Radiotherapy and androgen deprivation in combination after local surgery (RADICALS): a new Medical Research Council/National Cancer Institute of Canada phase III trial of adjuvant treatment after radical prostatectomy

Fully automated radiotherapy treatment planning: A scan to plan challenge

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Over the past decade, tools for automation of various sub-tasks in radiotherapy planning have been introduced, such as auto-contouring and auto-planning. The purpose of this study was to benchmark what degree of automation is possible.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A challenge to perform automated treatment planning for prostate and prostate bed radiotherapy was set up. Participants were provided with simulation CTs and a treatment prescription and were asked to use automated tools to produce a deliverable radiotherapy treatment plan with as little human intervention as possible. Plans were scored for their adherence to the protocol when assessed using consensus expert contours.

RESULTS

Thirteen entries were received. The top submission adhered to 81.8% of the minimum objectives across all cases using the consensus contour, meeting all objectives in one of the ten cases. The same system met 89.5% of objectives when assessed with their own auto-contours, meeting all objectives in four of the ten cases. The majority of systems used in the challenge had regulatory clearance (Auto-contouring: 82.5%, Auto-planning: 77%). Despite the 'hard' rule that participants should not check or edit contours or plans, 69% reported looking at their results before submission.

CONCLUSIONS

Automation of the full planning workflow from simulation CT to deliverable treatment plan is possible for prostate and prostate bed radiotherapy. While many generated plans were found to require none or minor adjustment to be regarded as clinically acceptable, the result indicated there is still a lack of trust in such systems preventing full automation.

Histologically Overt Stromal Response and the Risk of Progression after Radical Prostatectomy for Prostate Cancer

PURPOSE

Given the variable clinical course of prostate cancer and the limitations of current prognostic factors, this study was conducted to investigate the impact of a histologically overt stromal response (HOST-response) to prostate cancer on clinical outcomes after radical prostatectomy.

METHODS

This retrospective analysis utilized The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) to evaluate data from individuals with a confirmed diagnosis of prostate cancer who underwent radical prostatectomy and had available pathology slides. These slides were assessed for the presence of a HOST-response, similar to desmoplasia. The primary endpoint was progression-free survival (PFS). A multivariable competing risk regression analysis was used to assess whether a significant association existed between HOST-response and PFS, adjusting for known prostate cancer prognostic factors.

RESULTS

Among the 348 patients analyzed, 166 (47.70%) demonstrated a HOST-response. After a median follow-up of 37.87 months (IQR: 21.20, 65.50), the presence of a HOST-response was significantly associated with a shorter PFS (SDHR, 2.10; 95% CI, 1.26 to 3.50; p = 0.004), after adjusting for covariates.

CONCLUSIONS

HOST-response in prostate cancer patients treated with radical prostatectomy is significantly associated with reduced PFS, suggesting a potential benefit from adjuvant therapy and highlighting the need for further investigation in a prospective randomized clinical trial.

Prostate-Specific Antigen as an Ultrasensitive Biomarker for Patients with Early Recurrent Prostate Cancer: How Low Shall We Go? A Systematic Review

Serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) needs to be monitored with ultrasensitive PSA assays (uPSAs) for oncologists to be able to start salvage radiotherapy (SRT) while PSA is <0.5 µg/L for patients with prostate cancer (PCa) relapsing after a radical prostatectomy (RP). Our systematic review (SR) aimed to summarize uPSAs for patients with localized PCa. The SR was registered as InPLASY2023110084. We searched for studies on Google Scholar, PUBMED and reference lists of reviews and studies. We only included studies on uPSAs published in English and excluded studies of women, animals, sarcoidosis and reviews. Of the 115 included studies, 39 reported PSA assay methods and 76 reported clinical findings. Of 67,479 patients, 14,965 developed PSA recurrence (PSAR) and 2663 died. Extremely low PSA nadir and early developments of PSA separated PSAR-prone from non-PSAR-prone patients (cumulative p value 3.7 × 1012). RP patients with the lowest post-surgery PSA nadir and patients who had the lowest PSA at SRT had the fewest deaths. In conclusion, PSA for patients with localized PCa in the pre-PSAR phase of PCa is strongly associated with later PSAR and survival. A rising but still exceedingly low PSA at SRT predicts a good 5-year overall survival.

Dose-Volume Histogram Parameters and Quality of Life in Patients with Prostate Cancer Treated with Surgery and High-Dose Volumetric-Intensity-Modulated Arc Therapy to the Prostate Bed

INTRODUCTION

Prostate bed radiotherapy (RT) is a major affecter of patients' long-term quality of life (QoL). To ensure the best possible outcome of these patients, dose constraints are key for optimal RT planning and delivery. However, establishing refined dose constraints requires access to patient-level data. Therefore, we aimed to provide such data on the relationship between OAR and gastrointestinal (GI) as well as genitourinary (GU) QoL outcomes of a homogenous patient cohort who received dose-intensified post-operative RT to the prostate bed. Furthermore, we aimed to conduct an exploratory analysis of the resulting data.

METHODS

Patients who were treated with prostate bed RT between 2010 and 2020 were inquired about their QoL based on the Expanded Prostate Cancer Index Composite (EPIC). Those (n = 99) who received volumetric arc therapy (VMAT) of at least 70 Gy to the prostate bed were included. Dose-volume histogram (DVH) parameters were gathered and correlated with the EPIC scores.

RESULTS

The median age at the time of prostate bed RT was 68.9 years, and patients were inquired about their QoL in the median 2.3 years after RT. The median pre-RT prostate-specific antigen (PSA) serum level was 0.35 ng/mL. The median duration between surgery and RT was 1.5 years. The median prescribed dose to the prostate bed was 72 Gy. A total of 61.6% received prostate bed RT only. For the bladder, the highest level of statistical correlation (p < 0.01) was seen for V10-20Gy, Dmean and Dmedian with urinary QoL. For bladder wall, the highest level of statistically significant correlation (p < 0.01) was seen for V5-25Gy, Dmean and Dmedian with urinary QoL. Penile bulb V70Gy was statistically significantly correlated with sexual QoL (p < 0.05). A larger rectal volume was significantly correlated with improved bowel QoL (p < 0.05). Sigmoid and urethral DVH parameters as well as the surgical approach were not statistically significantly correlated with QoL.

CONCLUSION

Specific dose constraints for bladder volumes receiving low doses seem desirable for the further optimization of prostate bed RT. This may be particularly relevant in the context of the aspiration of establishing focal RT of prostate cancer and its local recurrences. Our comprehensive dataset may aid future researchers in achieving these goals.

Treatment-related toxicity using prostate bed versus prostate bed and pelvic lymph node radiation therapy following radical prostatectomy: A national population-based study

Purpose There is debate about the effectiveness and toxicity of pelvic lymph node (PLN) irradiation in addition to prostate bed radiotherapy when used to treat disease recurrence following radical prostatectomy. We compared toxicity from radiation therapy (RT) to the prostate bed and pelvic lymph nodes (PBPLN-RT) with prostatebed only radiation therapy (PBO-RT) following radical prostatectomy. Methods and Materials Patients with prostate cancer who underwent post-prostatectomy RT between 2010 and 2016 were identified by using the National Prostate Cancer Audit (NPCA) database. Follow-up data was available up to December 31, 2018. Validated outcome measures, based on a framework of procedural and diagnostic codes, were used to capture ≥Grade 2 gastrointestinal (GI) and genitourinary (GU) toxicity. An adjusted competing-risks regression analysis estimated subdistribution hazard ratios (sHR). A sHR > 1 indicated a higher incidence of toxicity with PBPLN-RT than with PBO-RT. Results 5-year cumulative incidences in the PBO-RT (n = 5,087) and PBPLNRT (n = 593) groups was 18.2% and 15.9% for GI toxicity, respectively. For GU toxicity it was 19.1% and 20.7%, respectively. There was no evidence of difference in GI or GU toxicity after adjustment between PBO-RT and PBPLN-RT (GI: adjusted sHR, 0.90, 95% CI, 0.67-1.19; P = 0.45); (GU: adjusted sHR, 1.19, 95% CI, 0.99-1.44; P = 0.09). Conclusions This national population-based study found that including PLNs in the radiation field following radical prostatectomy is not associated with a significant increase in rates of ≥Grade 2 GI or GU toxicity at 5 years.

