Children's methods of coping with stress: a twin study of genetic and environmental influences

Inborn differences in emotional behavior coincide with alterations in hypothalamic paraventricular motor projections

Integrated behavioral responses to emotionally salient stimuli require the concomitant activation of descending neural circuits that integrate physiological, affective, and motor responses to stress. Our previous work interrogated descending circuits in the brainstem and spinal cord that project to motor and sympathetic targets. The hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN), a key node of this circuitry, integrates multiple motor and sympathetic responses activated by stress. The present study sought to determine whether descending projections from the PVN to targets in muscle and adrenal gland are differentially organized in rats with inborn differences in emotionality and stress responsivity. We utilized retrograde transsynaptic tract-tracing with unique pseudorabies virus (PRV) recombinants that were injected into sympathectomized gastrocnemius muscle and adrenal gland in two rat models featuring inborn differences in emotional behavior. Our tract-tracing results revealed a significant decrease in the number of PVN neurons with poly-synaptic projections to the gastrocnemius in male Wistar Kyoto [WKY] rats (versus Sprague Dawley rats) and selectively bred Low Novelty Responder [bLR] rats (versus selectively bred High Novelty Responder [bHR] rats). These neuroanatomical differences mirrored behavioral observations showing that both WKY and bLR rats display marked inhibition of emotional motor responses in a variety of settings relative to their respective controls. Our findings suggest that, in male rodents, PVN poly-synaptic projections to skeletal muscle may regulate emotional motor and coping responses to stress. More broadly, perturbations in PVN motor circuitry may play a role in mediating psychomotor disturbances observed in depression or anxiety-related disorders.

rs2572431 Polymorphism on Chromosome 8 Is Associated With Individual Differences in Anxiety Related Coping Modes

OBJECTIVE

The role of genetic factors in the interplay between anxiety-related coping and personality has been the subject of interest in numerous previous studies. The current study focused on anxiety-related coping modes, namely repression versus sensitization (i.e., cognitive avoidance versus vigilance), and the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs2572431. An association between this SNP and anxiety-related personality traits has previously been shown in a genome wide association study, thus further investigation of the relationship between this SNP and anxiety-related coping seems warranted.

METHODS

In the present study, N = 880 mostly Caucasian participants (n = 269 males and n = 611 females; mean-age: 23.88, SD = 7.19) filled in a personality questionnaire assessing individual differences in cognitive avoidance and vigilance, and all participants were genotyped for rs2572431.

RESULTS

Participants homozygous for the T-allele in rs2572431 showed the highest vigilance scores in all scenarios tested. This is in line with findings from an earlier genome wide association study demonstrating that the T-allele is also associated with higher neuroticism scores.

CONCLUSION

The current study yields evidence for the role of rs2572431 in the molecular genetic underpinnings of coping modes and, more broadly, for its connection with personality.

A systematic review of genetic influences on coping

Coping refers to the way that an individual manages stress. Coping strategies vary; for example, problem-focused coping is directed at reducing or removing a stressor, while emotion-focused coping is directed more at managing reactions that accompany the stressor. How individuals cope with stress can impact their health, but the physiological effects of coping are not well understood. The field of genetics provides tools that could help illuminate the physiology of coping. This review of the literature was conducted to determine what is currently known about the phenotype of coping from a genetic perspective. PubMed, HubMed, PsychInfo, Medline, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases were used to conduct the search, and reference lists were reviewed to identify additional publications. Only studies that measured coping style or a coping domain specifically, were written in English language, and were human-subject focused were included in the review. We identified 19 studies that met these criteria, and 2 types of genetic studies emerged for the review: heritability (n = 9) and candidate gene association (n = 10) studies. Heritability estimates of .68-.76 support a nonadditive genetic component to coping. Replication of association was found for the serotonin transporter and adrenergic receptor beta 2 genes. In addition to finding evidence supporting a role for genetic variability with coping phenotype, it is worth noting that the review revealed a lack of consistency in instruments used to phenotype coping across studies.

