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Fradette MS, Culley AI, Charette SJ. Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in Environmental Water Samples: A Journey into the Past and New Perspectives. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10061175. [PMID: 35744692 PMCID: PMC9228427 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10061175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the major issues linked with producing safe water for consumption is the presence of the parasitic protozoa Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. Since they are both responsible for gastrointestinal illnesses that can be waterborne, their monitoring is crucial, especially in water sources feeding treatment plants. Although their discovery was made in the early 1900s and even before, it was only in 1999 that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published a standardized protocol for the detection of these parasites, modified and named today the U.S. EPA 1623.1 Method. It involves the flow-through filtration of a large volume of the water of interest, the elution of the biological material retained on the filter, the purification of the (oo)cysts, and the detection by immunofluorescence of the target parasites. Since the 1990s, several molecular-biology-based techniques were also developed to detect Cryptosporidium and Giardia cells from environmental or clinical samples. The application of U.S. EPA 1623.1 as well as numerous biomolecular methods are reviewed in this article, and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed guiding the readers, such as graduate students, researchers, drinking water managers, epidemiologists, and public health specialists, through the ever-expanding number of techniques available in the literature for the detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Stéphanie Fradette
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.I.C.); (S.J.C.)
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie et de Bio-Informatique, Faculté des Sciences et Génie, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Centre de Recherche en Aménagement et Développement du Territoire (CRAD), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Correspondence:
| | - Alexander I. Culley
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.I.C.); (S.J.C.)
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie et de Bio-Informatique, Faculté des Sciences et Génie, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Groupe de Recherche en Écologie Buccale (GREB), Faculté de Médecine Dentaire, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Steve J. Charette
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.I.C.); (S.J.C.)
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie et de Bio-Informatique, Faculté des Sciences et Génie, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
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Occurrence of Intestinal Parasites of Public Health Significance in Fresh Horticultural Products Sold in Maputo Markets and Supermarkets, Mozambique. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9091806. [PMID: 34576702 PMCID: PMC8469142 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9091806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium are important neglected parasites associated with diarrhea, such as the emerging Enterocytozoon bieneusi. All three are foodborne parasites raising concerns in public health. This study intended to understand the intestinal parasite occurrence with emphasis on G. duodenalis, Cryptosporidium, and E. bieneusi in fresh fruits/vegetables sold in the main municipal markets of Maputo city, Mozambique. (2) Methods: A total of 321 fresh horticultural products were purchased in the rainy and dry seasons (five markets/two supermarkets/one agricultural zone). Light microscopy (LM) and PCR analysis were performed. (3) Results: By LM and/or PCR, 29.3% of the samples presented at least one parasite (rainy season: 22.9%; dry season: 35.1%). The most contaminated horticultural products: collected in dry season, from Zimpeto and Fajardo markets, lettuce and pointed white cabbage. Overall, 3.7% of G. duodenalis, 1.3% of E. bieneusi, and other intestinal parasites (pathogenic and non-pathogenic) were identified. (4) Conclusions: Important pathogenic intestinal parasites were identified in fruits/vegetables commercially purchased in Maputo City. This fact must be taken into consideration when planning the management of these horticultural markets, in order to reduce the risk of contamination of fresh produce by intestinal parasites, and to prevent foodborne diseases.