Utilizing clinical, pathological and radiological information to guide postoperative radiotherapy in prostate cancer

INTRODUCTION

A detectable and rising PSA following radical prostatectomy is indicative of recurrent prostate cancer. Salvage radiotherapy (SRT) with/without androgen deprivation therapy represents the main treatment option for these patients and has been historically associated with a biochemical control rate of ~70%. To determine the optimal timing, diagnostic workup, radiotherapy dosefractionation, treatment volume, and use of systemic therapy, several informative studies have been conducted in the last decade.

AREAS COVERED

This review examines the recent evidence to guide radiotherapy decision making in the SRT setting. Key topics include adjuvant vs salvage RT, utilization of molecular imaging and genomic classifiers, length of androgen deprivation therapy, inclusion of elective pelvic volume, and emerging role for hypofractionation.

EXPERT OPINION

Recently reported trials, conducted in an era prior to the routine use of molecular imaging and genomic classifiers, have been pivotal in establishing the current standard of care for SRT in prostate cancer. However, decisions about radiation treatment and systemic therapy may be tailored based on available prognostic and predictive biomarkers. Data from contemporary clinical trials are awaited to define and establish individualized, biomarker-driven approaches for SRT.

Anti-Androgen Therapy Overcomes the Time Delay in Initiation of Salvage Radiation Therapy and Rescues the Oncological Outcomes in Men with Recurrent Prostate Cancer After Radical Prostatectomy: A Post Hoc Analysis of the RTOG-9601 Trial Data

Background

It is unknown whether the addition of anti-androgen therapy (AAT) to late salvage radiation therapy (sRT) can lead to oncological outcomes equivalent to that of early sRT in men with recurrent prostate cancer (CaP) after surgery.

Methods

Data on 670 men who participated in the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG)-9601 trial and who experienced biochemical recurrence were extracted using the National Clinical Trials Network (NCTN) data archive platform. Patients were stratified into four treatment groups: early sRT (pre-sRT prostate-specific antigen [PSA] < 0.7 ng/mL) and late sRT (pre-sRT PSA ≥ 0.7 ng/mL) with/without concomitant AAT, based on cut-offs reported in the original trial. Time-varying Cox proportional hazards and Fine–Gray competing-risk regression analyses assessed the adjusted hazards of overall mortality, CaP-specific mortality, and metastasis among the four treatment groups.

Results

At 15-years (median follow-up of 14.7 years), for patients treated with early sRT, early sRT with AAT, late sRT, and late sRT with AAT, the overall mortality, CaP-specific mortality, and metastasis rates were 22.9, 22.8, 40.1, and 22.9% (log-rank p = 0.0039), 12.1, 3.9, 22.7, and 8.0% (Gray’s p = 0.0004), and 18.8, 14.6, 35.9, and 19.5% (Gray’s p = 0.0004), respectively. Time-varying multivariable adjusted analysis demonstrated increased hazards of overall mortality in patients receiving delayed sRT versus early sRT (hazards ratio [HR] 1.49, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.02–2.17); however, no difference remained after the addition of concomitant AAT to late sRT (HR 0.85, 95% CI 0.55–1.32, referent early sRT). Likewise, the hazards of cancer-specific mortality and metastatic progression were worse for late sRT when compared with early sRT, but were no different after the addition of AAT to late sRT.

Conclusions

Poorer outcomes associated with late sRT in men with recurrent CaP may be rescued by delivery of concomitant AAT.

Postoperative radiotherapy after upfront radical prostatectomy: debated issues at a turning point-a survey exploring management trends on behalf of AIRO (Italian Association of Radiotherapy and Clinical Oncology)

OBJECTIVES

Postoperative prostate cancer patients are a heterogeneous population, and many prognostic factors (e.g., local staging, PSA kinetics, margin status, histopathological features) may influence their clinical management. In this complex scenario, univocal recommendations are often lacking. For these reasons, the present survey was developed by the Italian Association of Radiotherapy and Clinical Oncology (AIRO) to collect the opinion of Italian radiation oncologists and delineate a representation of current clinical practice in our country.

METHODS

A questionnaire was administered online to AIRO (Italian Association of Radiotherapy and Clinical Oncology) members registered in 2020 with a clinical interest in uro-oncological disease.

RESULTS

Sixty-one per cent of AIRO members answered the proposed survey. Explored topics included career and expertise, indications to adjuvant RT, additional imaging in biochemical recurrence setting, use of salvage radiotherapy (SRT), management of clinically evident locoregional recurrence and future considerations.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, good level of agreement was found between participants for most of the topics. Most debated issues regarded, as expected, implementation of new imaging methods in this setting. Notably, trend in favour of early SRT vs. immediate adjuvant RT was underlined, and preference for global evaluation rather than isolated risk factors for RT indications was noticed.

Impact of Decipher on use of post‐operative radiotherapy: Individual patient analysis of two prospective registries

Objective

To assess the association between Genomic Classifier (GC)‐risk group and post‐radical prostatectomy treatment in clinical practice.

Methods

Two prospective observational cohorts of men with prostate cancer (PCa) who underwent RP in two referral centers and had GC testing post‐prostatectomy between 2013 and 2018 were included. The primary endpoint of the study was to assess the association between GC‐risk group and time to secondary therapy. Univariable (UVA) and multivariable (MVA) Cox proportional hazards models were constructed to assess the association between GC‐risk group and time to receipt of secondary therapy after RP, where secondary therapy is defined as receiving either RT or ADT after RP.

Results

A total of 398 patients are included in the analysis. Patients with high‐GC risk were more likely to receive any secondary therapy (OR: 6.84) compared to patients with low/intermediate‐GC risk. The proportion of high‐GC risk patients receiving RT at 2 years post‐RP was 31.5%, compared to only 6.3% among the low/intermediate‐GC risk patients.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that physicians in routine practice used GC to identify high risk patients who might benefit the most from secondary treatment. As such, GC score was independent predictor of receipt of secondary treatment.

Adjuvant or early salvage radiotherapy for the treatment of localised and locally advanced prostate cancer: a prospectively planned systematic review and meta-analysis of aggregate data

BACKGROUND

It is unclear whether adjuvant or early salvage radiotherapy following radical prostatectomy is more appropriate for men who present with localised or locally advanced prostate cancer. We aimed to prospectively plan a systematic review of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing these radiotherapy approaches.

METHODS

We used a prospective framework for adaptive meta-analysis (FAME), starting the review process while eligible trials were ongoing. RCTs were eligible if they aimed to compare immediate adjuvant radiotherapy versus early salvage radiotherapy, following radical prostatectomy in men (age ≥18 years) with intermediate-risk or high-risk, localised or locally advanced prostate cancer. We searched trial registers and conference proceedings until July 8, 2020, to identify eligible RCTs. By establishing the ARTISTIC collaboration with relevant trialists, we were able to anticipate when eligible trial results would emerge, and we developed and registered a protocol with PROSPERO before knowledge of the trial results (CRD42019132669). We used a harmonised definition of event-free survival, as the time from randomisation until the first evidence of either biochemical progression (prostate-specific antigen [PSA] ≥0·4 ng/mL and rising after completion of any postoperative radiotherapy), clinical or radiological progression, initiation of a non-trial treatment, death from prostate cancer, or a PSA level of at least 2·0 ng/mL at any time after randomisation. We predicted when we would have sufficient power to assess whether adjuvant radiotherapy was superior to early salvage radiotherapy. Investigators supplied results for event-free survival, both overall and within predefined patient subgroups. Hazard ratios (HRs) for the effects of radiotherapy timing on event-free survival and subgroup interactions were combined using fixed-effect meta-analysis.