Polymorphisms in the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene region predict coping styles in healthy adults and depressed patients

Dispositional coping styles are important moderators of the stress reaction and are altered in stress-related disorders like cardiovascular diseases and affective disorders. Heritability studies suggest a considerable genetic contribution to the interindividual variability in coping styles. Since the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene has been described to be associated with the vulnerability for stress-related disorders and with altered stress hormone regulation, we investigated the ACE gene as potential candidate gene for coping styles. Five hundred forty one mentally healthy subjects and 194 patients suffering from depression participating in the Munich Antidepressant Response Signature (MARS) project were examined. Coping styles were assessed with a self-report questionnaire (German Stress Coping Questionnaire SVF78) measuring the individual coping style pattern in response to stressful situations. We genotyped 15 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and the insertion/Deletion (I/D)-polymorphism in the ACE gene region and investigated their associations with coping styles. In healthy subjects, the highest association was observed between rs8066276, an intronic SNP of the ACE gene, and the coping factor Distraction. A further intronic SNP rs4305, not in linkage disequilibrium with rs8066276, showed an association with Devaluation/Defense. All associated copying styles can be categorized as potentially stress reducing factors (positive coping). Both SNPs were also found to be associated with positive coping styles in the patient sample; rs8066276 was associated with Devaluation/Defense, and rs4305 showed associations with Control. These results suggest that the ACE gene is involved in the development of coping strategies.

Coping resources, coping processes, and mental health

Coping, defined as action-oriented and intrapsychic efforts to manage the demands created by stressful events, is coming to be recognized both for its significant impact on stress-related mental and physical health outcomes and for its intervention potential. We review coping resources that aid in this process, including individual differences in optimism, mastery, self-esteem, and social support, and examine appraisal and coping processes, especially those marked by approach or avoidance. We address the origins of coping resources and processes in genes, early life experience, and gene-environment interactions, and address neural underpinnings of coping that may shed light on evaluating coping interventions. We conclude by outlining possible intervention strategies for improving coping processes.

Reported Stressors and Ways of Coping Utilized by Intensive Care Unit Nurses

Registered nurses within the intensive care unit work within a fast-paced, highly technologic setting, caring for patients with complex needs. The purpose of this investigation was to identify stressors intensive care unit nurses perceived as most prevalent within their work setting, and the types of coping utilized by nurses in this setting. The research design was a descriptive method that utilized a survey among a convenience sample of nurses, employed within the intensive care unit setting at 7 acute care metropolitan hospitals. The quest is to foster effective coping mechanisms and reduce stress to increase staff retention, increasing job value, while increasing quality of patient care and safety.

Personality and Coping: A Study of Twins Reared Apart and Twins Reared Together

The relative importance of genetic and environmental factors for stress coping styles, age and gender differences, and the relationship between coping styles and personality traits were assessed in middle-aged and older adult twins reared apart and reared together, as part of the ongoing Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging (SATSA). The Billings and Moos Coping Measure was administered to 1339 individual twins (in 446 intact pairs). The mean age was 58.0+/-12.8. Moderate genetic influences and significant gender differences in variance estimates were found for the three coping scales (Problem Solving, Turning to Others, and Avoidance). Turning to Others and Avoidance in women also showed shared rearing environmental influences. In contrast, no age differences in variance estimates were found in this sample. Multivariate model fitting indicated that genetic influences on adults' coping differentially reflect genetic factors in common with personality traits. The sources of covariation also showed significant gender differences.

Genetic and environmental influences on anger expression, John Henryism, and stressful life events: the Georgia Cardiovascular Twin Study

OBJECTIVE

To examine the genetic and/or environmental origin of variation and covariation of perceived stressful life events and two stress-related coping styles, anger expression and John Henryism.

METHODS

Data were available from 306 European American (EA) and 213 African American (AA) twin pairs, including monozygotic and dizygotic of same as well as opposite sex (mean age, 14.8 +/- 3.1 years; range, 10.0-25.9 years). Anger expression, John Henryism, and life events were measured with the Anger Expression Scale (subscales: Anger-in, Anger-out, and Anger-control), the John Henryism Active Coping Scale, and the Adolescent Resources Challenges Scale, respectively.

