, there are several types of gut microbiota and host mechanisms involved. Most of these mechanisms are still poorly understood. Therefore, this review comprehensively summarizes the current evidence from mainly in vivo (rodent and human) studies of the relationship between diet, gut microbiota and cognition. The possible mechanisms that the diet and the gut microbiota have on cognition are also presented and discussed.

Obesity, Cardiovascular Fitness, and Inhibition Function: An Electrophysiological Study

The purpose of the present study was to examine how obesity and cardiovascular fitness are associated with the inhibition aspect of executive function from behavioral and electrophysiological perspectives. One hundred college students, aged 18–25 years, were categorized into four groups of equal size on the basis of body mass index and cardiovascular fitness: a normal-weight and high-fitness (NH) group, an obese-weight and high-fitness (OH) group, a normal-weight and low-fitness (NL) group, and an obese-weight and low-fitness (OL) group. Behavioral measures of response time and number of errors, as well as event-related potential measures of P3 and N1, were assessed during the Stroop Task. The results revealed that, in general, the NH group exhibited shorter response times and larger P3 amplitudes relative to the NL and OL groups, wherein the OL group exhibited the longest response time in the incongruent condition. No group differences in N1 indices were also revealed. These findings suggest that the status of being both normal weight and having high cardiovascular fitness is associated with better behavioral and later stages of electrophysiological indices of cognitive function.

The Neurocognitive Performance of Visuospatial Attention in Children with Obesity

The present study investigates the behavioral performance and event-related potentials (ERPs) in children with obesity and healthy weight children when performing a visuospatial attention task. Twenty-six children with obesity (obese group) and 26 healthy weight children (control group) were recruited. Their behavioral performance during a variant of the Posner paradigm was measured, and brain ERPs were recorded concurrently. The behavioral data revealed that the obese group responded more slowly, especially in the invalid condition, and exhibited a deficit in attentional inhibition capacity as compared to the control group. In terms of cognitive electrophysiological performance, although the obese group did not show significant differences on P3 latency elicited by the target stimuli when compared to the control group, they exhibited smaller P3 amplitudes when performing the visuospatial attention task. These results broaden previous findings, and indicate that childhood obesity is associated with a reduced ability to modulate the executive function network which supports visuospatial attention.

Visual and brainstem auditory evoked potentials in children with obesity

AIMS

The aim of our study is to investigate alterations in visual evoked potentials (VEP) and brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEP) in children with obesity.

METHODS

A total of 96 children, with a mean age of 12.1±2.0 years (range 9-17 years, 63 obese and 33 age and sex-matched control subjects) were included in the study. Laboratory tests were performed to detect insulin resistance (IR) and dyslipidemia. The latencies and amplitudes of VEP and BAEP were measured in healthy and obese subjects.

RESULTS

The VEP P100, BAEP interpeak latency (IPL) I-III and IPL I-V averages of obese children were significantly longer than the control subjects. When the obese group was divided into two subgroups, those with IR and without IR, BAEP wave I, wave III and P100 wave latencies were found to be longer in the group with IR. A statistically significant correlation was observed between BAEP wave I latency, IPL I-V, IPL I-III and the homeostatic model assessment insulin resistance (HOMA IR) index and fasting insulin level.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that VEP and BAEP can be used to determine early subclinical on auditory and visual functions of obese children with insulin resistance.

Visual illusions and inattention: Their association with adiposity among adolescent girls

The Delboeuf concentric circle illusion is frequently invoked as an explanation for the hypothesized association between dinner plate size and overeating. We examined its association with adiposity among 162 girls, aged 14-18 years. We also examined the association of adiposity with neural and behavioral responses during a separate visual discrimination task. The analysis showed that girls with a body mass index percentile ≥ 85, or with greater triceps skinfold thickness, exhibited less sensitivity to the Delboeuf illusion than girls with normal adiposity. The excess adiposity group also exhibited significantly smaller electroencephalographic responses and more errors during the separate visual discrimination task. In combination, the findings from the two tasks suggest that girls with an elevated body mass are less sensitive to visual cues in their environment. The implications of these findings for weight loss education should be considered.

IV. The cognitive implications of obesity and nutrition in childhood

The prevalence of childhood obesity in the United States has tripled since the 1980s and is strongly linked to the early onset of several metabolic diseases. Recent studies indicate that lower cognitive function may be another complication of childhood obesity. This review considers the research to date on the role of obesity and nutrition on childhood cognition and brain health. Although a handful of studies point to a maladaptive relationship between obesity and aspects of cognitive control, remarkably little is known regarding the impact of fat mass on brain development and cognitive function. Further, missing from the literature is the role of nutrition in the obesity-cognition interaction. Nutrition may directly or indirectly influence cognitive performance via several pathways including provision of key substrates for optimal brain health, modulation of gut microbiota, and alterations in systemic energy balance. However, in the absence of malnutrition, the functional benefits of specific nutrient intake on particular cognitive domains are not well characterized. Here, we examine the literature linking childhood obesity and cognition while considering the effects of nutritional intake. Possible mechanisms for these relationships are discussed and suggestions are made for future study topics. Although childhood obesity prevalence rates in some developed countries have recently stabilized, significant disparities remain among groups based on sex and socioeconomic status. Given that the elevated prevalence of pediatric overweight and obesity may persist for the foreseeable future, it is crucial to develop a comprehensive understanding of the influence of obesity and nutrition on cognition and brain health in the pediatric population.

