Fitness consequences of natural variation in flooding-induced shoot elongation in Rumex palustris

Effects of Complete Submergence on Growth, Survival and Recovery Growth of Alisma orientale (Samuel.) Juz

Intense precipitations caused by global climate change will result in the occurrence of greater frequencies and longer durations of flooding, influencing the survival and yields of wetland plants. Alisma orientale (Samuel.) Juz., an important traditional medicine with edible scape and inflorescence, naturally grows in wetlands and artificially cultivates in paddy fields prone to flood in China. However, we lack understanding of the effect of complete submergence on A. orientale. Here, experiments with four durations of complete submergence including 5 days (ds), 10 ds, 15 ds and 20 ds followed by 20 ds recovery were performed. In the submergence experiments, the number of, length of and biomass of surviving leaves and the total biomass and new blade biomass were measured; in recovery experiments, number and length of surviving leaves were measured. A. orientale grew out longer new leaves during complete submergence, with a dramatic decline in the biomass of both the leaves and tubers as well as the total biomass at the ends of the submergence experiments. The A. orientale plants had a high survival rate after submergence. The duration of submergence did not influence the time for A. orientale needed to start regrowing. At the end of recovery period, the submerged A. orientale plants generated more leaves, had more surviving leaves, had shorter new leaves and a shorter total length of surviving leaves than the control plants. This study highlights that A. orientale plants can resist at least 20 ds of complete submergence caused by flooding and regrow rapidly after submergence and improves our understanding of the flooding tolerance mechanisms of A. orientale plants.

Nitrogen availability affects the responses of marsh grass and sedge plants (Phragmites australis and Bolboschoenus planiculmis) to flooding time

Flooding time and external nitrogen (N) input have been projected to be the main threats to marsh ecosystems in the scenario of more intense flooding events and N deposition. How flooding and N addition experienced at different growth stages interact in determining phenotypic change remains scarce. We established a controlled experiment (3 flooding time treatments x 5 N addition levels) using two herbaceous marsh species (Phragmites australis and Bolboschoenus planiculmis) to assess the responses of six key traits to environmental changes and the indication of plant performance. Early flooding reduced plant height and aboveground biomass of P. australis and below/aboveground biomass ratio of B. planiculmis and increased below/aboveground biomass ratio of P. australis and root biomass of B. planiculmis, whereas late flooding reduced root biomass of P. australis and ramet number and aboveground biomass of B. planiculmis. The combination of flooding and high N (16 and 32 g N m-2) exerted negative effects on ramet number of both plant species. The interaction of early flooding and low-medium N (8 and 16 g N m-2) inhibited clonal/belowground biomass ratio of both plant species. The combination of early flooding and low N (0, 4 and 8 g N m-2) promoted root biomass and below/aboveground biomass ratio of P. australis. Ramet number, plant height, and root biomass explained 80-90 % of aboveground biomass variation of both plant species, and the contribution of ramet number was greater than that of the other two traits. These results highlight that the influence of flooding time and external N input on the performance of marsh plants depends on species identity. Meanwhile, the ramet number-plant height-root biomass (RHR) strategy is supposed to be the adaptation strategy of wetland clonal plants to environmental changes, and clonal reproductive traits should be incorporated into vegetation dynamics models for marsh plants.

Nutrient Inputs Alleviate Negative Effects of Early and Subsequent Flooding on Growth of Polygonum hydropiper With the Aid of Adventitious Roots

Riparian plants are exposed to harmful stress induced by flooding, which is often accompanied by eutrophication in the Three Gorges Reservoir Region. The phenomenon is mainly caused by domestic sewage discharges, slow water flow, and agricultural fertilizer pollution. Simulating abiotic stress, such as flooding at the initial period, can act as a signal and induce positive responses of plants to subsequent severe stress. In addition, eutrophication supplies nutrients, provides a favorable environment in the early stages of plant, and facilitates good performance in later development. However, whether early flooding (with or without eutrophication) acts as positive cue or as stress on plants at different developmental stages remains unclear. To address this question, seeds of Polygonum hydropiper were collected from low and high elevations in the hydro-fluctuation belt of the Three Gorges Reservoir Region. Plants germinated from these seeds were subjected to shallower and shorter early flooding treatments with or without eutrophication. Subsequently, plants were subjected to deeper and longer flooding treatments with or without eutrophication. Early flooding and eutrophic flooding significantly induced generation of adventitious roots, suggesting morphological adaptation to flooding. Although early flooding and eutrophic flooding treatments did not increase plant biomass in subsequent treatments compared with control, stem length, length and width of the 1st fully expanded leaf, and biomass of plants in the early eutrophic treatment were higher than these of the early flooding treatment plants. These results suggest a negative lag-effect of early flooding, and also indicate that nutrient inputs can alleviate such effects. Similarly, subsequent eutrophic flooding also enhanced plant growth compared with subsequent flooding, showing significantly higher values of leaf traits and adventitious root number. Plants originated from low elevation had significantly higher functional leaf length and stem biomass compared with those from high elevation. These results suggest that nutrient inputs can alleviate negative effects of early and subsequent flooding on growth of P. hydropiper with the generation of adventitious roots.