RESULTS

Model fitting showed no ethnic or sex differences for any of the scales. All traits showed at least some degree of familial resemblance, best explained by shared environment for Anger-in (18%), heritability for Anger-control (34%), John Henryism (34%), and life events (47%), and a combination of heritability (14% and 15%) and shared environment (10% and 20%) for Anger-out and overall anger expression, respectively. The remaining part of the variation for all traits was explained by environmental influences that are unique to the individual. Anger expression and life events were correlated (r = 0.28), and bivariate genetic modeling showed that 61% of this correlation was mediated by common genetic factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Individual differences in coping styles and life events in youth can be explained by moderate genetic and substantial environmental influences, of which most are idiosyncratic to the individual. The association between anger expression and life events is largely the result of common genes.

X-linked and lineage-dependent inheritance of coping responses to stress

Coping-or how one routinely deals with stress-is a complex behavioral trait with bearing on chronic disease and susceptibility to psychiatric disorders. This complexity is a result of not only underlying multigenic factors, but also important non-genetic ones. The defensive burying (DB) test, although originally developed as a test of anxiety, can accurately measure differences in coping strategies by assaying an animal's behavioral response to an immediate threat with ethological validity. Using offspring derived from reciprocal crosses of two inbred rat strains differing in DB behaviors, we provide convergent phenotypic and genotypic evidence that coping styles are inherited in an X-linked fashion. We find that first-generation (F(1)) males, but not females, show maternally derived coping styles, and second-generation (F(2)) females, but not males, show significant differences in coping styles when separated by grandmaternal lineage. By using a linear modeling approach to account for covariate effects (sex and lineage) in QTL analysis, we map three quantitative trait loci (QTL) on the X Chromosome (Chr) ( Coping-1, Approach-1, and Approach-2) associated with coping behaviors in the DB paradigm. Distinct loci were associated with different aspects of coping, and their effects were modulated by both the sex and lineage of the animals, demonstrating the power of the general linear modeling approach and the important interplay of allelic and non-allelic factors in the inheritance of coping behaviors.

Anti-Streß-Training für Kinder und Jugendliche mit Diabetes während der stationären Rehabilitation

Zusammenfassung. Bei Kindern und Jugendlichen mit Diabetes mellitus (DM) kann ein unangemessenes Streß- und Krankheitsmanagement die Stoffwechsellage und damit den Verlauf dieser chronischen Krankheit ungünstig beeinflussen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein für die stationäre Rehabilitation konzipiertes Patientenschulungsprogramm evaluiert, das als wesentliche Komponente ein kognitiv-behaviorales Streßmanagement enthielt (Diabetes-Anti-Streß-Training; DM-AST). Die Effektivität wurde im Vergleich zu einer Diabetes-Basis-Schulung in drei verschiedenen Altersgruppen (8-10 Jahre, 11-13 Jahre, 14-16 Jahre) untersucht. Insgesamt wurden N = 30 Patienten in beiden Rehabilitationsmaßnahmen einbezogen. Nach der Rehabilitation war der HbA1c-Wert der Patienten mit dem DM-AST tendenziell signifikant verbessert, während die Basis-Schulungsgruppe keine Veränderungen aufwies. Bei beiden Behandlungsgruppen war das Krankheitswissen signifikant verbessert. In den Streßverarbeitungsstilen profitierten lediglich die Patienten mit dem DM-AST. Außerdem deuten erste Befunde an, daß die Patienten mit einer ungünstigen Stoffwechsellage vor der Rehabilitation signifikant höhere passive Vermeidungstendenzen aufzeigen, die durch das DM-AST signifikant reduziert werden konnten. Die Ergebnisse legen nahe, daß unser Patientenschulungsprogramm für Kinder und Jugendliche mit DM das Streß- und Krankheitsmanagement günstig beeinflußt. Zukünftige Studien müssen die Befunde bestätigen und sollten weitere Prädiktoren eines Rehabilitationserfolgs ermitteln.

Stress and body shape: stress-induced cortisol secretion is consistently greater among women with central fat

OBJECTIVE

Excessive central fat puts one at greater risk of disease. In animal studies, stress-induced cortisol secretion has been shown to increase central fat. The objective of this study was to assess whether women with central fat distribution (as indicated by a high waist-to-hip ratio [WHR]), across a range of body mass indexes, display consistently heightened cortisol reactivity to repeated laboratory stressors.