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Kamrani F, Nouri Sepehr M, Heidari A, Dehghanifard E, Miahipour A, Sezavar M. The Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia Parasites in Drinking Water Resources of Alborz province , the Central Part of Iran in 2018. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENTERIC PATHOGENS 2021. [DOI: 10.34172/ijep.2021.06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Giardia and Cryptosporidium are common parasitic protozoa that cause acute intestinal infections in children. These two parasites are mostly found in aquatic environments, including raw water, wastewater, and even treated water. Objective: The present study aimed to examine parasitic contamination of drinking water resources by cysts and the oocyst of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Alborz province, Iran. Materials and Methods: Water samples from three rivers and seven randomly-selected wells of Alborz province were examined using Sheather, formol-ether, and immuno-fluorescence assay (IFA) techniques. The prepared slides were examined with optical and fluorescence microscopes. Results: IFA technique revealed that 28% of the wells were contaminated with both parasites. It was also shown that all rivers’ drainage basins were contaminated with Cryptosporidium parasite, while 66% of rivers’ drainage basins were contaminated with Giardia parasite. Conclusion: The results showed that water resources of Alborz province contained Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts, which required health care officials to pay serious attention to treating drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farzaneh Kamrani
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Mohammad Nouri Sepehr
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Aliehsan Heidari
- Department of Medical Parasitology, School of Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Emad Dehghanifard
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Abolfazl Miahipour
- Department of Medical Parasitology, School of Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Moniereh Sezavar
- Department of Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Allied Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
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Pereira A, Teixeira J, Sousa S, Parreira R, Campino L, Meireles J, Maia C. Giardia duodenalis infection in dogs from the metropolitan area of Lisbon, Portugal: prevalence, genotyping and associated risk factors. J Parasit Dis 2020; 45:372-379. [PMID: 34295036 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-020-01307-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract Giardia duodenalis is a cosmopolitan enteric protozoan that affects a wide range of vertebrates, including humans and dogs. Genetic characterisation reveals eight different assemblages, with A and B having been found mainly in humans and several other animals, and thus considered potentially zoonotic, while C and D are adapted to infect dogs. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of G. duodenalis, their distribution into assemblages, and risk factors associated with their infection of dogs from the metropolitan area of Lisbon. Giardia duodenalis cysts were microscopically identified in 33.8% (27/80) of the faecal samples analysed. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that dogs under 6 months of age and from both breeders and shelters, had a significantly higher risk of being infected with G. duodenalis. Based on phylogenetic analysis of the partial coding sequences for β-giardin, glutamate dehydrogenase, and triosephosphate isomerase, the parasites found in three dog isolates were typed as G. duodenalis assemblage C, 11 were typed as D, and four were typed as C or D, depending on the targeted genes. The risk to public health seems to be reduced, as no genotypes with zoonotic potential have been detected. Nevertheless, better health management towards a minimisation of the environmental faecal pollution, as well as an increase in the awareness of health professionals, dog owners, dog breeders and caregivers regarding the risks posed by this protozoan to the health of animals and humans, are recommended. Graphic abstract
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Affiliation(s)
- André Pereira
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine (GHTM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT), Universidade NOVA de Lisboa (NOVA), Lisboa, Portugal.,Medical Parasitology Unit, IHMT-NOVA, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Joana Teixeira
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, CIISA-Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sofia Sousa
- Medical Parasitology Unit, IHMT-NOVA, Lisboa, Portugal.,Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Parreira
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine (GHTM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT), Universidade NOVA de Lisboa (NOVA), Lisboa, Portugal.,Medical Microbiology Unit, IHMT-NOVA, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Lenea Campino
- Medical Parasitology Unit, IHMT-NOVA, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - José Meireles
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, CIISA-Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Carla Maia
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine (GHTM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT), Universidade NOVA de Lisboa (NOVA), Lisboa, Portugal.,Medical Parasitology Unit, IHMT-NOVA, Lisboa, Portugal