How soil ion stress and type influence the flooding adaptive strategies of Phragmites australis and Bolboschoenus planiculmis in temperate saline-alkaline wetlands?

Soil saline-alkaline stress and flooding extremes have been projected to be the main factors influencing the degradation of marsh plants in wetlands worldwide, which would affect their ecological functions (i.e. food source for migrating birds). Plants cope with flooding either by escaping from below water through shoot elongation or by remaining quiescent until water subsides. However, little is known about the adaptive strategies of Phragmites australis and Bolboschoenus planiculmis to flooding combined with salinity-alkalinity, which are the key environmental filters in Western Songnen Plain, China. Accordingly, this study investigated the adaptive strategies of P. australis and B. planiculmis subjected to the interacting effects of flooding and soil ion stress under field and greenhouse conditions. Results showed that the two species adopted different strategies to survive flooding. P. australis exhibited an escape strategy because of leaf and shoot elongation with increasing flooding depth whereas B. planiculmis became quiescent with no or deceased leaf and shoot elongation and biomass accumulation. High soil ion stress changed the flooding adaptive strategy of P. australis to a quiescence strategy, whereas B. planiculmis remained quiescent with increasing flooding depth at each soil ion content. The strategies of the two species were changed by alkaline ion stress but not by saline ion stress, and they exhibited different adaptive responses. High alkaline ion stress induced P. australis to remain quiescent with increasing flooding depth, whereas low alkaline ion stress promoted B. planicumis to escape from below water, probably due to the buffer effect of low alkaline ion contents outside the roots probably. Hence, P. australis and B. planicumis might adopt the quiescence strategy with increasing degree of soil salinization and alkalization under high greenhouse gas emissions scenarios in Western Songnen Plain, which may lead to severe degradation of the two kinds of marshes in the future.

Anatomical, morphological and growth responses of Thinopyrum ponticum plants subjected to partial and complete submergence during early stages of development

Seedling recruitment and growth of forage grasses in flood-prone grasslands is often impaired by submergence. We evaluate the responses of Thinopyrum ponticum (Podp.) Barkw. & Dewey to partial and complete submergence at two early stages of development. Two greenhouse experiments were carried out with plants at three expanded leaves (Experiment 1) or five expanded leaves stage (Experiment 2). In each case, three treatments were applied for 14 days: control (C), partial submergence (PS; water level to half plant height), and complete submergence (CS; water level to 1.5 times plant height). Submergence was followed by a recovery period of 14 days at well drained conditions. Assessments included plant survival, height, leaf blade and pseudostem length, soluble carbohydrates in pseudostem, and shoot and root dry mass accumulation at the beginning and end of the submergence, and at the end of the recovery period. Root aerenchyma formation was determined on day 14 in both experiments. Under PS all plants survived, and the impact of the stress was related to the plants' developmental stage. However, plants with five expanded leaves increased total plant biomass with respect to control by 48%, plants with three expanded leaves reduced it by the same percentage. This response could be related to a higher ability to form root aerenchyma (17 vs 10%), and an enhanced leaf de-submergence capacity due to promoted leaf blade and pseudostem lengthening. Complete submergence treatment compromised the survival of 70% of the individuals with three expanded leaves but did not affect the survival at the five expanded leaves stage. In any developmental stage (three or five expanded leaves) plants fail to promote enough elongation of leaf blades or pseudostems to emerge from the water, so that always remained below the water surface. Root aerenchyma was not increased by CS at either of these two plant developmental stages. The high amount and concentration of pseudostem total soluble carbohydrates of the larger (five expanded leaves) plants facilitated their recovery growth after submergence. Our results predict the successful introduction of this species in areas where water excesses can cause soil waterlogging or shallow-partial plant submergence, but suggest avoidance of areas prone to suffer high-intensity flooding that lead to full plant submergence as this would highly constrain plant recruitment.