The Relationship of Health Behaviors to Childhood Cognition and Brain Health

Background: Physical activity and aerobic fitness have been shown to have positive implications for children's cognitive performance and brain structure and function. In addition, emerging evidence suggests that excess body mass is related to decreased cognitive performance and differential brain structure and function. Recently, several randomized controlled trials have provided causal evidence for the beneficial effects of daily physical activity on cognition and its neural underpinnings. However, the data linking excess body mass to compromised cognitive function are largely correlational since trials that manipulate body mass to determine changes in brain and cognition remain sparse. Such studies are sorely needed to provide strong evidence for the relation of childhood health behaviors to not only physical, but brain health as well. Summary: This manuscript provides a brief review of the current literature on physical activity and excess body mass on brain structure, brain function, and an aspect of cognition known as executive control, which refers to cognitive processes involved in the intentional component of environmental interaction. Generally, the findings indicate that daily physical activity or higher aerobic fitness is related to greater volume and integrity of brain structure, efficient and effective brain function, and superior executive control. Alternatively, excess body mass is related to decreased integrity of brain structure, less effective brain function, and poorer executive control. Key Messages: The findings have considerable implications for lifespan health and effective functioning, and demonstrate that childhood health behaviors have implications not only for cognitive and brain health but also for scholastic performance and educational attainment.

Inhibitory control in otherwise healthy overweight 10-year-old children

BACKGROUND

Preventing obesity is a worldwide public health priority. In vulnerable children living in obesogenic environments, with easy access to high-caloric food, alterations in inhibitory control functions might favor excessive food intake and affect energy regulation. We hypothesized that overweight/obese children would present lower inhibitory control in comparison to normal weight children.

METHODS

We measured inhibitory control functions in 93 otherwise healthy overweight/obese and 92 normal weight 10-year-old children using the Stroop test and the Go/No-Go task. Event-related potentials were recorded during the Go/No-Go task.

RESULTS

Overweight/obese children showed slower reaction times (1248.6 ms (95% confidence interval (CI): 1182.9-1314.3) vs 1149.0 ms (95% CI: 1083.0-1215.1)) on the Stroop test, higher reaction time variability (0.25 (95% CI: 0.22-0.27) vs 0.21 (95% CI: 0.19-0.24)) on the Go/No-Go task and decreased P300 amplitude (4.1 μV (95% CI: 3.0-5.2) vs 6.4 μV (95% CI: 5.2-7.6)) on event-related potentials compared with normal weight children.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate altered inhibitory control functions in otherwise healthy overweight/obese children, which might contribute to their excessive food consumption.

Cognitive control in preadolescent children with risk factors for metabolic syndrome

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between cognitive control and metabolic syndrome (MetS) risk factors in preadolescent children while controlling for aerobic fitness and weight status.

METHODS

Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted using aerobic fitness, demographic, and MetS risk-factor variables in a sample of 2nd- and 3rd-grade children (n = 139) who performed a modified version of a flanker task to assess cognitive control. Flanker performance was also compared between children that met no MetS risk-factor criteria (n = 70), and children who met 1 criterion or more (n = 69).

RESULTS

Regression analyses indicated that after controlling for demographic variables and fitness, HDL cholesterol exhibited an independent negative association with flanker reaction time (RT). Group comparisons further revealed that children with no risk factors demonstrated overall shorter RT than the at-risk group. In addition, at-risk children exhibited larger accuracy-interference scores (i.e., poorer performance) for the more difficult conditions of the flanker task that required the up-regulation of cognitive control to meet elevated task demands.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings are consonant with the previous literature reporting a beneficial influence of aerobic fitness on cognitive control, and reveal new evidence that children without risk factors for MetS exhibit better inhibitory control and increased cognitive flexibility than do at-risk children. In addition to aerobic fitness, these risk factors may serve as important biomarkers for understanding the potential cognitive implications of MetS risk in younger generations.

Who gains? Genetic and neurophysiological correlates of BMI gain upon college entry in women

The present investigation examined P3 event-related electroencephalographic potentials and a short and selected list of addiction-related candidate gene single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within 84 female students, aged 18-20 yrs. The students were assigned to groups defined by the presence versus absence of a positive body mass index (BMI) change from the pre-college physical exam to the current day. Analyses revealed significantly greater P3 latencies and reduced P3 amplitudes during a response inhibition task among students who exhibited a BMI gain. BMI gain was also significantly associated with a ANKK1 SNP previously implicated in substance dependence risk. In logistic regression analyses, P3 latencies at the frontal electrode and this ANKK1 genotype correctly classified 71.1% of the students into the BMI groups. The present findings suggest that heritable indicators of impaired response inhibition can differentiate students who may be on a path toward an overweight or obese body mass.

The emerging role of dietary fructose in obesity and cognitive decline

The incidence of obesity has increased dramatically over the past several years, and in parallel, so has the prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Numerous studies have demonstrated that both obesity and T2D are associated with lower cognitive performance, cognitive decline, and dementia. Intake of dietary fructose has also increased. In fact, high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) accounts for as much as 40% of caloric sweeteners used in the United States. Given the increase in the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), characterized by an age-related decline in memory and cognitive functioning, in this report we review the effects of obesity on cognitive performance and the impact of high fructose intake in promoting cognitive decline. The paper then considers the effects of omega-3 fatty acids (FAs), which have been linked to promising results in cognitive function including ameliorating the impact of a high-fructose diet.