FINDINGS

We identified three eligible trials and were able to obtain updated results for event-free survival for 2153 patients recruited between November, 2007, and December, 2016. Median follow-up ranged from 60 months to 78 months, with a maximum follow-up of 132 months. 1075 patients were randomly assigned to receive adjuvant radiotherapy and 1078 to a policy of early salvage radiotherapy, of whom 421 (39·1%) had commenced treatment at the time of analysis. Patient characteristics were balanced within trials and overall. Median age was similar between trials at 64 or 65 years (with IQRs ranging from 59 to 68 years) across the three trials and most patients (1671 [77·6%]) had a Gleason score of 7. All trials were assessed as having low risk of bias. Based on 270 events, the meta-analysis showed no evidence that event-free survival was improved with adjuvant radiotherapy compared with early salvage radiotherapy (HR 0·95, 95% CI 0·75-1·21; p=0·70), with only a 1 percentage point (95% CI -2 to 3) change in 5-year event-free survival (89% vs 88%). Results were consistent across trials (heterogeneity p=0·18; I²=42%).

INTERPRETATION

This collaborative and prospectively designed systematic review and meta-analysis suggests that adjuvant radiotherapy does not improve event-free survival in men with localised or locally advanced prostate cancer. Until data on long-term outcomes are available, early salvage treatment would seem the preferable treatment policy as it offers the opportunity to spare many men radiotherapy and its associated side-effects.

FUNDING

UK Medical Research Council.

Differential impact of radiation therapy after radical prostatectomy on recurrence patterns: an assessment using [68Ga]Ga-PSMA ligand PET/CT(MRI)

PURPOSE

To evaluate the differential impact of postoperative radiotherapy (RT) on recurrence patterns in patients treated with radical prostatectomy (RP) using [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-PSMA^HBED-CC conjugate 11 positron emission tomography (PSMA 11-PET).

METHODS

We assessed 162 consecutive patients who experienced biochemical recurrence (BCR) after RP for nonmetastatic prostate cancer (PC). All had at least one positive lesion on imaging. No patient was on androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). Patients were categorized into those who had received adjuvant/salvage RT ± ADT and those who did not (RP only). Lesion- and patient-based analyses were performed. The impact of the radiation field was assessed.

RESULTS

Overall, 57 BCR patients underwent RP only, 105 received postoperative RT. Median PSA was 1.01 ng/ml (IQR 0.58-2). In the lesion-based analysis, compared to the RP only patients, those who had received postoperative RT, had less lymph node (LN) recurrences distal to the common iliac bifurcation (35.2 vs. 57.9%, p = 0.05), but were more likely to harbor positive LNs proximal to the iliac bifurcation and in the presacral (34.2 vs. 12.3%, p = 0.002) areas as well as bone metastases (25.7 vs. 8.8%, p = 0.01). In the patient-based analysis, the patients with postoperative RT after RP had less recurrence in the pelvis only (pelvic LNs and/or prostate bed) (52.4 vs. 79%, p = 0.002), but were more likely to harbor extrapelvic recurrence (41.9 vs. 15.8%, p = 0.001). Patients who received RT to the prostate bed only had more recurrence to the pelvic LN only (54.2% vs. 23.4%, p = 0.002), but less extrapelvic recurrence (31.3 vs. 53.2%, p = 0.03) and less bone recurrence (16.7 vs. 36.2%, p = 0.031) compared to those patients, who received RT to the prostate bed and pelvic nodes.

CONCLUSIONS

Postoperative radiation treatment alters the recurrence pattern in BCR patients after RP. Further prospective studies are needed to establish a decision tree for optimal imaging/management according to previous treatments.

Harnessing the potential of multimodal radiotherapy in prostate cancer

Radiotherapy in combination with androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is a standard treatment option for men with localized and locally advanced prostate cancer. However, emerging clinical evidence suggests that radiotherapy can be incorporated into multimodality therapy regimens beyond ADT, in combinations that include chemotherapy, radiosensitizing agents, immunotherapy and surgery for the treatment of men with localized and locally advanced prostate cancer, and those with oligometastatic disease, in whom the low metastatic burden in particular might be treatable with these combinations. This multimodal approach is increasingly recognized as offering considerable clinical benefit, such as increased antitumour effects and improved survival. Thus, radiotherapy is becoming a key component of multimodal therapy for many stages of prostate cancer, particularly oligometastatic disease.

Association of Presalvage Radiotherapy PSA Levels After Prostatectomy With Outcomes of Long-term Antiandrogen Therapy in Men With Prostate Cancer

Importance

In men with recurrent prostate cancer, addition of long-term antiandrogen therapy to salvage radiotherapy (SRT) was associated with overall survival (OS) in the NRG/RTOG 9601 study. However, hormone therapy has associated morbidity, and there are no validated predictive biomarkers to identify which patients derive most benefit from treatment.

Objective

To examine the role of pre-SRT prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels to personalize hormone therapy use with SRT.

Interventions

Men were randomized to SRT plus high-dose nonsteroidal antiandrogen (bicalutamide, 150 mg/d) or placebo for 2 years.

Design, Setting, and Participants

In this secondary analysis of the multicenter RTOG 9601 double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial conducted from 1998 to 2003 by a multinational cooperative group, men with a positive surgical margin or pathologic T3 disease after radical prostatectomy with pre-SRT PSA of 0.2 to 4.0 ng/mL were included. Analysis was performed between March 4, 2019, and December 20, 2019.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The primary outcome was overall survival (OS). Secondary end points included distant metastasis (DM), other-cause mortality (OCM), and grades 3 to 5 cardiac and neurologic toxic effects. Subgroup analyses were performed using the protocol-specified PSA stratification variable (1.5 ng/mL) and additional PSA cut points, including test for interaction. Competing risk analyses were performed for DM and other-cause mortality (OCM).

Results

Overall, 760 men with PSA elevation after radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer were included. The median (range) age of particpants was 65 (40-83) years. Antiandrogen assignment was associated with an OS benefit in the PSA stratum greater than 1.5 ng/mL (n = 118) with a 25% 12-year absolute benefit (hazard ratio [HR], 0.45; 95% CI, 0.25-0.81), but not in the PSA of 1.5 ng/mL or less stratum (n = 642) (1% 12-year absolute difference; HR, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.66-1.16). In a subanalysis of men with PSA of 0.61 to 1.5 (n = 253), there was an OS benefit associated with antiandrogen assignment (HR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.39-0.94). In those receiving early SRT (PSA ≤0.6 ng/mL, n = 389), there was no improvement in OS (HR, 1.16; 95% CI, 0.79-1.70), an increased OCM hazard (subdistribution HR, 1.94; 95% CI, 1.17-3.20; P = .01), and an increased odds of late grades 3 to 5 cardiac and neurologic toxic effects (odds ratio, 3.57; 95% CI, 1.09-15.97; P = .05).

Conclusions and Relevance

These results suggest that pre-SRT PSA level may be a prognostic biomarker for outcomes of antiandrogen treatment with SRT. In patients receiving late SRT (PSA >0.6 ng/mL, hormone therapy was associated with improved outcomes. In men receiving early SRT (PSA ≤0.6 ng/mL), long-term antiandrogen treatment was not associated with improved OS. Future randomized clinical trials are needed to determine hormonal therapy benefit in this population.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00002874.

Combined Long-Term Androgen Deprivation and Pelvic Radiotherapy in the Post-operative Management of Pathologically Defined High-Risk Prostate Cancer Patients: Results of the Prospective Phase II McGill 0913 Study

Purpose: Following radical prostatectomy, prostate bed radiotherapy (PBRT) has been combined with either long-term androgen deprivation therapy (LT-ADT) or short-term ADT with pelvic lymph node radiotherapy (PLNRT) to provide an oncological benefit in randomized trials. McGill 0913 was designed to characterize the efficacy of combining PBRT, PLNRT, and LT-ADT. It is the first study to do so prospectively.

Methods: In a single arm phase II trial conduced from 2010 to 2016, 46 post-prostatectomy prostate cancer patients at a high-risk for relapse (pathological Gleason 8+ or T3) were assessed for treatment with combined LT-ADT (24 months), PBRT, and PLNRT. Patients received PLNRT and PBRT (44 Gy in 22 fractions) followed by a PBRT boost (22 Gy in 11 fractions). The primary endpoint was progression-free survival (PFS). Toxicity and quality of life (QoL) were evaluated using CTCAE V3.0 and EQ-5D-3L questionnaires, respectively.