Plant intraspecific functional trait variation is related to within-habitat heterogeneity and genetic diversity in Trifolium montanum L

Intraspecific trait variation (ITV), based on available genetic diversity, is one of the major means plant populations can respond to environmental variability. The study of functional trait variation and diversity has become popular in ecological research, for example, as a proxy for plant performance influencing fitness. Up to now, it is unclear which aspects of intraspecific functional trait variation (iFDCV) can be attributed to the environment or genetics under natural conditions. Here, we examined 260 individuals from 13 locations of the rare (semi-)dry calcareous grassland species Trifolium montanum L. in terms of iFDCV, within-habitat heterogeneity, and genetic diversity. The iFDCV was assessed by measuring functional traits (releasing height, biomass, leaf area, specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content, Fv/Fm, performance index, stomatal pore surface, and stomatal pore area index). Abiotic within-habitat heterogeneity was derived from altitude, slope exposure, slope, leaf area index, soil depth, and further soil factors. Based on microsatellites, we calculated expected heterozygosity (He) because it best-explained, among other indices, iFDCV. We performed multiple linear regression models quantifying relationships among iFDCV, abiotic within-habitat heterogeneity and genetic diversity, and also between separate functional traits and abiotic within-habitat heterogeneity or genetic diversity. We found that abiotic within-habitat heterogeneity influenced iFDCV twice as strong compared to genetic diversity. Both aspects together explained 77% of variation in iFDCV ( R adj 2  = .77, F 2, 10 = 21.66, p < .001). The majority of functional traits (releasing height, biomass, specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content, Fv/Fm, and performance index) were related to abiotic habitat conditions indicating responses to environmental heterogeneity. In contrast, only morphology-related functional traits (releasing height, biomass, and leaf area) were related to genetics. Our results suggest that both within-habitat heterogeneity and genetic diversity affect iFDCV and are thus crucial to consider when aiming to understand or predict changes of plant species performance under changing environmental conditions.

Male and Female Plants of Salix viminalis Perform Similarly to Flooding in Morphology, Anatomy, and Physiology

Salix viminalis L., a dioecious species, is widely distributed in riparian zones, and flooding is one of the most common abiotic stresses that this species suffers. In this study, we investigated the morphological, anatomical, and physiological responses of male vs. female plants of S. viminalis to flooding. The results showed that the plant height and root collar diameter were stimulated by flooding treatment, which corresponded with higher dry weight of the stem and leaf. However, the dry weight of the underground part decreased, which might be due to the primary root having stopped growing. The little-influenced net photosynthesis rate (Pn) under flooding treatment could guarantee rapid growth of the aboveground part, while the unaffected leaf anatomical structure and photosynthetic pigment contents could ensure the normal operation of photosynthetic apparatus. Under a flooding environment, the production ratio of superoxide free radical (O2∙-) and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents increased, indicating that the cell membrane was damaged and oxidative stress was induced. At the same time, the antioxidant enzyme system, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and osmotic adjustment substances, involving proline (Pro) and solute protein (SP), began to play a positive role in resisting flooding stress. Different from our expectation, the male and female plants of S. viminalis performed similarly under flooding, and no significant differences were discovered. The results indicate that both male and female plants of S. viminalis are tolerant to flooding. Thus, both male and female plants of S. viminalis could be planted in frequent flooding zones.

Differential Strategies to Tolerate Flooding in Polygonum hydropiper Plants Originating From Low- and High-Elevation Habitats

In species that occur over a wide range of flooding conditions, plant populations may have evolved divergent strategies as a consequence of long-term adaptation to local flooding conditions. In the present study, we investigated the effects of a flooding gradient on the growth and carbohydrate reserves of Polygonum hydropiper plants originating from low- and high-elevation habitats in the Dongting Lake wetlands. The results indicated that shoot length did not differ, whereas the total biomass and carbohydrate reserves were reduced under flooded compared to well-drained conditions for plants originating from both habitat types. However, shoot length, shoot mass, rhizome mass, and total biomass were lower in plants from low-elevation habitats than in those from high-elevation habitats in the flooded condition. Soluble sugar and starch contents in belowground biomass were higher in plants from low-elevation habitats than in those from high-elevation habitats independently of the water level. Therefore, P. hydropiper plants from low-elevation habitats exhibit a lower growth rate and more conservative energy strategy to cope with flooding in comparison with plants from high-elevation habitats. Differential strategies to cope with flooding among P. hydropiper populations are most likely a response to the flooding pressures of the habitat of origin and may potentially drive ecotype differentiation within species along flooding gradients.

