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Yamanaka K, Waki H. Conditional Regulation of Blood Pressure in Response to Emotional Stimuli by the Central Nucleus of the Amygdala in Rats. Front Physiol 2022; 13:820112. [PMID: 35721563 PMCID: PMC9198497 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.820112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans and animals can determine whether a situation is favorable to them and act accordingly. For this, the autonomic tuning of the cardiovascular system to supply energy to active skeletal muscles through the circulatory system is as important as motor control. However, how the autonomic cardiovascular responses are regulated in dynamically changing environments and the neuronal mechanisms underlying these responses remain unclear. To resolve these issues, we recorded the blood pressure and heart rate of head-restrained rats during dynamically changing appetitive and aversive classical conditioning tasks. The rats displayed various associations between conditioned stimuli and unconditioned stimuli in appetitive (sucrose water), neutral (no outcome), and aversive (air puff) blocks. The blood pressure and heart rate in the appetitive block gradually increased in response to the reward-predicting cue and the response to the actual reward vigorously increased. The reward-predictive response was significantly higher than the responses obtained in the neutral and aversive condition blocks. To investigate whether the reward-predictive pressor response was caused by orofacial movements such as anticipatory licking behavior, we separately analyzed high- and low-licking trials. The conditioned pressor response was observed even in trials with low-licking behaviors. Blood pressure and heart rate responses to the air puff-predicting cue in the aversive block were not significantly different from the responses in the neutral block. The conditioned blood pressure response rapidly changed with condition block switching. Furthermore, to examine the contribution of the amygdala as an emotion center to these conditioned responses, we bilaterally microinjected a GABAA receptor agonist, muscimol, into the central nucleus of the amygdala. Pharmacological inactivation of the central nucleus of the amygdala significantly decreased the reward-predictive pressor responses. These results suggest that the blood pressure is adaptively and rapidly regulated by emotional conditioned stimuli and that the central nucleus of the amygdala participates in regulating the pressor response in dynamically changing situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ko Yamanaka
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Inzai, Japan
| | - Hidefumi Waki
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Inzai, Japan.,Institute of Health and Sports Science and Medicine, Juntendo University, Inzai, Japan
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Exner A, Tapia León I, Mueller EM, Klucken T. Cardiac response in aversive and appetitive olfactory conditioning: Evidence for a valence-independent CS-elicited bradycardia. Psychophysiology 2021; 58:e13912. [PMID: 34388264 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
While the examination of conditioned cardiac responses is well established in human fear conditioning research, comparable studies using less-aversive or rather appetitive unconditioned stimuli (UCS) are sparse and results are mixed. Therefore, the aim of this study was a systematic analysis of cardiac reactions in aversive and appetitive conditioning. Olfactory stimuli were used as unconditioned stimuli as they are suitable reinforcers in both an aversive and an appetitive conditioning offering the opportunity for a comparison between conditioned responses. In total, n = 86 participants took part in both an aversive and an appetitive differential conditioning task with a counterbalanced order across participants. Aversive or appetitive odors, respectively, served as UCS and neutral geometrical figures as CS. Subjective ratings, skin conductance response (SCRs), and evoked cardiac reactions were analyzed and compared between tasks. Conditioned responses in subjective ratings could be observed in both aversive conditioning and appetitive conditioning, while SCRs discriminated between CS+ and CS- in aversive conditioning only. Regarding conditioned cardiac responses, the deceleration for the CS+ was longer than for the CS- in both tasks. In addition, a higher deceleration magnitude and a shorter acceleration for the CS+ as compared to the CS- were found in aversive but not in appetitive conditioning. There were medium-size correlations between aversive and appetitive CRs for subjective ratings and none for physiological responses. The results suggest similarities between cardiac response patterns in aversive and appetitive conditioning, which implies that bradycardia in conditioning might not be fear-specific but presents a valence-independent CS-elicited bradycardia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Exner
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany
| | - Isabell Tapia León
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany
| | - Erik M Mueller
- Department of Psychology, University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Tim Klucken
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany
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Abstract
Twenty-three healthy men and women participated in a 5-session experiment in which they attempted to increase and decrease their heart rate with the assistance of visual analogue biofeedback. As a group subjects did successfully raise and lower heart rate from resting baseline. These changes in heart rate were closely paralleled by changes in V, a measure of cardiac vagal tone. Heart rate slowing was associated with increases in V, and heart rate speeding was associated with decreases in V. Respiration rate and amplitude did not differ significantly between heart rate slowing and speeding trials, and covariance analysis indicated that respiratory changes did not account for the heart rate or V effects. The weighted coherence between respiration and heart rate showed that cardiopulmonary coupling increased during heart rate slowing and decreased during heart rate speeding. Individual differences in cardiac vagal tone and cardiopulmonary coupling were unrelated to heart rate speeding and slowing performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Hatch
- University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio 78284-7792
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Hollis KL. Pavlovian Conditioning of Signal-Centered Action Patterns and Autonomic Behavior: A Biological Analysis of Function. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 1982. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3454(08)60045-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Galosy RA, Clarke LK, Vasko MR, Crawford IL. Neurophysiology and neuropharmacology of cardiovascular regulation and stress. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1981; 5:137-75. [PMID: 7015187 DOI: 10.1016/0149-7634(81)90040-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Evidence has accumulated over the past several years indicating that environmental factors can have a substantial influence on cardiovascular dynamics. It has been hypothesized by many investigators that through these influence environmental stressors may be important to the etiology and maintenance of cardiovascular diseases. Since the nervous system is intimately involved in the regulation of cardiovascular function it may be assumed that environmental influences on cardiovascular dynamics are to a large extent mediated by the nervous system. This assumption is supported by the literature reviewed which indicates that there are many nervous system nuclei and neurotransmitter systems involved in the regulation of cardiovascular dynamics which are also involved in an organisms adjustment to environmental stressors. The conclusion is reached that further multidisciplinary research will reveal underlying neurophysiological and neuropharmacological mechanisms responsible for stress induced cardiovascular disease and lead to new methods of treatment.