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Mugoya GJ, Sente C, Cumber SN, Taseera K, Nkfusai CN, Atuhaire C. Cryptosporidium and giardia species in newly and previously habituated gorillas and nearby water sources in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Pan Afr Med J 2019; 34:112. [PMID: 31934254 PMCID: PMC6945389 DOI: 10.11604/pamj.2019.34.112.19288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction cryptosporidium and giardia are of great one health significance and major cause of protozoan diarrhea in humans and primates; they are found in the faecal matter of animals and humans and also in contaminated water and soil as well. Therefore, we aimed at establishing the prevalence and shedding intensity of faecal Cryptosporidium and giardia in the Newly Habituated Mountain Gorillas (NHMG) and Previously Habituated Mountain Gorillas (PHMG) and in selected water sources within the gorilla home ranges in the month of January 2018. Methods we conducted a cross sectional study in the southern sector of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park where a total of 56 faecal samples from both NHMG (34) and PHMG (22) and 30 water samples were purposively collected. Faecal and water samples were transported in a cooler box at 4ºC to Makerere University Parasitology Laboratory for analysis. The samples were analyzed using modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique and Ether concentration method for Cryptosporidium and giardia respectively. Results the prevalence of cryptosporidium was established as 13 (59.1%), 15 (44.1%) and 7 (23.3%) in PHMG, NHMG and water respectively. The mean concentration of the oocysts per gram was 222±52.9 in PHMG, 174±41.5 in NHMG and 31±13.2 in water. The prevalence of giardia was 3 (13.6%), 4 (11.8%) and 3 (10%) in PHMG, NHMG and water respectively. The mean concentration of the oocysts per gram was 34±19.9 in PHMG, 25±12.4 in NHMG and 5±2.9 in water. There was no significant difference in both the prevalence of cryptosporidium (p>0.05) and giardia (p>0.05) in the PHMG and NHMG. This indicates that there is high risk of cross infection among the gorillas within the forest sharing similar home ranges. Conclusion the park authorities should ensure that procedures for proper waste disposal while in the forest are properly followed, water drawn for drinking from the forest should be avoided. Further research should be carried out to identify whether the strains of the parasites found in water or other animals in the forest are the same with strains in gorilla dung in order to confirm cross infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gizamba Jacob Mugoya
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Animal Resources, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Celsus Sente
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Animal Resources, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Samuel Nambile Cumber
- Section for Epidemiology and Social Medicine, Department of Public Health, Institute of Medicine (EPSO), The Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.,School of Health Systems and Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria Private Bag X323, Gezina, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Kabanda Taseera
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda
| | - Claude Ngwayu Nkfusai
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Science, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Catherine Atuhaire
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Nursing, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda
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Kalema-Zikusoka G, Rubanga S, Mutahunga B, Sadler R. Prevention of Cryptosporidium and GIARDIA at the Human/Gorilla/Livestock Interface. Front Public Health 2019; 6:364. [PMID: 30619805 PMCID: PMC6302101 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2018.00364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) are critically endangered and found in Bwindi Impenetrable Forest and Virunga Volcanoes. Habitat destruction, high human population growth rates, poverty, and disease are threatening the survival of mountain gorillas. A study implemented in 2010 investigated the prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia sps., as part of a long-term gorilla health-monitoring program at Bwindi through regular fecal sample collection, and comparative pathogen analysis at the human/gorilla/livestock interface. Samples collected from habituated and non-habituated gorillas, community-owned livestock herds and people at Bwindi were screened for Cryptosporidium and Giardia sps. using ImmunoSTAT Commercial Field Kit and doubtful samples confirmed with Direct Fluorescence Antibody Test (DFA). Giardia was found in 5.5% of livestock, 40% of symptomatic humans from the local hospital and 9.5% of asymptomatic park staff, but not in gorillas. Cryptosporidium was found in 3.1% of habituated gorillas, 4.7% of livestock, and 62.4% of park staff. Whereas, previous studies have compared Cryptosporidium and Giardia sps. in gorillas and livestock, this is the first study making a comparison in humans, gorillas and livestock. Unlike previous studies in Bwindi and Virungas, no Giardia sp. was found in gorillas. The improving hygiene and sanitation of local communities sharing a habitat with gorillas through Village Health and Conservation Teams (VHCTs) established in 2007, could have contributed to the decreased prevalence of Giardia in this mountain gorilla population. Cryptosporidium sp. only found in the habituated gorillas could be associated with human interaction, similar to previous studies. A subsequent VHCT was selected for each village with positive human samples and where gorillas often range, local health centers were mobilized to educate patients on the health risks of collecting water from unprotected sources and cattle water troughs were built. This paper describes a One Health approach to reducing cross species disease transmission at the human/gorilla/livestock interface.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ryan Sadler