Results: Among the 43 patients were treated as per protocol, median PSA was 0.30 μg/L. On surgical pathology, 51% had positive margins, 40% had Gleason 8+ disease, 42% had seminal vesicle involvement, and 19% had lymph node involvement. At a median follow-up of 5.2 years, there were no deaths or clinical progression. At 5 years, PFS was 78.0% (95% Confidence Interval 63.7–95.5%). Not including erectile dysfunction, patients experienced: 14% grade 2 endocrine toxicity while on ADT, one incident of long-term gynecomastia, 5% grade 2 acute urinary toxicity, 5% grade 2 late Urinary toxicity, and 24% long-term hypogonadism. No comparison between the average or minimum self-reported QoL at baseline, during ADT, nor after ADT demonstrated a statistically significant difference.

Conclusions: Combining PBRT, PLNRT, and LT-ADT had an acceptable PFS in patients with significant post-operative risk factors for recurrence. While therapy was well-tolerated, long-term hypogonadism was a substantial risk. Further investigations are needed to determine if this combination is beneficial.

Trial registration: NCT01255891.

Salvage Radiotherapy Versus Hormone Therapy for Prostate-specific Antigen Failure After Radical Prostatectomy: A Randomised, Multicentre, Open-label, Phase 3 Trial (JCOG0401)†

BACKGROUND

No standard therapy has been established for localised prostate cancer patients with prostate-specific antigen (PSA) failure after radical prostatectomy (RP).

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether radiotherapy ± hormone therapy is superior to hormone therapy alone in such patients.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This study is a multicentre, randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial. Patients with localised prostate cancer whose PSA concentrations had decreased to <0.1 ng/ml after RP, and then increased to 0.4-1.0 ng/ml, were randomised to the salvage hormone therapy (SHT) group (80 mg bicalutamide [BCL] followed by luteinising hormone-releasing hormone agonist in case of BCL failure) or the salvage radiation therapy (SRT) ± SHT group (64.8 Gy of SRT followed by the same regimen as in the SHT group in case of SRT failure). From May 2004 to May 2011, 210 patients (105 in each arm) were registered, with the median follow-up being 5.5 yr.

OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The primary endpoint was time to treatment failure (TTF) of BCL.

RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS

TTF of BCL was significantly longer in the SRT ± SHT group (8.6 yr) than in the SHT group (5.6 yr; hazard ratio 0.56, 90% confidence interval [0.40-0.77]; one-sided p =  0.001). Thirty-two of 102 patients (31%) in the SRT ± SHT group did not have SRT treatment failure. However, clinical relapse-free survival and overall survival did not differ between the arms. The most frequent grade 3-4 adverse event was erectile dysfunction (83 patients [80%] in the SHT group vs. 76 [74%] in the SRT ± SHT group). Limitations include the short follow-up periods and surrogate endpoint setting to allow definitive conclusions.

CONCLUSIONS

Initial SRT prolongs TTF of BCL in patients with post-RP PSA failure, indicating that SRT ± SHT is more beneficial than SHT alone.

PATIENT SUMMARY

Patients who have prostate-specific antigen failure after radical prostatectomy benefit from salvage radiation therapy prior to salvage hormone therapy.

Expression of urokinase-type plasminogen activator system in non-metastatic prostate cancer

PURPOSE

To investigate the prognostic role of expression of urokinase-type plasminogen activator system members, such as urokinase-type activator (uPA), uPA-receptor (uPAR), and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), in patients treated with radical prostatectomy (RP) for prostate cancer (PCa).

METHODS

Immunohistochemical staining for uPA system was performed on a tissue microarray of specimens from 3121 patients who underwent RP. Cox regression analyses were performed to investigate the association of overexpression of these markers alone or in combination with biochemical recurrence (BCR). Decision curve analysis was used to assess the clinical impact of these markers.

RESULTS

uPA, uPAR, and PAI-1 were overexpressed in 1012 (32.4%), 1271 (40.7%), and 1311 (42%) patients, respectively. uPA overexpression was associated with all clinicopathologic characteristics of biologically aggressive PCa. On multivariable analysis, uPA, uPAR, and PAI-1 overexpression were all three associated with BCR (HR: 1.75, p < 0.01, HR: 1.22, p = 0.01 and HR: 1.20, p = 0.03, respectively). Moreover, the probability of BCR increased incrementally with increasing cumulative number of overexpressed markers. Decision curve analysis showed that addition of uPA, uPAR, and PAI-1 resulted in a net benefit compared to a base model comparing standard clinicopathologic features across the entire threshold probability range. In subgroup analyses, overexpression of all three markers remained associated with BCR in patients with favorable pathologic characteristics.

CONCLUSION

Overexpression of uPA, uPAR, and PAI-1 in PCa tissue were each associated with worse BCR. Additionally, overexpression of all three markers is informative even in patients with favorable pathologic characteristics potentially helping clinical decision-making regarding adjuvant therapy and/or intensified follow-up.

Urologists' referral and radiation oncologists' treatment patterns regarding high-risk prostate cancer patients receiving radiotherapy within 6 months after radical prostatectomy: A prospective cohort analysis

INTRODUCTION

Previous studies have observed low rates of adjuvant radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy (RP) for high-risk prostate cancer patients. However, it is not clear the extent to which these low rates are driven by urologists' referral and radiation oncologists' treatment patterns.

METHOD

The Clinician-Led Improvement in Cancer Care (CLICC) implementation trial was conducted in nine public hospitals in New South Wales, Australia. Men who underwent RP for prostate cancer during 2013-2015 and had at least one high-risk pathological feature of extracapsular extension, seminal vesicle invasion and/or positive surgical margins were included in these analyses. Outcomes were as follows: (i) referral to a radiation oncologist within 4 months after RP ('referred'); (ii) commencement of radiotherapy within 6 months after RP among those who consulted a radiation oncologist ('radiotherapy after consultation').

RESULTS

Three hundred and twenty-five (30%) of 1071 patients were 'referred', and 74 (61%) of 121 patients received 'radiotherapy after consultation'. Overall, the probability of receiving radiotherapy within 6 months after RP was 15%. The probability of being 'referred' increased according to higher 5-year risk of cancer-recurrence (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Only 30% of patients with high-risk features are referred to a radiation oncologist with the likelihood of referral being influenced by the perceived risk of cancer-recurrence as well as the urologist's institutional/personal preference. When patients are seen by a radiation oncologist, 61% receive radiotherapy within 6 months after RP with the likelihood of receiving radiotherapy not being heavily influenced by increasing risk of recurrence. This suggests many suitable patients would receive radiotherapy if referred and seen by a radiation oncologist.

Adjuvant vs. salvage radiation therapy in men with high-risk features after radical prostatectomy: Survey of North American genitourinary expert radiation oncologists

INTRODUCTION

The management of patients with high-risk features after radical prostatectomy (RP) is controversial. Level 1 evidence demonstrates that adjuvant radiation therapy (RT) improves survival compared to no treatment; however, it may overtreat up to 30% of patients, as randomized clinical trials (RCTs) using salvage RT on observation arms failed to reveal a survival advantage of adjuvant RT. We, therefore, sought to determine the current view of adjuvant vs. salvage RT among North American genitourinary (GU) radiation oncology experts.

METHODS

A survey was distributed to 88 practicing North American GU physicians serving on decision-making committees of cooperative group research organizations. Questions pertained to opinions regarding adjuvant vs. salvage RT for this patient population. Treatment recommendations were correlated with practice patterns using Fisher's exact test.

RESULTS

Forty-two of 88 radiation oncologists completed the survey; 23 (54.8%) recommended adjuvant RT and 19 (45.2%) recommended salvage RT. Recommendation of active surveillance for Gleason 3+4 disease was a significant predictor of salvage RT recommendation (p=0.034), and monthly patient volume approached significance for recommendation of adjuvant over salvage RT; those seeing <15 patients/month trended towards recommending adjuvant over salvage RT (p=0.062). No other demographic factors approached significance.