Flooding and low oxygen responses in plants

The world is currently experiencing dramatic increases in flood events impacting on natural vegetation and crops. Flooding often results in low O2 status in root tissues during waterlogging, but sometimes also in shoot tissues when plants become completely submerged. Plants possess a suite of traits enabling tissue aeration and/or adjusted metabolism during hypoxia or even in the absence of O2. This special issue of Functional Plant Biology presents key papers for plant scientists on the quest to further address and improve flood tolerance of terrestrial plants. The papers address low O2 responses in roots, shoots or whole plants in controlled laboratory conditions or in the field situation using natural wetland plants as models as well as economically important crops, such as rice, wheat and barley. The studies advance our understanding of low O2 responses in plant tissues as caused by O2 shortage during flooding. However, in most instances, submergence not only leads to hypoxic or anoxic tissues, but inundation in water also results in accumulation of CO2 and the important plant hormone ethylene. Thus, carefully designed laboratory studies are often needed to unravel the mechanistic relationships between a combined decline in O2 followed by increases in CO2 and ethylene at tissue as well as on the cellular level.

No escape? Costs and benefits of leaf de-submergence in the pasture grass Chloris gayana under different flooding regimes

Elongation-induced leaf emergence is one way for plants to deal with complete submergence by 'escaping' from water. This growth strategy is hypothesised to be more beneficial under single long-term submergence than under repeated short-term submergence events (i.e. fluctuating environment), as costs of repeated plant 'adjustment' would exceed the initial benefits of shoot elongation. To test this idea, 2-week-old plants of Chloris gayana Kunth. cv. Fine Cut (a submergence-tolerant cultivar first selected by a screening experiment) were grown for 4 weeks under (i) control conditions, (ii) two 1-week submergence cycles, or (iii) one 2-week submergence cycle. Additionally, a set of plants were placed below nettings to assess the cost of remaining forcedly submerged. Impeding leaves emergence through nettings did not compromise survival when submergence was 1-week long, but determined the death of all plants when extended to 2 weeks. Growth as affected by flooding regime revealed that under one 2-week submergence event, plants accumulated a 2.9-fold higher dry mass than when they experienced the same submergence duration in separate events along 1week. The 'escape' strategy in the grass C. gayana, by which leaf contact with air is re-established, is essential for its survival, and it is more beneficial for plant growth under long-term submergence than under repeated short-term submergence cycles.

Benefits of flooding-induced aquatic adventitious roots depend on the duration of submergence: linking plant performance to root functioning

Background and Aims

Temporal flooding is a common environmental stress for terrestrial plants. Aquatic adventitious roots (aquatic roots) are commonly formed in flooding-tolerant plant species and are generally assumed to be beneficial for plant growth by supporting water and nutrient uptake during partial flooding. However, the actual contribution of these roots to plant performance under flooding has hardly been quantified. As the investment into aquatic root development in terms of carbohydrates may be costly, these costs may - depending on the specific environmental conditions - offset the beneficial effects of aquatic roots. This study tested the hypothesis that the balance between potential costs and benefits depends on the duration of flooding, as the benefits are expected to outweigh the costs in long-term but not in short-term flooding.

Methods

The contribution of aquatic roots to plant performance was tested in Solanum dulcamara during 1-4 weeks of partial submergence and by experimentally manipulating root production. Nutrient uptake by aquatic roots, transpiration and photosynthesis were measured in plants differing in aquatic root development to assess the specific function of these roots.

Key Results

As predicted, flooded plants benefited from the presence of aquatic roots. The results showed that this was probably due to the contribution of roots to resource uptake. However, these beneficial effects were only present in long-term but not in short-term flooding. This relationship could be explained by the correlation between nutrient uptake and the flooding duration-dependent size of the aquatic root system.

Conclusions

The results indicate that aquatic root formation is likely to be selected for in habitats characterized by long-term flooding. This study also revealed only limited costs associated with adventitious root formation, which may explain the maintenance of the ability to produce aquatic roots in habitats characterized by very rare or short flooding events.