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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Hamilton KA, Waso M, Reyneke B, Saeidi N, Levine A, Lalancette C, Besner MC, Khan W, Ahmed W. Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Wastewater and Surface Water Environments. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2018; 47:1006-1023. [PMID: 30272766 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2018.04.0132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
and spp. are significant contributors to the global waterborne disease burden. Waterways used as sources of drinking water and for recreational activity can become contaminated through the introduction of fecal materials derived from humans and animals. Multiple studies have reported the occurence or concentrations of these pathogens in the environment. However, this information has not been comprehensively reviewed. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) for and can be beneficial, but it often relies on the concentrations in environmental sources reported from the literature. A thorough literature review was conducted to develop an inventory of reported and concentrations in wastewater and surface water available in the literature. This information can be used to develop QMRA inputs. and (oo)cyst concentrations in untreated wastewater were up to 60,000 oocysts L and 100,000 cysts L, respectively. The maximum reported concentrations for and in surface water were 8400 oocysts L and 1000 cysts L, respectively. A summary of the factors for interpretation of concentration information including common quantification methods, survival and persistence, biofilm interactions, genotyping, and treatment removal is provided in this review. This information can help in identifying assumptions implicit in various QMRA parameters, thus providing the context and rationale to guide model formulation and application. Additionally, it can provide valuable information for water quality practitioners striving to meet the recreational water quality or treatment criteria. The goal is for the information provided in the current review to aid in developing source water protection and monitoring strategies that will minimize public health risks.
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Li J, Wang H, Wang R, Zhang L. Giardia duodenalis Infections in Humans and Other Animals in China. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:2004. [PMID: 29081771 PMCID: PMC5645521 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Giardia duodenalis is an important zoonotic pathogen in both public and veterinary health, and has been genotyped into at least eight assemblages (A-H), each with a distinct host range. In recent years, this intestinal protozoan parasite has been identified widely in humans and various other animals, and has even been recorded in environmental contaminants. Along with whole genome sequencing of G. duodenalis, multilocus sequence typing is increasingly being used to characterize G. duodenalis isolates. Here, we review the epidemiology, genotyping, and subtyping of G. duodenalis from humans and a wide range of other animals, as well as from wastewater, in China.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Longxian Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
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Urban Dog Parks as Sources of Canine Parasites: Contamination Rates and Pet Owner Behaviours in Lisbon, Portugal. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2017; 2017:5984086. [PMID: 28947905 PMCID: PMC5602491 DOI: 10.1155/2017/5984086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Dog parks represent a recent trend in western countries, enabling owners to spend quality time with their pets in a controlled environment. Despite their growing popularity, few studies have been performed to date on these parks to investigate dog intestinal parasitic infections and soil contamination. The present study examined 369 faecal and 18 soil samples collected from 3 dog parks in Greater Lisbon, Portugal. Additionally, 102 interviews were performed with dog owners to assess dog-walking behaviours and parasite risk. In total, 33% of the faecal dog samples were infected with at least one parasitic agent: hookworms (16.5%), Cryptosporidium spp. (11.9%), Giardia spp. (11.4%), Toxascaris leonina (1.1%), Cystoisospora spp. (1.1%), Toxocara spp. (0.5%), and Sarcocystis sp. (0.3%). The soil of all the parks was contaminated with hookworm eggs. This is the first study performed in a European urban area to assess canine faecal contamination and parasitic agents in dog parks. Our results highlight the potential of these parks as a source of transmission for canine parasites, including some with zoonotic potential. Public awareness and effective preventive measures should be promoted to minimise the health-risk impact to both animals and humans, under the scope of environmental and public health.