CONCLUSIONS

There is dramatic polarization among North American GU experts regarding optimal management of patients with high-risk features after RP. Ongoing RCTs will determine whether adjuvant RT improves survival over salvage RT. Until then, the almost 50/50 division seen from this analysis should encourage practicing clinicians to discuss the ambiguity with their patients.

First Postprostatectomy Ultrasensitive Prostate-specific Antigen Predicts Survival in Patients with High-risk Prostate Cancer Pathology

BACKGROUND

Ultrasensitive prostate-specific antigen (uPSA) has untapped potential for optimizing management following radical prostatectomy (RP) in terms of facilitating early salvage, minimizing overtreatment, and identifying those at risk of occult systemic disease.

OBJECTIVE

To test first postoperative uPSA for prediction of outcome in patients with adverse pathology after RP.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Patients with extraprostatic extension and/or a positive margin who did not receive immediate adjuvant therapy.

OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

First uPSA was measured at 3 mo after RP. The study endpoints were biochemical relapse (BCR), defined as PSA ≥0.2ng/ml, bone metastasis-free survival (BMFS), prostate cancer-specific survival (PCSS), overall survival (OS), and salvage radiation therapy (SRT) success. Outcome results were compared using the Kaplan-Meier method and multivariate analysis (MVA).

RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS

The cohort consisted of 269 RP patients from 1991-2015 with median follow-up of 77 mo. Sensitivity analysis identified first postoperative uPSA of ≥0.03ng/ml as the optimal threshold for predicting BCR. First postoperative uPSA ≥0.03 versus <0.03ng/ml was associated with worse 5-yr BCR (86%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 71-93% vs 39%, 95% CI 25-51%; p<0.00001), 10-yr BMFS (75%, 95% CI 62-92% vs 95%, 95% CI 88-100%; p=0.0001), 10-yr PCSS (84%, 95% CI 73-96% vs 100%, 95% CI 100-100%; p=0.005), and 10-yr OS (81%, 95% CI 70-93% vs 98%, 95% CI 94-100%; p=0.009). On MVA, first postoperative uPSA ≥0.03ng/ml was an independent predictor of BCR (hazard ratio [HR] 9.4, 95% CI 5.8-15.4; p<0.00001) and the only predictor for BMFS (HR 9.7, 95% CI 2.1-44.6; p=0.0034), PCSS (HR 13.5, 95% CI 1.7-107.9; p=0.014), and OS (HR 5.0, 95% CI 1.4-18.3; p=0.014). Following SRT, first postoperative uPSA ≥0.03ng/ml independently predicted worse BMFS (HR 5.9, 95% CI 1.3-26.9; p=0.021), PCSS (HR 6.9, 95% CI 0.9-55.8; p=0.07), and OS (4.5, 95% CI 1.0-20.1; p=0.057). Limitations include the retrospective design and potential selection bias.

CONCLUSIONS

First postoperative uPSA ≥0.03ng/ml independently predicts BCR, BMFS, PCSS, and OS better than traditional risk factors. SRT alone may be insufficient for patients with high-risk disease when first postoperative uPSA is ≥0.03ng/ml.

PATIENT SUMMARY

When the first postprostatectomy ultrasensitive prostate-specific antigen level is ≥0.03ng/ml, patients are at higher risk of recurrent and occult prostate cancer. They should be considered for early salvage radiotherapy, possibly with hormone therapy.

Radiotherapy for recurrent prostate cancer: 2018 Recommendations of the Australian and New Zealand Radiation Oncology Genito-Urinary group

The management of patients with biochemical, local, nodal, or oligometastatic relapsed prostate cancer has become more challenging and controversial. Novel imaging modalities designed to detect recurrence are increasingly used, particularly PSMA-PET scans in Australia, New Zealand and some European countries. Imaging techniques such as MRI and PET scans using other prostate cancer-specific tracers are also being utilised across the world. The optimal timing for commencing salvage treatment, and the role of local and/or systemic therapies remains controversial. Through surveys of the membership, the Australian and New Zealand Faculty of Radiation Oncology Genito-Urinary Group (FROGG) identified wide variation in the management of recurrent prostate cancer. Following a workshop conducted in April 2017, the FROGG management committee reviewed the literature and developed a set of recommendations based on available evidence and expert opinion, for the appropriate investigation and management of recurrent prostate cancer. These recommendations cover the role and timing of post-prostatectomy radiotherapy, the management of regional nodal metastases and oligometastases, as well as the management of local prostate recurrence after definitive radiotherapy.

Treatment-related toxicity in men who received Intensity-modulated versus 3D-conformal radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy: A national population-based study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

In the post-prostatectomy setting the value of Intensity-modulated (IMRT) relative to 3D-conformal radiotherapy (3D-CRT) in reducing toxicity remains unclear. We compared genitourinary (GU) and gastrointestinal (GI) toxicity after post-prostatectomy IMRT or 3D-CRT.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A population-based study of all patients treated with post-prostatectomy 3D-CRT (n = 2422) and IMRT (n = 603) was conducted between January 1 2010 and December 31 2013 in the English National Health Service. We identified severe GI and GU toxicity using a validated coding-framework and compared IMRT and 3D-CRT using a competing-risks proportional hazards regression analysis.

RESULTS

There was no difference in GI toxicity between patients who received IMRT and 3D-CRT (3D-CRT: 5.8 events/100 person-years; IMRT: 5.5 events/100 person-years; adjusted HR: 0.85, 95%CI: 0.63-1.13; p = 0.26). The GU toxicity rate was lower with IMRT but this effect was not statistically significant (3D-CRT: 5.4 events/100 person-years; IMRT: 3.8 events/100 person-years; adjusted HR: 0.76, 95%CI: 0.55-1.03; p = 0.08).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of post-prostatectomy IMRT compared to 3D-CRT is not associated with a statistically significant reduction in rates of severe GU and GI toxicity, although there is some evidence that GU toxicity is lower with IMRT. We would caution against rapid transition to post-prostatectomy IMRT until further evidence is available supporting its superiority.

Detection of Local Recurrence with 3-Tesla MRI After Radical Prostatectomy: A Useful Method for Radiation Treatment Planning?

BACKGROUND/AIM

Salvage radiotherapy improves biochemical control in patients with recurrence of prostate cancer after prostatectomy. Radiotherapy target volumes of the prostatic fossa are based on empirical data and differ between different guidelines. Localization of recurrence with multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) might be a feasible approach to localize recurrent lesions.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Twenty-one patients with biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy were included (median prostate-specific antigen (PSA) =0.17 ng/ml). Multi-parametric MRI was performed using a 3-T MR system.

RESULTS

Lesions were detected in seven patients with a median PSA of 0.86 ng/ml (minimum= 0.31 ng/ml). Patients without detectable recurrence had a median PSA of 0.12 ng/ml. All patients with detectable lesions responded to radiotherapy. Eleven out of 14 patients without detectable recurrence also responded. Plasma flow in suspicious lesions was correlated with PSA level.

CONCLUSION

Detection of recurrence at the prostatic fossa with our approach was possible in a minority of patients with a low PSA level. Clinical relevance of plasma flow in suspicious lesions should be further investigated.

Salvage radiotherapy in prostate cancer patients with biochemical relapse after radical prostatectomy : Prolongation of prostate-specific antigen doubling time in patients with subsequent biochemical progression

BACKGROUND

In patients with prostate cancer (PCa) and biochemical progression (BP) after radical prostatectomy (RP), salvage radiotherapy (sRT) improves prostate cancer-specific survival (PCSS), but this evidence is based only on retrospective data.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In addition to our previous study of 151 patients with PCa and BP after RP, we performed univariate analyses of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) kinetics during sRT. In 11 patients with BP or initiation of hormonal treatment (HT) within 180 days after sRT, risk factors were assessed using Mann-Whitney U tests. PSA doubling times (PSADT) before and after sRT in 82 patients with BP after sRT were compared by a Wilcoxon test.