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Schoenfeld WN, Kadden RM, Tremont PJ, McCullough MR, Steele WA. Effects of pharmacological autonomic blockade upon cardiac rate and blood pressure conditioned and unconditioned responses in Macaca mulatta. JOURNAL OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 1980; 2:365-75. [PMID: 7252056 DOI: 10.1016/0165-1838(80)90034-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressures were recorded during classical delay conditioning of rhesus macaque monkeys. When portions of the autonomic nervous system were selectively blocked by pharmacological agents, it appeared that the initial increases in heart rate and blood pressures in response to the conditioned stimulus were the result of increased sympathetic activity and a concomitant decrease in parasympathetic activity. Towards the end of the conditioned stimulus, an increase in parasympathetic activity was indicated. Blockade of the autonomic system which produced total elimination of the conditioned cardiac rate response and substantial reduction or elimination of the conditioned blood pressure response, was not necessarily or always accompanied by a corresponding elimination of the respective unconditioned responses. Such a finding suggests a different underlying neural mediation of these conditioned and unconditioned responses.
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Turkkan JS, Kadden RM. Classically conditioned heart rate responses in Macaca mulatta after beta-adrenergic, vagal and ganglionic blockade. JOURNAL OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 1979; 1:211-27. [PMID: 233311 DOI: 10.1016/0165-1838(79)90018-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Heart rates of 5 rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were monitored during classical conditioning trials consisting of a visual conditioned stimulus followed after 10 sec by an electric shock to the tail. Heart rates typically increased at the onset of the visual stimulus, and returned to baseline before shock delivery. Autonomic blocking agents were subsequently administered; their effects on resting heart rates, and on acceleratory and deceleratory phases of the biphasic conditioned heart rate responses were examined, both in the raw data, and with a statistical regression technique. Beta-adrenergic blockade by propranolol lowered resting heart rates and was found, after regression analysis, to reduce the heart rate increase phase, and to weakly enhance the subsequent heart rate decrease phase of the conditioned response. Vagal blockade by atropine sulfate elevated resting heart rate, and markedly reduced both acceleratory and deceleratory heart rate phases of the conditioned responses. Ganglionic blockade by chlorisondamine also elevated resting heart rates (less than atropine), and almost completely eliminated conditioned heart rate changes. Several sources of evidence suggest a predominant vagal tone over resting heart rates, as well as mostly vagal mediation (with some sympathetic contribution) of the biphasic conditioned rate response.
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Goldstein DS. Instrumental cardiovascular conditioning: a review. THE PAVLOVIAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE 1979; 14:108-27. [PMID: 122533 DOI: 10.1007/bf03001827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This paper reviews experiments, hypotheses, and current controversies about instrumental cardiovascular conditioning. Demonstrations of such conditioning in curarized animals challenged a differentiation between instrumental and classical learning on the basis of their respective effector systems but did not prove direct operant learning by the autonomic nervous system. In humans, ethical prohibition of curarization and lack of adequate controls for respiration and muscle tension have resulted in incomplete understanding of the roles of voluntary, somatic mediators. Despite a variety of potential clinical applications of biofeedback, the available literature lacks studies of its efficacy compared to more standard modes of therapy. The physiological mechanisms and central neural pathways involved in instrumental cardiovascular conditioning remain almost totally unknown.
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Obrist PA, Light KC, Langer AW, Grignolo A, McCubbin JA. Behavioural-cardiac interactions: the psychosomatic hypothesis. J Psychosom Res 1978; 22:301-25. [PMID: 739419 DOI: 10.1016/0022-3999(78)90053-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Gaines LS, Smith BD, Skolnick BE. Psychological differentiation, event uncertainty, and heart rate. JOURNAL OF HUMAN STRESS 1977; 3:11-25. [PMID: 903604 DOI: 10.1080/0097840x.1977.9936088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Psychological differentiation and uncertainty about receiving a painful noise were examined for their effects on heart rate during the anticipatory, impact and recovery phases of the tone presentation. Psychologically differentiated and nondifferentiated subjects were randomly assigned to three event uncertainty conditions (5 percent, 50 percent, 95 percent probability of noise). Subjects were informed of the probability of receiving the noise, as well as the time of occurrence as indicated by a sequentially numbered visual display. Subjects received the noise on the second of the experiment's two trials. Cognitive style and event uncertainty interacted during the anticipatory phase--i.e., differentiated subjects showed a monotonic increase in heart rate with increasing probability of receiving the noise that represents preparation for instrumental activity. Results are consistent with the theory that meaningful personality-stress relationships may be obtained when examining stimulus-oriented dispositions.