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Dos Santos LU, Alves DP, Guaraldo AMA, Cantusio Neto R, Durigan M, Franco RMB. Infectivity of Giardia duodenalis Cysts from UV Light-Disinfected Wastewater Effluent Using a Nude BALB/c Mouse Model. ISRN PARASITOLOGY 2013; 2013:713958. [PMID: 27335858 PMCID: PMC4890921 DOI: 10.5402/2013/713958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 12/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Giardia duodenalis is a protozoan of public health interest that causes gastroenteritis in humans and other animals. In the city of Campinas in southeast Brazil, giardiasis is endemic, and this pathogen is detected at high concentrations in wastewater effluents, which are potential reservoirs for transmission. The Samambaia wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in the city of Campinas employs an activated sludge system for sewage treatment and ultraviolet (UV) light for disinfection of effluents. To evaluate this disinfection process with respect to inactivating G. duodenalis cysts, two sample types were investigated: (i) effluent without UV disinfection (EFL) and (ii) effluent with UV disinfection (EFL+UV). Nude immunodeficient BALB/c mice were intragastrically inoculated with a mean dose of 14 cysts of G. duodenalis recovered from effluent from this WWTP, EFL, or EFL+UV. All animals inoculated with G. duodenalis cysts developed the infection, but animals inoculated with UV-exposed cysts released a lower average concentration of cysts in their faeces than animals inoculated with cysts that were not UV disinfected. Trophozoites were also observed in both groups of animals. These findings suggest that G. duodenalis cysts exposed to UV light were damaged but were still able to cause infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana Urbano Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Oxidation Processes, Department of Sanitation and Environment, School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urbanism, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), C.P. Box 6021, 13083-852 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Delma Pegolo Alves
- CEMIB Multidisciplinary Centre for Biological Investigation, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), C.P. Box 6095, 13083-877 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana Maria Aparecida Guaraldo
- Laboratory of Helminthology, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), C.P. Box 6109, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Romeu Cantusio Neto
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Society for Water Supply and Sanitation (SANASA), Street Abolição 2.375, 13045-750 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Mauricio Durigan
- Laboratory of Genetic and Molecular Analysis, Center of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), C.P. Box 6109, 13083-875 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Regina Maura Bueno Franco
- Laboratory of Protozoology, Department of Animal Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), C.P. Box 6109, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Zoonotic potential and molecular epidemiology of Giardia species and giardiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011; 24:110-40. [PMID: 21233509 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00033-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 804] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular diagnostic tools have been used recently in assessing the taxonomy, zoonotic potential, and transmission of Giardia species and giardiasis in humans and animals. The results of these studies have firmly established giardiasis as a zoonotic disease, although host adaptation at the genotype and subtype levels has reduced the likelihood of zoonotic transmission. These studies have also identified variations in the distribution of Giardia duodenalis genotypes among geographic areas and between domestic and wild ruminants and differences in clinical manifestations and outbreak potentials of assemblages A and B. Nevertheless, our efforts in characterizing the molecular epidemiology of giardiasis and the roles of various animals in the transmission of human giardiasis are compromised by the lack of case-control and longitudinal cohort studies and the sampling and testing of humans and animals living in the same community, the frequent occurrence of infections with mixed genotypes and subtypes, and the apparent heterozygosity at some genetic loci for some G. duodenalis genotypes. With the increased usage of multilocus genotyping tools, the development of next-generation subtyping tools, the integration of molecular analysis in epidemiological studies, and an improved understanding of the population genetics of G. duodenalis in humans and animals, we should soon have a better appreciation of the molecular epidemiology of giardiasis, the disease burden of zoonotic transmission, the taxonomy status and virulences of various G. duodenalis genotypes, and the ecology of environmental contamination.