RESULTS

After a median follow-up of 82 months, analysis of PSA kinetics during sRT did not show a statistically significant impact on a subsequent BP, PCSS, or overall survival at an administered dose of 30 or 45 Gy. The subgroup analysis of patients with early BP or early HT revealed higher Gleason scores (p = 0.008) and preoperative PSA values (p = 0.005), shorter PSADT prior to sRT (p < 0.0005), and longer time intervals from RP until the start of sRT (p = 0.005) compared to all other patients. In patients with subsequent BP, PSADTs were significantly prolonged after sRT (median PSADT 4.5 months before and 9.9 months after sRT, p < 0.0005).

CONCLUSION

PSA monitoring during sRT did not predict the therapeutic success. Subgroup analysis suggests a lower probability of benefit for patients with the abovenamed risk factors . However, the prolonged PSADT after sRT reflects a benefit of sRT for the vast majority of patients.

Managing Cancer Relapse After Radical Prostatectomy: Adjuvant Versus Salvage Radiation Therapy

An increasing proportion of men are undergoing radical prostatectomy for locally advanced prostate cancer. More than half of men with adverse pathologic features are expected to experience disease recurrence within 10 years. This article discusses the use of postoperative radiation therapy to decrease this risk. Evidence from 3 randomized trials and multiple retrospective studies indicates that either adjuvant or salvage radiation improve biochemical progression-free survival and may improve overall survival. Novel imaging and genomic analysis can improve patient selection for either modality, however current tests are unable to identify all patients who may benefit from additional local therapy.

Contemporary salvage post prostatectomy radiotherapy: Early implementation improves biochemical control

INTRODUCTION

The optimal time to commence salvage radiotherapy (SRT) for a rising PSA post radical prostatectomy is not known. We wished to assess the impact of index PSA (iPSA) level prior to SRT on rates of biochemical failure (BCF) post treatment.

METHODS

Patients referred to our institution for SRT for a rising PSA post surgery were accrued onto a prospective database. Baseline demographic data, tumour and treatment factors were collected including pathologic T and N stage, margin status, Gleason score (GS), lymphovascular space invasion (LVSI), use of androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) and time from surgery to salvage radiotherapy. Our endpoint was time to BCF.

RESULTS

Between January 2008 and December 2013, 189 patients received SRT to a mean dose of 69.8 Gy in 34 fractions using Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy (IMRT). Median follow-up was 50 months. For patients with an iPSA of <0.2 ng/mL (n = 92), iPSA ≥ 0.2 to <1.0 ng/mL (n = 75) and ≥ 1.0 ng/mL (n = 22), rates of BCF at 5 years were 28.3%, 44.3% and 73.7% respectively. Compared to the iPSA <0.2 ng/mL group, the hazard ratios for time to BCF for an iPSA ≥ 0.2 to <1.0 ng/mL was 1.73 (P = 0.05) and >1.0 ng/mL was 3.1 (P = 0.002). Factors predicting time to BCF on univariate analysis included iPSA, GS, T stage, PSA nadir post surgery and LVSI. On multivariate analysis, GS, iPSA, use of ADT, T stage, PSA post surgery nadir and margin status remained significant.

CONCLUSION

Rising iPSA levels are associated with an increasing risk of biochemical failure after adjusting for known prognostic factors and early salvage post prostatectomy radiotherapy is recommended.

Improving postoperative radiotherapy following radical prostatectomy

INTRODUCTION

Prostate cancer has one of the highest incidences in the world, with good curative treatment options like radiotherapy and radical prostatectomy. Unfortunately, about 30% of the patients initially treated with curative intent will develop a recurrence and need adjuvant treatment. Five randomized trials covered the role of postoperative radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy, but there is still a lot of debate about which patients should receive postoperative radiotherapy. Areas covered: This review will give an overview on the available literature concerning post-operative radiotherapy following radical prostatectomy with an emphasis on the five randomized trials. Also, new imaging techniques like prostate-specific membrane antigen positron emission tomography (PSMA-PET) and multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (mp-MRI) and the development of biomarkers like genomic classifiers will be discussed in the search for an improved selection of patients who will benefit from postoperative radiotherapy following radical prostatectomy. With new treatment techniques like Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy, toxicity profiles will be kept low. Expert commentary: Patients with biochemical recurrence following radical prostatectomy with an early rise in prostate-specific antigen (PSA) will benefit most from postoperative radiotherapy. In this way, patients with only high risk pathological features can avoid unnecessary treatment and toxicity, and early intervention in progressing patients would not compromise the outcome.

Prostate bed target interfractional motion using RTOG consensus definitions and daily CT on rails : Does target motion differ between superior and inferior portions of the clinical target volume?

PURPOSE

Using high-quality CT-on-rails imaging, the daily motion of the prostate bed clinical target volume (PB-CTV) based on consensus Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) definitions (instead of surgical clips/fiducials) was studied. It was assessed whether PB motion in the superior portion of PB-CTV (SUP-CTV) differed from the inferior PB-CTV (INF-CTV).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Eight pT2-3bN0-1M0 patients underwent postprostatectomy intensity-modulated radiotherapy, totaling 300 fractions. INF-CTV and SUP-CTV were defined as PB-CTV located inferior and superior to the superior border of the pubic symphysis, respectively. Daily pretreatment CT-on-rails images were compared to the planning CT in the left-right (LR), superoinferior (SI), and anteroposterior (AP) directions. Two parameters were defined: "total PB-CTV motion" represented total shifts from skin tattoos to RTOG-defined anatomic areas; "PB-CTV target motion" (performed for both SUP-CTV and INF-CTV) represented shifts from bone to RTOG-defined anatomic areas (i. e., subtracting shifts from skin tattoos to bone).

RESULTS

Mean (± standard deviation, SD) total PB-CTV motion was -1.5 (± 6.0), 1.3 (± 4.5), and 3.7 (± 5.7) mm in LR, SI, and AP directions, respectively. Mean (± SD) PB-CTV target motion was 0.2 (±1.4), 0.3 (±2.4), and 0 (±3.1) mm in the LR, SI, and AP directions, respectively. Mean (± SD) INF-CTV target motion was 0.1 (± 2.8), 0.5 (± 2.2), and 0.2 (± 2.5) mm, and SUP-CTV target motion was 0.3 (± 1.8), 0.5 (± 2.3), and 0 (± 5.0) mm in LR, SI, and AP directions, respectively. No statistically significant differences between INF-CTV and SUP-CTV motion were present in any direction.

CONCLUSION

There are no statistically apparent motion differences between SUP-CTV and INF-CTV. Current uniform planning target volume (PTV) margins are adequate to cover both portions of the CTV.

Long-term utility of adjuvant hormonal and radiation therapy for patients with seminal vesicle invasion at radical prostatectomy

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the long-term utility of adjuvant therapy after radical prostatectomy (RP) for prostate cancer with seminal vesicle invasion (SVI; pT3b), as the published data are conflicting.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patients with SVI during RP and pelvic lymph node dissection at two major referral centres from 1986 to 2014 were included. Kaplan-Meier analyses and multivariable Cox regressions were used to determine if adjuvant radiotherapy (aRT) and adjuvant hormonal therapy (aHT) were predictors of biochemical recurrence (BCR), cancer-specific mortality (CSM) and overall mortality (OM). Subset analyses were performed for pN0 patients and pN+ patients.

RESULTS

Overall, 3 279 patients with prostate cancer and SVI were included with a median follow-up of 148 months. Considering the whole SVI population, 1 387 (42%) received no adjuvant therapy, 1 179 (36%) received aHT, 461 (14.1%) received aRT, while 252 (7.7%) received both aHT and aRT. The 10-year BCR, CSM, and OM rates were 64%, 14%, and 27%, respectively. In the overall population, aRT and aHT were predictors of BCR, CSM and OM (all P < 0.04). When only pT3bN0 patients were considered, aHT was a significant multivariate predictor of BCR [hazard ratio (HR) 0.50, P < 0.001), CSM (HR 0.62, P = 0.01) and OM (HR 0.75, P = 0.004). Conversely, aRT was not associated with survival outcomes (all P > 0.05). When only the subgroup pT3bN+ was considered, the use of aRT was related to an improvement in CSM (HR 0.65, P = 0.03) and OM (HR 0.78, P = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

aHT + aRT seems to be effective in pT3b patients. However, when stratified according to the presence of nodal metastases, aHT remains effective only in the node-negative subgroup, while aRT remains effective only in the node-positive subgroup. Further data including prospective trials are warranted to study the utility of adjuvant therapies in this setting.