Physiological Integration Affects Expansion of an Amphibious Clonal Plant from Terrestrial to Cu-Polluted Aquatic Environments

The effects of physiological integration on clonal plants growing in aquatic and terrestrial habitats have been extensively studied, but little is known about the role in the extension of amphibious clonal plants in the heterogeneous aquatic-terrestrial ecotones, especially when the water environments are polluted by heavy metals. Ramets of the amphibious clonal herb Alternanthera philoxeroides were rooted in unpolluted soil and polluted water at three concentrations of Cu. The extension of populations from unpolluted terrestrial to polluted aqueous environments mainly relied on stem elongation rather than production of new ramets. The absorbed Cu in the ramets growing in polluted water could be spread horizontally to other ramets in unpolluted soil via physiological integration and redistributed in different organs. The performances of ramets in both terrestrial and aquatic habitats were negatively correlated with Cu intensities in different organs of plants. It is concluded that physiological integration might lessen the fitness of connected ramets in heterogeneously polluted environments. The mechanical strength of the stems decreased with increasing Cu levels, especially in polluted water. We suggest that, except for direct toxicity to growth and expansion, heavy metal pollution might also increase the mechanical risk in breaking failure of plants.

Plants are less negatively affected by flooding when growing in species-rich plant communities

Flooding is expected to increase in frequency and severity in the future. The ecological consequences of flooding are the combined result of species-specific plant traits and ecological context. However, the majority of past flooding research has focused on individual model species under highly controlled conditions. An early summer flooding event in a grassland biodiversity experiment in Jena, Germany, provided the opportunity to assess flooding responses of 60 grassland species in monocultures and 16-species mixtures. We examined plant biomass, species-specific traits (plant height, specific leaf area (SLA), root aerenchyma, starch content) and soil porosity. We found that, on average, plant species were less negatively affected by the flood when grown in higher-diversity plots in July 2013. By September 2013, grasses were unaffected by the flood regardless of plant diversity, and legumes were severely negatively affected regardless of plant diversity. Plants with greater SLA and more root aerenchyma performed better in September. Soil porosity was higher in higher-diversity plots and had a positive effect on plant performance. As floods become more frequent and severe in the future, growing flood-sensitive plants in higher-diversity communities and in soil with greater soil aeration may attenuate the most negative effects of flooding.

Life cycle stage and water depth affect flooding-induced adventitious root formation in the terrestrial species Solanum dulcamara

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Flooding can occur at any stage of the life cycle of a plant, but often adaptive responses of plants are only studied at a single developmental stage. It may be anticipated that juvenile plants may respond differently from mature plants, as the amount of stored resources may differ and morphological changes can be constrained. Moreover, different water depths may require different strategies to cope with the flooding stress, the expression of which may also depend on developmental stage. This study investigated whether flooding-induced adventitious root formation and plant growth were affected by flooding depth in Solanum dulcamara plants at different developmental stages.

METHODS

Juvenile plants without pre-formed adventitious root primordia and mature plants with primordia were subjected to shallow flooding or deep flooding for 5 weeks. Plant growth and the timing of adventitious root formation were monitored during the flooding treatments.

KEY RESULTS

Adventitious root formation in response to shallow flooding was significantly constrained in juvenile S. dulcamara plants compared with mature plants, and was delayed by deep flooding compared with shallow flooding. Complete submergence suppressed adventitious root formation until up to 2 weeks after shoots restored contact with the atmosphere. Independent of developmental stage, a strong positive correlation was found between adventitious root formation and total biomass accumulation during shallow flooding.

CONCLUSIONS

The potential to deploy an escape strategy (i.e. adventitious root formation) may change throughout a plant's life cycle, and is largely dependent on flooding depth. Adaptive responses at a given stage of the life cycle thus do not necessarily predict how the plant responds to flooding in another growth stage. As variation in adventitious root formation also correlates with finally attained biomass, this variation may form the basis for variation in resistance to shallow flooding among plants.

Growth and Physiological Responses to Water Depths in Carex schmidtii Meinsh

A greenhouse experiment was performed to investigate growth and physiological responses to water depth in completely submerged condition of a wetland plant Carex schmidtii Meinsh., one of the dominant species in the Longwan Crater Lake wetlands (China). Growth and physiological responses of C. schmidtii were investigated by growing under control (non-submerged) and three submerged conditions (5 cm, 15 cm and 25 cm water level). Total biomass was highest in control, intermediate in 5 cm treatment and lowest in the other two submerged treatments. Water depth prominently affected the first-order lateral root to main root mass ratio. Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) activity decreased but malondialdehyde (MDA) content increased as water depth increased. The starch contents showed no differences among the various treatments at the end of the experiment. However, soluble sugar contents were highest in control, intermediate in 5 cm and 15 cm treatments and lowest in 25 cm treatment. Our data suggest that submergence depth affected some aspects of growth and physiology of C. schmidtii, which can reduce anoxia damage not only through maintaining the non-elongation strategy in shoot part but also by adjusting biomass allocation to different root orders rather than adjusting root-shoot biomass allocation.