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Putignani L, Menichella D. Global distribution, public health and clinical impact of the protozoan pathogen cryptosporidium. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis 2010; 2010:753512. [PMID: 20706669 PMCID: PMC2913630 DOI: 10.1155/2010/753512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2009] [Revised: 01/07/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium spp. are coccidians, oocysts-forming apicomplexan protozoa, which complete their life cycle both in humans and animals, through zoonotic and anthroponotic transmission, causing cryptosporidiosis. The global burden of this disease is still underascertained, due to a conundrum transmission modality, only partially unveiled, and on a plethora of detection systems still inadequate or only partially applied for worldwide surveillance. In children, cryptosporidiosis encumber is even less recorded and often misidentified due to physiological reasons such as early-age unpaired immunological response. Furthermore, malnutrition in underdeveloped countries or clinical underestimation of protozoan etiology in developed countries contribute to the underestimation of the worldwide burden. Principal key indicators of the parasite distribution were associated to environmental (e.g., geographic and temporal clusters, etc.) and host determinants of the infection (e.g., age, immunological status, travels, community behaviours). The distribution was geographically mapped to provide an updated picture of the global parasite ecosystems. The present paper aims to provide, by a critical analysis of existing literature, a link between observational epidemiological records and new insights on public health, and diagnostic and clinical impact of cryptosporidiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenza Putignani
- Microbiology Unit, Bambino Gesù Pediatric Hospital, Scientific Institute, Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy
| | - Donato Menichella
- Microbiology Unit, Bambino Gesù Pediatric Hospital, Scientific Institute, Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy
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Almeida A, Moreira MJ, Soares S, de Lurdes Delgado M, Figueiredo J, Magalhães ES, Castro A, Viana Da Costa A, Correia da Costa JM. Biological and genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis isolates from five hydrographical basins in northern Portugal. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2010; 48:105-11. [PMID: 20585525 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2010.48.2.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2010] [Revised: 04/21/2010] [Accepted: 04/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
To understand the situation of water contamination with Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in the northern region of Portugal, we have established a long-term program aimed at pinpointing the sources of surface water and environmental contamination, working with the water-supply industry. Here, we describe the results obtained with raw water samples collected in rivers of the 5 hydrographical basins. A total of 283 samples were analyzed using the Method 1623 EPA, USA. Genetic characterization was performed by PCR and sequencing of genes 18S rRNA of Cryptosporidium spp. and beta-giardin of Giardia spp. Infectious stages of the protozoa were detected in 72.8% (206 of 283) of the water samples, with 15.2% (43 of 283) positive for Giardia duodenalis cysts, 9.5% (27 of 283) positive for Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts, and 48.1% (136 of 283) samples positive for both parasites. The most common zoonotic species found were G. duodenalis assemblages A-I, A-II, B, and E genotypes, and Cryptosporidium parvum, Cryptosporidium andersoni, Cryptosporidium hominis, and Cryptosporidium muris. These results suggest that cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis are important public health issues in northern Portugal. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report evaluating the concentration of environmental stages of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in raw water samples in the northern region of Portugal.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Almeida
- Center for Parasite Immunology and Biology, CSPGF-INSA, Porto, Portugal.
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Almeida A, Moreira MJ, Soares S, Delgado MDL, Figueiredo J, Silva E, Castro A, Cosa JMCD. Presence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in drinking water samples in the north of Portugal. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2010; 48:43-8. [PMID: 20333284 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2010.48.1.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2009] [Revised: 01/26/2010] [Accepted: 01/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium and Giardia are 2 protozoan parasites responsible for waterborne diseases outbreaks worldwide. In order to assess the prevalence of these protozoans in drinking water samples in the northern part of Portugal and the risk of human infection, we have established a long term program aiming at pinpointing the sources of surface water, drinking water, and environmental contamination, working with the water-supply industry. Total 43 sources of drinking water samples were selected, and a total of 167 samples were analyzed using the Method 1623. Sensitivity assays regarding the genetic characterization by PCR and sequencing of the genes, 18S SSU rRNA, for Cryptosporidium spp. and beta,-giardin for G. duodenalis were set in the laboratory. According to the defined criteria, molecular analysis was performed over 4 samples. Environmental stages of the protozoa were detected in 25.7% (43 out of 167) of the water samples, 8.4% (14 out of 167) with cysts of Giardia, 10.2% (17 out of 167) with oocysts of Cryptosporidium and 7.2% (12 out of 167) for both species. The mean concentrations were 0.1-12.7 oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp. per 10 L and 0.1-108.3 cysts of Giardia duodenalis per 10 L. Our results suggest that the efficiency in drinking water plants must be ameliorated in their efficiency in reducing the levels of contamination. We suggest the implementation of systematic monitoring programs for both protozoa. To authors' knowledge, this is the first report evaluating the concentration of environmental stages of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in drinking water samples in the northern part of Portugal.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Almeida
- Centro de Imunologia e Biologia Parasitária, CSPGF-INSA, Rua Alexandro Herculano, Porto, Portugal.