METHODS

Fifty-nine healthy premenopausal women, 30 with a high WHR and 29 with a low WHR, were exposed to consecutive laboratory sessions over 4 days (three stress sessions and one rest session). During these sessions, cortisol and psychological responses were assessed.

RESULTS

Women with a high WHR evaluated the laboratory challenges as more threatening, performed more poorly on them, and reported more chronic stress. These women secreted significantly more cortisol during the first stress session than women with a low WHR. Furthermore, lean women with a high WHR lacked habituation to stress in that they continued to secrete significantly more cortisol in response to now familiar challenges (days 2 and 3) than lean women with a low WHR.

CONCLUSIONS

Central fat distribution is related to greater psychological vulnerability to stress and cortisol reactivity. This may be especially true among lean women, who did not habituate to repeated stress. The current cross-sectional findings support the hypothesis that stress-induced cortisol secretion may contribute to central fat and demonstrate a link between psychological stress and risk for disease.

Postnatal experiences and genetic effects on squirrel monkey social affinities and emotional distress

Most nonhuman primate research on risk factors underlying vulnerability to stress has focused on early psychosocial experiences in various species of macaques. To test for genetic and experiential effects on emotional vulnerability in randomly bred squirrel monkeys, here we combined a paternal half-sibling analysis with three postnatal rearing protocols that altered aspects of maternal availability. In one condition offspring were periodically removed from natal groups, whereas differences in maternal availability were produced in two other conditions by manipulating the effort required of lactating mothers to successfully locate food. After completion of these protocols at 21 weeks of age, social affinities, maternal separation induced peep-calls, and plasma levels of cortisol were assessed from 29 to 37 weeks of age. Significant postnatal rearing effects and the lowest heritabilities were detected in peak elevations of cortisol measured 1 day after the removal of mothers from otherwise undisturbed groups. Individual differences in cortisol 3-7 days later revealed negligible postnatal rearing effects and the highest heritabilities (h(2) approximately. 70), as offspring sired by certain fathers failed to return to the preseparation level found in undisturbed natal groups. Paternal half-siblings that responded with long lasting increases in cortisol spent more time near their mother in undisturbed groups and exhibited long-lasting increases in separation induced peep-calls. These findings concur with human twin studies that suggest genetic and experiential factors contribute to individual differences in vulnerability to emotional distress.

Genetic and environmental influences on coping styles: a twin study

OBJECTIVE

Coping styles are generally considered to be environmentally driven, primarily by family influences. However, because personality traits are commonly influenced by genetic effects, we hypothesized that heredity is also important for coping.

METHODS

We tested this hypothesis by assessing 19 coping styles, as well as four secondary coping factors, by questionnaire in 212 pairs of monozygotic and dizygotic twins. We then examined heredity by structural equation modeling.

RESULTS

All coping styles showed evidence of genetic influences. The coping styles shared one common genetic factor. In addition, each coping style was also influenced by other separate genetic factors. Shared environment had no significant influence on coping styles. Three of 19 more specific coping styles showed shared environmental effects as well as genetic influences, 14 were solely under genetic influences, and two showed only shared environment effects.

CONCLUSIONS

We suggest that hereditary effects on certain coping style preferences cannot be explained solely by genetic influences on major personality traits and temperament. An analysis of the relationships between coping and personality in twin subjects may elucidate the distinction between genetic and environmental effects.

O conceito de coping: uma revisão teórica

O conceito de coping tem sido descrito como o conjunto das estratégias utilizadas pelas pessoas para adaptarem-se a circunstâncias adversas ou estressantes. O presente artigo apresenta os modelos de coping de Folkman e Lazarus, e de Rudolph, Denning e Weisz, bem como suas diferentes posições teóricas e metodológicas. As definições de estilos e estratégias de coping, sua eficácia e possíveis relações com traços de personalidade são discutidas. É salientada a necessidade de uma teoria de stress-coping específica para crianças, tendo em vista as mudanças cognitivas que ocorrem no curso de seu desenvolvimento. Este artigo apresenta também questões controversas sobre o tema e aponta a necessidade de pesquisas sobre coping no Brasil, para auxiliar na compreensão e desenvolvimento deste conceito.