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INSTRUMENTALLY CONDITIONED HEART RATE AFFECTED BY ATROPINE SULFATE, ATROPINE METHYLNITRATE, PROPRANOLOL AND PHENTOLAMINE IN THE CURARIZED RAT. JAPANESE PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 1977. [DOI: 10.4992/psycholres1954.19.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Abstract
Children with grossly observable physical activity during intraoral injection have significant heart rate accelerations. Children in whom movement is absent or confined to the muscles of facial expression experience heart rate deceleration. Both groups of children show anxiety, hence heart rate cannot be used to index anxiety. Moreover, anxiety cannot be described along a single dimension of arousal.
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Obrist PA. Presidential Address, 1975. The cardiovascular-behavioral interaction--as it appears today. Psychophysiology 1976; 13:95-107. [PMID: 769018 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1976.tb00081.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 362] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Goesling W, Gomes M, Lavond D, Carreira C. Heart rate and avoidance conditioned activity in rats. THE JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 1976; 94:113-23. [PMID: 943469 DOI: 10.1080/00221309.1976.9711596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In accordance with the determination of base-line heart rate and running in an activity wheel, 14 Long-Evans male rats were given ten 30 minute sessions of Immobile-Avoid conditioning followed by 30 minute sessions of Active-Avoid conditioning. Control Ss were yoked to the experimental Ss. Experimental Ss made significantly fewer responses in the immobile-avoid period and significantly more responses in the active-avoid period than did the yoked control Ss. Heart rate was correlated with skeletal activity both for experimental and control Ss. For experimental Ss, low heart rate was concomitant with a low amount of activity in the immobile-avoid peroid and high heart rate was concomitant with greater skeletal activity in the active-avoid period. These results support the position that heart rate is secondary to responses of the somatic-motor system and that heart rate during immobile-avoid or active avoid conditioning is more closely related to the level of somatic-motor activity than to the emotional stress which purportedly motivates instrumental avoidance behavior.
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Matyas TA, King MG. Stable T wave effects during improvement of heart rate control with biofeedback. Physiol Behav 1976; 16:15-20. [PMID: 1273111 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(76)90186-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Obrist PA, Lawler JE, Howard JL, Smithson KW, Martin PL, Manning J. Sympathetic influences on cardiac rate and contractility during acute stress in humans. Psychophysiology 1974; 11:405-27. [PMID: 4854556 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1974.tb00566.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Hirschman R, Katkin ES. Psychophysiological functioning, arousal, attention, and learning during the first year of life. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 1974; 9:115-50. [PMID: 4429033 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2407(08)60316-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Obrist PA, Howard JL, Sutterer JR, Hennis RS, Murrell DJ. Cardiac-somatic changes during a simple reaction time task: a developmental study. J Exp Child Psychol 1973; 16:346-62. [PMID: 4773590 DOI: 10.1016/0022-0965(73)90172-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Obrist PA, Howard JL, Lawler JE, Sutterer JR, Smithson KW, Martin PL. Alterations in cardiac contractility during classical aversive conditioning in dogs: methodological and theoretical implications. Psychophysiology 1972; 9:246-61. [PMID: 5024167 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1972.tb00760.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Van Egeren LF. Psychophysiological aspects of systematic desensitization: some outstanding issues. Behav Res Ther 1971; 9:65-77. [PMID: 5573169 DOI: 10.1016/0005-7967(71)90038-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Obrist PA, Webb RA, Sutterer JR, Howard JL. Cardiac deceleration and reaction time: an evaluation of two hypotheses. Psychophysiology 1970; 6:695-706. [PMID: 5506816 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1970.tb02257.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Elster AJ, Vandercar DH, Schneiderman N. Classial conditioning of heart rate discriminations using subcortical electrical stimulation as conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. Physiol Behav 1970; 5:503-8. [PMID: 5535502 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(70)90257-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Webb RA, Obrist PA. The physiological concomitants of reaction time performance as a function of preparatory interval and preparatory interval series. Psychophysiology 1970; 6:389-403. [PMID: 5418807 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1970.tb01749.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Obrist PA, Webb RA, Sutterer JR. Heart rate and somatic changes during aversive conditioning and a simple reaction time task. Psychophysiology 1969; 5:696-723. [PMID: 5812331 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1969.tb02872.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Riege WH, Peacock LJ. Conditioned heart rate deceleration under different dimensions of respiratory control. Psychophysiology 1968; 5:269-79. [PMID: 5726043 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1968.tb02822.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Caul WF, Miller RE. Effects of shock probability on heart rate of rats during classical conditioning. Physiol Behav 1968. [DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(68)90169-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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