Root plasticity of Populus euphratica seedlings in response to different water table depths and contrasting sediment types

Riparian plants in arid regions face a highly variable water environment controlled by hydrological processes. To understand whether riparian plants adapt to such environments through plastic responses, we compared the root traits, biomass allocation and growth of Populus euphratica Oliv. Seedlings grown in lysimeters filled with clay or clay/river sand sediments under inundation and varying water table conditions. We hypothesized that adaptive phenotypic plasticity is likely to develop or be advantageous in seedlings of this species to allow them to adapt desert floodplain environments. Growth was significantly reduced by inundation. However, rather than following relatively fixed trait and allocation patterns, the seedlings displayed adaptive mechanisms involving the development of adventitious roots to enhance plant stability and obtain oxygen, together with a lower proportion of root biomass. At the whole-plant level, at deeper water table depths, seedlings allocated more biomass to the roots, and total root length increased with decreasing water table depths, regardless of the sediment, consistent with optimal partitioning theory. The sediment type had a significant effect on seedling root traits. P. euphratica displayed very different root traits in different sediment types under the same hydrological conditions, showing a greater first-order root number in clay sediment under shallower water table conditions, whereas rooting depth was greater in clay/river sand sediment under deep water table conditions. In clay sediment, seedlings responded to lower water availability via greater root elongation, while the root surface area was increased through increasing the total root length in clay/river sand sediment, suggesting that seedlings facing deeper water tables are not always likely to increase their root surface area to obtain more water. Our results indicate that P. euphratica seedlings are able to adapt to a range of water table conditions through plastic responses in root traits and biomass allocation.

Physiological basis of tolerance to complete submergence in rice involves genetic factors in addition to the SUB1 gene

Recurring floods in Asia cause poor crop establishment. Yields decline drastically when plants are completely submerged for a few days. Traditional rice cultivars predominate because they have acquired moderate tolerance to flooding but they carry the penalty of inherently lower grain yields. In contrast, modern high-yielding varieties are highly susceptible to flooding. Cultivars with tolerance to complete submergence were recently developed in the background of popular varieties by transferring the submergence tolerance gene SUBMERGENCE1 (SUB1) from the highly tolerant Indian landrace FR13A. The present study evaluated three pairs of Sub1 near-isogenic lines (NILs) together with FR13A and two of its submergence-tolerant derivatives under field conditions to assess the survival and growth processes occurring during submergence and recovery that are associated with SUB1. Under control conditions, the NILs showed similar growth and biomass accumulation, indicating that SUB1 had no apparent effects. Submergence substantially decreased biomass accumulation but with greater reduction in the genotypes lacking SUB1, particularly when submergence was prolonged for 17 days. When submerged, the lines lacking SUB1 showed greater elongation and lower or negative biomass accumulation. Sub1 lines maintained higher chlorophyll concentrations during submergence and lost less non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) after submergence. This indicates that the introgression of SUB1 resulted in better regulation of NSC during submergence and that high pre-submergence NSC is not essential for the submergence tolerance conferred by SUB1. During recovery, chlorophyll degradation was faster in genotypes lacking SUB1 and any surviving plants showed poorer and delayed emergence of tillers and leaves. Sub1 lines restored new leaf and tiller production faster. During submergence, FR13A showed not only slower leaf elongation but also accumulated extra biomass and was able to recover faster than Sub1 lines. This suggests the possibility of further improvements in submergence tolerance by incorporating additional traits present in FR13A or other similar landraces.

Partial versus complete submergence: snorkelling aids root aeration in Rumex palustris but not in R. acetosa

The root and shoot tissues of flood-tolerant wetland plants are highly porous to enable internal gas phase diffusion of O2 during waterlogging or submergence. In the case of only partial submergence (snorkelling), the atmosphere can act as source of O2 . The aim of this study was to assess the effect of waterlogging, partial submergence and complete submergence in the dark as well as in light on O2 partial pressure (pO2 ) in roots of Rumex palustris (flood tolerant) and R. acetosa (flood intolerant). We used O2 microelectrodes to measure pO2 of adventitious roots during manipulations of the water level around the shoot. Root pO2 in both species declined significantly upon submergence but remained oxic also when shoots were completely submerged in the dark (0.8 and 4.6 kPa in R. acetosa and R. palustris, respectively). The snorkelling effect was substantial in R. palustris only. Submergence in light had less impact on root pO2 and the effect of snorkelling was also minor. Hence, the benefits of light (underwater photosynthesis) and air contact (snorkelling) upon growth and survival in submerged wetland plants can now be linked to enhanced internal aeration.