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Harhay MO, Horton J, Olliaro PL. Epidemiology and control of human gastrointestinal parasites in children. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2010; 8:219-34. [PMID: 20109051 PMCID: PMC2851163 DOI: 10.1586/eri.09.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Parasites found in the human gastrointestinal tract can be largely categorized into two groups, protozoa and helminths. The soil-transmitted helminths (Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworm and Trichuris trichiura) are the most prevalent, infecting an estimated one-sixth of the global population. Infection rates are highest in children living in sub-Saharan Africa, followed by Asia and then Latin America and the Caribbean. The current momentum towards global drug delivery for their control is at a historical high through the efforts of numerous initiatives increasingly acting in coordination with donors, governments and local communities. Together, they have delivered enormous quantities of drugs, especially anthelmintics to children through nationwide annual or biannual mass drug administration largely coordinated through schools. However, a much larger and rapidly growing childhood population in these regions remains untreated and suffering from more than one parasite. Mass drug administration has profound potential for control but is not without considerable challenges and concerns. A principal barrier is funding. Stimulating a research and development pipeline, supporting the necessary clinical trials to refine treatment, in addition to procuring and deploying drugs (and sustaining these supply chains), requires substantial funding and resources that do not presently exist. Limited options for chemotherapy raise concerns about drug resistance developing through overuse, however, satisfactory pharmaco-epidemiology and monitoring for drug resistance requires more developed health infrastructures than are generally available. Further, the limited pharmacopeia does not include any effective second-line options if resistance emerges, and the research and development pipeline is severely depressed. Herein, we discuss the major gastrointestinal protozoa and helminths reviewing their impact on child health, changing epidemiology and how this relates to their control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael O Harhay
- Graduate Group in Demography, Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, 239 McNeil Building, 3718 Locust Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-16298, USA, Tel.: +1 215 898 6441, Fax: +1 215 898 2124,
| | - John Horton
- 24 The Paddock, Hitchin, SG4 9EF, UK, Tel.: +44 146 262 4081, Fax: +44 146 264 8693,
| | - Piero L Olliaro
- Centre for Tropical Medicine, University of Oxford & United Nations Children’s Fund/United Nations Development Programme/World Bank/World Health Organization, Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), 20 Avenue Appia, CH-1211, Geneva 27, Switzerland, Tel.: +41 227 913 734, Fax: +41 227 914 774,
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Epstein JH, Price JT. The significant but understudied impact of pathogen transmission from humans to animals. THE MOUNT SINAI JOURNAL OF MEDICINE, NEW YORK 2009; 76:448-55. [PMID: 19787650 PMCID: PMC7168516 DOI: 10.1002/msj.20140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Zooanthroponotic pathogens, which are transmitted from humans to nonhuman animals, are an understudied aspect of global health, despite their potential to cause significant disease burden in wild and domestic animal populations and affect global economies. Some key human-borne pathogens that have been shown to infect animals and cause morbidity and mortality include measles virus (paramyxoviruses), influenza A virus (orthomyxoviruses), herpes simplex 1 virus (herpesviruses), protozoal and helminthic parasites, and bacteria such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. However, zooanthroponotic pathogens are most commonly reported in captive animals or domestic livestock with close human contact; there, the potential for economic loss and human reinfection is most apparent. There is also the potential for infection in wild animal populations, which may threaten endangered species and decrease biodiversity. The emergence and reemergence of human-borne pathogens in wildlife may also have negative consequences for human health if these pathogens cycle back into humans. Many of the anthropogenic drivers of zoonotic disease emergence also facilitate zooanthroponotic transmission. Increasing research to better understand the occurrence of and the potential for bidirectional pathogen transmission between humans and animals is essential for improving global health. Mt Sinai J Med 76:448-455, 2009. (c) 2009 Mount Sinai School of Medicine.
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