Very Early Salvage Radiotherapy Improves Distant Metastasis-Free Survival

PURPOSE

Early salvage radiotherapy following radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer is commonly advocated in place of adjuvant radiotherapy. We aimed to determine the optimal definition of early salvage radiotherapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a multi-institutional retrospective study of 657 men who underwent salvage radiotherapy between 1986 and 2013. Two comparisons were made to determine the optimal definition of early salvage radiotherapy, including 1) the time from radical prostatectomy to salvage radiotherapy (less than 9, 9 to 21, 22 to 47 or greater than 48 months) and 2) the level of detectable pre-salvage radiotherapy prostate specific antigen (0.01 to 0.2, greater than 0.2 to 0.5 or greater than 0.5 ng/ml). Outcomes included freedom from salvage androgen deprivation therapy, and biochemical relapse-free, distant metastases-free and prostate cancer specific survival.

RESULTS

Median followup was 9.8 years. Time from radical prostatectomy to salvage radiotherapy did not correlate with 10-year biochemical relapse-free survival rates (R² = 0.18). Increasing pre-salvage radiotherapy prostate specific antigen strongly correlated with biochemical relapse-free survival (R² = 0.91). Increasing detectable pre-salvage radiotherapy prostate specific antigen (0.01 to 0.2, greater than 0.2 to 0.5 and greater than 0.5 ng/ml) predicted worse 10-year biochemical relapse-free survival (62%, 44% and 27%), freedom from salvage androgen deprivation therapy (77%, 66% and 49%), distant metastases-free survival (86%, 79% and 66%, each p <0.001) and prostate cancer specific survival (93%, 89% and 80%, respectively, p = 0.001). On multivariable analysis early salvage radiotherapy (prostate specific antigen greater than 0.2 to 0.5 ng/ml) was associated with a twofold increase in biochemical failure, use of salvage androgen deprivation therapy and distant metastases compared to very early salvage radiotherapy (prostate specific antigen 0.01 to 0.2 ng/ml).

CONCLUSIONS

The duration from radical prostatectomy to salvage radiotherapy is not independently prognostic for outcomes after salvage radiotherapy and it should not be used to define early salvage radiotherapy. Grouping all patients with pre-salvage radiotherapy prostate specific antigen 0.5 ng/ml or less may be inadequate to define early salvage radiotherapy and it has a relevant impact on ongoing and future clinical trials.

Quality of Radiation Therapy Referral and Utilisation Post-prostatectomy: A Population-based Study of Time Trends

AIMS

Adjuvant radiotherapy post-prostatectomy has been shown to benefit patients with adverse pathology. It remains unclear whether salvage radiotherapy confers equivalent outcomes. Practice guidelines recommend referral to radiation oncology within 6 months after prostatectomy to discuss adjuvant and salvage radiotherapy. The study objectives were to assess, at a population level: (i) post-prostatectomy referral patterns for radiotherapy; (ii) adjuvant and salvage radiotherapy utilisation; and (iii) time trends in relation to clinical trials and guidelines. These findings provide indications of access to quality care.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study. Electronic radiotherapy consultation and treatment records were linked to the population-based Ontario Cancer Registry. The population included prostate cancer cases treated with prostatectomy in Ontario between 2003 and 2012. Radiotherapy referral and treatment rates over time were analysed using the chi-squared trend test.

RESULTS

Over the study period, 30 447 prostate cancer patients received prostatectomy. The proportion seen by radiation oncology within 6 months after prostatectomy doubled from 10.7% in 2003-2004 to 21.7% in 2011-2012 (P < 0.0001 for trend), with the largest annual percentage difference in 2009-2011 (3.4%). Among 4641 patients seen within 6 months, adjuvant radiotherapy rates remained at 51.0% ± 3.0%. Contemporaneous with radiation oncology referral trends, overall adjuvant radiotherapy use increased from 6.2% in 2003-2004 to 11.0% in 2011-2012 (P < 0.001), while salvage radiotherapy remained at 8.4% ± 0.4%. Consequently, the total proportion receiving radiotherapy within 24 months increased from 14.1% in 2003-2004 to 17.7% in 2009-2010 (P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

There was an increase in access to early radiation oncology referral post-prostatectomy and adjuvant radiotherapy in Ontario between 2003 and 2012, following guideline publication.

Early salvage radiation therapy post-prostatectomy: key considerations

Post-prostatectomy radiotherapy (RT) is commonly employed to maximize oncologic outcomes in patients with pathologic adverse features (adjuvant RT]) or to treat men with prostate-specific antigen or local recurrence after initial observation (salvage RT [SRT]). Randomized controlled trials have been unable to compare adjuvant RT versus SRT; however, there is growing retrospective evidence that observation and early SRT (eSRT) may be a suitable. The issue of patient selection is crucial; several clinical tools and some newer biomarker-based tools might help in this process. Moreover, the optimal prostate-specific antigen threshold for eSRT, the RT dose, the irradiation field and the use of hormonal therapy are still open questions. In this article, we review the current literature on eSRT and provide some insights on what's happening for the future.

Risk of biochemical recurrence and timing of radiotherapy in pT3a N0 prostate cancer with positive surgical margin : A single center experience

BACKGROUND

Despite improved biochemical recurrence-free survival rates by the use of immediate adjuvant radiotherapy (RT) in patients with locally advanced prostate cancer, disagreement about the need and timing of RT remains.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

From 2005-2009, 94 patients presenting with a stage pT3a N0 and microscopic positive resection margin were retrospectively analyzed after radical prostatectomy. Special attention was given to patients' outcome, the frequency of additive RT, and its efficacy.

RESULTS

Median follow-up was 80 months. A total of 71 patients had a negative postoperative prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level (<0.07 ng/ml). Thirty-six of them did not experience any PSA relapse (subgroup 1). Fourteen of them received additive RT and during follow-up all 36 patients remained PSA negative. Of 71 initially PSA-negative patients, 35 had a biochemical relapse (subgroup 2); 28 patients underwent salvage RT. The median PSA value before salvage RT was 0.24 ng/ml and was subsequently negative (<0.07 ng/ml) in 23 patients after RT. Of the entire cohort, 23 patients had persisting PSA after surgery (subgroup 3). Of these, 18 patients received salvage RT at a median PSA level of 0.4 ng/ml. One patient in subgroup 1, 5 patients in subgroup 2, and 9 patients in subgroup 3 had ongoing androgen deprivation therapy.

CONCLUSION

The present study of 94 pT3a N0 R1 prostate cancer patients provides insight into medical care of this patient cohort and underlines the need for additive RT for the majority of patients to achieve long-term biochemical control. Although immediate adjuvant RT was applied with restraint (20 %), during the observation period 60 of 94 patients (63.8 %) received RT - highlighting the need of postoperative treatment.

Salvage radiation therapy following radical prostatectomy. A national Danish study

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this observational cohort study was to evaluate the outcome and prognostic factors following salvage radiotherapy (SRT) in a consecutive national cohort.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Between 2006 and 2010, 259 patients received SRT in Denmark. Patient- and cancer-related characteristics were retrospectively retrieved from patient charts. The primary end point was biochemical progression-free survival (b-PFS).