Shifting effects of physiological integration on performance of a clonal plant during submergence and de-submergence

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Submergence and de-submergence are common phenomena encountered by riparian plants due to water level fluctuations, but little is known about the role of physiological integration in clonal plants (resource sharing between interconnected ramets) in their adaptation to such events. Using Alternanthera philoxeroides (alligator weed) as an example, this study tested the hypotheses that physiological integration will improve growth and photosynthetic capacity of submerged ramets during submergence and will promote their recovery following de-submergence.

METHODS

Connected clones of A. philoxeroides, each consisting of two ramet systems and a stolon internode connecting them, were grown under control (both ramet systems untreated), half-submerged (one ramet system submerged and the other not submerged), fully submerged (both ramet systems submerged), half-shaded (one ramet system shaded and the other not shaded) and full-shaded (both ramet systems shaded) conditions for 30 d and then de-submerged/de-shaded for 20 d. The submerged plants were also shaded to very low light intensities, mimicking typical conditions in turbid floodwater.

KEY RESULTS

After 30 d of submergence, connections between submerged and non-submerged ramets significantly increased growth and carbohydrate accumulation of the submerged ramets, but decreased the growth of the non-submerged ramets. After 20 d of de-submergence, connections did not significantly affect the growth of either de-submerged or non-submerged ramets, but de-submerged ramets had high soluble sugar concentrations, suggesting high metabolic activities. The shift from significant effects of integration on both submerged and non-submerged ramets during the submergence period to little effect during the de-submergence period was due to the quick recovery of growth and photosynthesis. The effects of physiological integration were not found to be any stronger under submergence/de-submergence than under shading/de-shading.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that it is not just the beneficial effects of physiological integration that are crucial to the survival of riparian clonal plants during periods of submergence, but also the ability to recover growth and photosynthesis rapidly after de-submergence, which thus allows them to spread.

Root foraging increases performance of the clonal plant Potentilla reptans in heterogeneous nutrient environments

Background

Plastic root-foraging responses have been widely recognized as an important strategy for plants to explore heterogeneously distributed resources. However, the benefits and costs of root foraging have received little attention.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In a greenhouse experiment, we grew pairs of connected ramets of 22 genotypes of the stoloniferous plant Potentilla reptans in paired pots, between which the contrast in nutrient availability was set as null, medium and high, but with the total nutrient amount kept the same. We calculated root-foraging intensity of each individual ramet pair as the difference in root mass between paired ramets divided by the total root mass. For each genotype, we then calculated root-foraging ability as the slope of the regression of root-foraging intensity against patch contrast. For all genotypes, root-foraging intensity increased with patch contrast and the total biomass and number of offspring ramets were lowest at high patch contrast. Among genotypes, root-foraging intensity was positively related to production of offspring ramets and biomass in the high patch-contrast treatment, which indicates an evolutionary benefit of root foraging in heterogeneous environments. However, we found no significant evidence that the ability of plastic foraging imposes costs under homogeneous conditions (i.e. when foraging is not needed).

Conclusions/Significance

Our results show that plants of P. reptans adjust their root-foraging intensity according to patch contrast. Moreover, the results show that the root foraging has an evolutionary advantage in heterogeneous environments, while costs of having the ability of plastic root foraging were absent or very small.

Wait or escape? Contrasting submergence tolerance strategies of Rorippa amphibia, Rorippa sylvestris and their hybrid

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Differential responses of closely related species to submergence can provide insight into the evolution and mechanisms of submergence tolerance. Several traits of two wetland species from habitats with contrasting flooding regimes, Rorippa amphibia and Rorippa sylvestris, as well as F(1) hybrid Rorippa × anceps were analysed to unravel mechanisms underlying submergence tolerance.

METHODS

In the first submergence experiment (lasting 20 d) we analysed biomass, stem elongation and carbohydrate content. In the second submergence experiment (lasting 3 months) we analysed survival and the effect of re-establishment of air contact on biomass and carbohydrate content. In a separate experiment we analysed expression of two carbohydrate catabolism genes, ADH1 and SUS1, upon re-establishment of air contact following submergence.