RESULTS

At the end of follow-up, 51% of the patients displayed a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level <0.1 ng/ml. The three-year b-PFS rate for the total cohort was 57.0%. Nearly half of the patients (44%) received androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) in combination with SRT. Positive surgical tumour margins (p = 0.025) and ADT (p = 0.001) were the only markers independently correlated with b-PFS. In patients who received SRT without ADT, both a pre-SRT PSA level ≤0.5 ng/ml (p = 0.003) and pathological tumour stage T1-T2 (p = 0.036) independently correlated with b-PFS. Moreover, a duration between radical prostatectomy (RP) and SRT ≤29 months (p = 0.035) independently correlated with b-PFS in patients treated with ADT in combination with RT.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients treated for biochemical failure after RP, positive surgical tumour margins and PSA levels ≤0.5 ng/mL at the time of SRT were associated with a favourable outcome. Despite less favourable tumour characteristics, patients receiving SRT and ADT demonstrated improved b-PFS, and in particular, patients with PSA levels >0.2 ng/ml benefitted from additional ADT.

Adjuvant radiotherapy for pathologically advanced prostate cancer improves biochemical recurrence free survival compared to salvage radiotherapy

AIM: To evaluate the long-term outcomes of patients receiving adjuvant and salvage radiotherapy following prostatectomy with adverse pathologic features and an undetectable prostate specific antigen (PSA).

METHODS: A retrospective review was performed of patients who received post-prostatectomy radiation at Loyola University Medical Center between 1992 and 2013. Adverse pathologic features (Gleason score ≥ 8, seminal vesicle invasion, extracapsular extension, pathologic T4 disease, and/or positive surgical margins) and an undetectable PSA following prostatectomy were required for inclusion. Adjuvant patients received therapy with an undetectable PSA, salvage patients following biochemical recurrence (BCR). Post-radiation BCR, overall survival, bone metastases, and initiation of hormonal therapy were assessed. Kaplan-Meier time-to-event analyses and stepwise Cox proportional hazards regression (HR) were performed.

RESULTS: Post-prostatectomy patients (n = 134) received either adjuvant (n = 47) or salvage (n = 87) radiation. Median age at radiotherapy (RT) was 63 years, and median follow-up was 53 mo. Five-year post-radiation BCR-free survival was 78% for adjuvant vs 50% salvage radiotherapy (SRT) (Logrank P = 0.001). Patients with radiation administered following a detectable PSA had an increased risk of BCR compared to undetectable: PSA > 0.0-0.2: HR = 4.1 (95%CI: 1.5-11.2; P = 0.005); PSA > 0.2-1.0: HR = 4.4 (95%CI: 1.6-11.9; P = 0.003); and PSA > 1.0: HR = 52 (95%CI: 12.9-210; P < 0.001). There was no demonstrable difference in rates of overall survival, bone metastases or utilization of hormonal therapy between adjuvant and SRT patients.

CONCLUSION: Adjuvant RT improves BCR-free survival compared to SRT in patients with adverse pathologic features and an undetectable post-prostatectomy PSA.

Prediction of biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy. New tool for selecting candidates for adjuvant radiation therapy

OBJECTIVE

To design a risk summation to select patients for adjuvant radiation therapy after prostatectomy.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

A retrospective study was conducted on 629 patients with localised prostate cancer (pN0-pNx) who were treated with prostatectomy and with a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) value <0.2ng/mL at 2-3 months. Biochemical recurrence was defined as a PSA >0.4ng/mL. A multivariate Cox regression analysis was performed. A score (0-2) was assigned according to the hazard ratio of the significant variables. The score summation defined the risk summation.

RESULTS

A total of 19.7% of the patients were pT3, 24.2% had a Gleason score ≥ 8, and 26.3% had positive surgical margins. The median follow-up was 82 months. Some 26.6% of the patients experienced biochemical recurrence. The identified prognostic variables independent of biochemical recurrence were a Gleason score =7 (4+3) (HR, 2.01; P=.008), a Gleason score ≥ 8 (HR, 3.07; P <.001), a pT3b stage (HR, 1.93; p=.008) and a positive surgical margin (HR, 2.20; P<.001). We assigned 0 points to patients without risk prognosis variables; 1 point to patients with Gleason scores =7 (4+3), pT3b or positive surgical margins; and 2 points to patients with Gleason scores ≥ 8. The patients with a risk summation ≤ 2 had >50% survival free of biochemical recurrence at 5 and 8 years. In contrast, the patients with a risk summation ≥ 3 had <44% survival free of biochemical recurrence.

CONCLUSION

The patients with a risk summation ≤ 2 did not benefit from adjuvant radiation therapy, while the patients with a risk summation ≥ 3 might benefit from adjuvant radiation therapy.

Management of prostate cancer patients following radiation therapy after radical surgery referred from urology to radiation oncology departments in Spain

PURPOSE

To define usual clinical management of prostate cancer (PCa) patients following postoperative radiation therapy (RT) (adjuvant or salvage) and its evolution over time in radiation oncology (RO) departments in Spain.

METHODS

An epidemiological, cross-sectional, multicentre study was conducted. 567 PCa patients that had undergone radical prostatectomy (RP) and received postoperative RT between February and December of both 2006 and 2011 participated in the study. In patients from 2006, health-related quality of life (HRQoL) was assessed using the EPIC questionnaire. Investigators completed a specific survey on two clinical cases of adjuvant and salvage RT.

RESULTS

70.6 % of patients received salvage RT versus 29.4 % who received adjuvant RT; no significant differences were found in terms of frequency for each procedure between both the years. Regarding the survey, a positive surgical margin was the main criteria used in adjuvant RT decision making. In terms of salvage RT scenario, 85.7 % of the investigators stated that adjuvant RT should have been offered instead, 81.4 % of the investigators agreed on a PSA score >0.2 ng/mL as the main criteria for identifying biochemical recurrence after RP, and 67.4 % of investigators did not consider any PSA score for ruling out salvage RT treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Most patients are referred to RO departments to receive salvage RT. Despite the publication of three IA evidence level randomized clinical trials, the patterns for using adjuvant and salvage RT did not change from 2006 to 2011, although patients' profile did. A consensus regarding postoperative RT indications should be reached in order to correct this controversial situation.

Rationale and development of image-guided intensity-modulated radiotherapy post-prostatectomy: the present standard of care?

The indications for post-prostatectomy radiotherapy have evolved over the last decade, although the optimal timing, dose, and target volume remain to be well defined. The target volume is susceptible to anatomical variations with its borders interfacing with the rectum and bladder. Image-guided intensity-modulated radiotherapy has become the gold standard for radical prostate radiotherapy. Here we review the current evidence for image-guided techniques with intensity-modulated radiotherapy to the prostate bed and describe current strategies to reduce or account for interfraction and intrafraction motion.

Regional hyperthermia and moderately dose-escalated salvage radiotherapy for recurrent prostate cancer. Protocol of a phase II trial

BACKGROUND

Current studies on salvage radiotherapy (sRT) investigate timing, dose-escalation and anti-hormonal treatment (ADT) for recurrent prostate cancer. These approaches could either be limited by radiation-related susceptibility of the anastomosis or by suspected side-effects of long-term ADT. A phase II protocol was developed to investigate the benefit and tolerability of regional hyperthermia with moderately dose-escalated radiotherapy.

METHODS

The study hypothesis is that radio-thermotherapy is a safe and feasible salvage treatment modality. The primary endpoint is safety measured by frequency of grade 3+ genitourinary (GU) and gastrointestinal (GI) adverse events (AE) according to Common Toxicity Criteria (CTC) version 4. Feasibility is defined by number of hyperthermia treatments (n ≥ 7) and feasibility of radiotherapy according to protocol. Target volume delineation is performed according to the EORTC guidelines. Radiation treatment is administered with single doses of 2 Gy 5×/week to a total dose of 70 Gy. Regional hyperthermia is given 2×/week to a total of 10 treatments.

RESULTS

European centres participate in the phase II trial using intensity modulated RT (IMRT) or volumetric modulated arc technique (VMAT). The initiating centres were participants of the SAKK 09/10 study, where the same patient criteria and target volume definition (mandatory successful performed dummy run) were applied insuring a high standardisation of the study procedures.

CONCLUSIONS

The introduced phase II study implements highly precise image-guided radiotherapy and regional hyperthermia. If the phase II study is found to be safe and feasible, a multicenter phase III study is planned to test whether the addition of regional hyperthermia to dose-intensified sRT improves biochemical control.