KEY RESULTS

All plants had low mortality even after 3 months of submergence. Rorippa sylvestris was characterized by 100 % survival and higher carbohydrate levels coupled with lower ADH1 gene expression as well as reduced growth compared with R. amphibia. Rorippa amphibia and the hybrid elongated their stems but this did not pay-off in higher survival when plants remained submerged. Only R. amphibia and the hybrid benefited in terms of increased biomass and carbohydrate accumulation upon re-establishing air contact.

CONCLUSIONS

Results demonstrate contrasting 'escape' and 'quiescence' strategies between Rorippa species. Being a close relative of arabidopsis, Rorippa is an excellent model for future studies on the molecular mechanism(s) controlling these strategies.

Plasticity as a plastic response: how submergence-induced leaf elongation in Rumex palustris depends on light and nutrient availability in its early life stage

Plants may experience different environmental cues throughout their development which interact in determining their phenotype. This paper tests the hypothesis that environmental conditions experienced early during ontogeny affect the phenotypic response to subsequent environmental cues. This hypothesis was tested by exposing different accessions of Rumex palustris to different light and nutrient conditions, followed by subsequent complete submergence. Final leaf length and submergence-induced plasticity were affected by the environmental conditions experienced at early developmental stages. In developmentally older leaves, submergence-induced elongation was lower in plants previously subjected to high-light conditions. Submergence-induced elongation of developmentally younger leaves, however, was larger when pregrown in high light. High-light and low-nutrient conditions led to an increase of nonstructural carbohydrates in the plants. There was a positive correlation between submergence-induced leaf elongation and carbohydrate concentration and content in roots and shoots, but not with root and shoot biomass before submergence. These results show that conditions experienced by young plants modulate the responses to subsequent environmental conditions, in both magnitude and direction. Internal resource status interacts with cues perceived at different developmental stages in determining plastic responses to the environment.

Different strategies of Lotus japonicus, L. corniculatus and L. tenuis to deal with complete submergence at seedling stage

Two main strategies allow plants to deal with submergence: (i) escape from below water by means of shoot elongation, or (ii) remaining quiescent under the water until water subsides and then resume growth. We investigated these strategies in seedlings of Lotus japonicus, L. corniculatus and L. tenuis subjected to control and submergence for 12 days, with a subsequent 30-day recovery period. All three species survived submergence but used different strategies. Submerged seedlings of L. japonicus exhibited an escape strategy (emerging from water) as a result of preferential carbon allocation towards shoot mass and lengthening, in detriment to root growth. In contrast, seedlings of L. corniculatus and L. tenuis became quiescent, with no biomass accumulation, no new unfolding of leaves and no shoot elongation. Upon de-submergence, seedlings of L. japonicus had the lowest recovery growth (a biomass and shoot height 58% and 40% less than controls, respectively), L. corniculatus was intermediate and L. tenuis showed the greatest recovery growth. Previously submerged seedlings of L. tenuis did not differ from their controls, either in final shoot biomass or shoot height. Thus, for the studied species, quiescence appears to be an adequate strategy for tolerance of short-term (i.e., 12 days) complete submergence, being consistent with field observations of L. tenuis colonisation of flood-prone environments.

Rice Genotypes with SUB1 QTL Differ in Submergence Tolerance, Elongation Ability during Submergence and Re-generation Growth at Re-emergence

Submergence tolerance is an important trait where short term flash flooding damages rice. Tolerant landraces that withstand submergence for 1–2 weeks were identified. Due to the heterogeneity in flood-prone ecosystem many different types of traditional rice cultivars are being grown by the farmers. The local landraces adapted to extremes in water availability could be the sources of genetic variation are to be used to improve the adaptability of rice to excess water stress. Greater genotypic variability was observed for plant height, elongation and survival %, absolute growth rate, non-structural carbohydrate retention capacity, chlorophyll content, different chlorophyll fluorescence parameters (FPs) characteristics, and re-generation growth at re-emergence. Twenty days submergence caused greater damage even in Submergence 1 (SUB1) introgressed cultivars compared to the 14 days of submergence. The FPs, carbohydrate content and dry weight at the end of submergence showed positive and highly significant association with re-generation growth. The presence of SUB1 associated primers, either SC3 or ART5, was noticed even in greater elongating types of rice genotypes. These genotypes possess one or more of the adaptive traits required for the flood-prone ecosystem, which range from temporary submergence of 1–2 weeks to long period of stagnant water tolerance.